Psych Exam #2 PDF

WEEK 7 Understanding Learning Learning is the process of acquiring new information or skills that lead to a change in behavior or understanding. It can occur through various means, including direct experiences, observation, and instruction. Essential questions: What does it mean to learn?...

WEEK 7 Understanding Learning Learning is the process of acquiring new information or skills that lead to a change in behavior or understanding. It can occur through various means, including direct experiences, observation, and instruction. Essential questions: What does it mean to learn? How do we learn new things? What factors promote or obstruct learning? Pavlov’s Discovery Background Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, conducted experiments on dog salivation in response to food. He observed that dogs would not only salivate when presented with food but also in response to stimuli associated with food, such as the sound of footsteps of the person who fed them. This led him to investigate the associative processes behind learning. Implications Pavlov's discoveries about these reactions led to the formulation of classical conditioning, a crucial learning mechanism. His work highlighted that animals (and humans) can learn associations that extend beyond mere biological needs, indicating a capacity for learned behavior. Classical Conditioning Definition Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR). It shows how organisms can learn through association. Components Neutral Stimulus (NS): Before conditioning, this stimulus does not trigger any specific response. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response without prior learning. Unconditioned Response (UCR): An innate or unlearned response to the UCS. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The NS that, after being paired with the UCS, begins to elicit a new response. Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response that occurs in reaction to the CS. Steps of Classical Conditioning 1. Present the NS: The neutral stimulus selected (e.g., a bell) is presented initially, and it does not elicit a response from the subject. 2. Pair NS with UCS: The NS (bell) is paired with the UCS (meat powder) that produces a UCR (salivation). 3. Conditioning: After several repetitions, the NS becomes a CS, producing a CR (salivation) when presented alone. Concepts in Classical Conditioning Conditioned vs. Unconditioned: Conditioned experiences are learned, while unconditioned experiences are innate. Neutrality of Stimulus: Once a neutral stimulus triggers a response, it is not regarded as neutral anymore. Response Differences: CR is evoked by CS, and UCR is evoked by UCS, illustrating the pivot from innate to learned reactions. Unlearning Classical Conditioning Extinction This is the gradual fading of a conditioned response (CR). It occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.Additionally, spontaneous recovery can occur when the CR re-emerges after a rest period following extinction, illustrating the complexities of memory. Generalization & Discrimination Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the CS, which can lead to broader reactions than what was originally conditioned. Discrimination: The capacity to distinguish between different stimuli, leading to distinct responses only to the CS and not to similar stimuli. Evaluative Conditioning This refers to the process of changing an individual’s attitude towards a stimulus due to pairing it with positive or negative outcomes. It is frequently applied in marketing strategies to shape consumer preferences. Conditioned Fears & Phobias Watson’s Little Albert Experiment This experiment by John B. Watson demonstrated conditioned fears. Albert was exposed to a rat (NS) paired with a loud noise (UCS), which elicited a fear response. This resulted in generalization, as he later exhibited fear towards similar objects such as a white rabbit. Impact Classical conditioning helps explain irrational fears (phobias) and the mechanisms behind PTSD, emphasizing their learned nature. Conditioned Taste Aversions Taste aversions can develop when an individual associates food with illness (e.g., 'sauce Bearnaise syndrome'), demonstrating how certain associations can be biologically predisposed based on evolutionary history. Operant Conditioning Overview Operant conditioning is a learning process where voluntary behavior is influenced and modified by consequences (rewards or punishments). It differs from classical conditioning as it involves consciously controlled actions rather than involuntary responses to stimuli. Thorndike’s Law of Effect This principle states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated, laying the foundation for operant conditioning principles. Skinner’s Contributions B.F. Skinner expanded the study of operant conditioning through the development of the Skinner box, which allowed for controlled observation of animal behavior and learning in response to reinforcements and punishments. Reinforcement Definition Reinforcement is a critical concept that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Types of Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers: These are naturally satisfying stimuli (e.g., food, water). Secondary Reinforcers: These do not satisfy biological needs directly but gain reinforcing properties through association (e.g., money, praise). The Shaping Process This is a technique used to teach complex behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations toward the desired behavior, often incorporated in animal training. Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement: This involves adding a pleasurable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., receiving rewards for good behavior). Negative Reinforcement: This involves the removal of an aversive stimulus, enhancing the likelihood of behavior (e.g., stopping a loud alarm). Punishment Defined Punishment is a stimulus intended to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Types of Punishment Positive Punishment: Involves adding an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., receiving a speeding ticket). Negative Punishment: Involves removing a pleasant stimulus (e.g., taking away a child’s phone). Examples of Reinforcement and Punishment Intended Result When Stimulus is Added When Stimulus is Removed Increase in Behavior Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Decrease in Behavior Positive Punishment Negative Punishment Disadvantages of Punishment Punishment can often be ineffective without immediate application and may not lead to lasting behavioral change. Additionally, it can harm self-esteem and create negative associations. Reinforcement of desired behaviors is generally preferred over punishment methods. Schedules of Reinforcement There are various types of reinforcement schedules that affect learning rates and behavior persistence. Continuous Reinforcement: Provides a reward every time the desired behavior occurs. Partial Reinforcement: Rewards behavior only occasionally, often leading to more resilient learning over time. Graphical Representation Fixed-ratio: A specific number of responses required before reinforcement. Variable-ratio: A varying number of responses required, resulting in high rates of response. Fixed-interval: A set time must pass before reinforcement. Variable-interval: Varying time intervals before reinforcement is delivered, leading to steady response rates. Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning Stimulus control training is essential for reinforcing behavior only in the presence of specific stimuli, fostering more refined behavior. Latent Learning (Tolman) This concept suggests that learning can occur without obvious reinforcement observable in behavior. In Tolman's studies with rats navigating a maze, he found that they learned the maze layout even without immediate rewards, revealing latent learning that only became evident when rewards were introduced. Observational Learning Definition Observational learning is the process of acquiring new behaviors or information by watching others and noting the consequences of their actions. Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment This landmark study illustrated the impact of modeling behavior. Children observed adults interacting with a Bobo doll, and those who saw aggressive behaviors were more likely to imitate them, showcasing the role of reward and punishment in behavior imitation. Violence in Media Research indicates that high exposure to violent media content can increase aggressive behaviors in individuals, while also lowering inhibition towards aggression. Continuous exposure can skew perceptions of violence and impact social interaction understanding. WEEK 8 & 9 Memory Slides Memory Overview Definition: Memory is defined as the retention of information over time, and it is a fundamental cognitive process critical to everyday functioning. Memory allows individuals to recall past experiences, learn from them, and integrate new knowledge into their lives. Significance: Memory is central to self-concept and functioning in the world, impacting personal identity and social interactions. Additionally, it plays a crucial role in academic performance and job market success, as good memory facilitates learning and the application of knowledge in various contexts. Paradox of Memory Good Memory: An example of good memory is the ability to navigate familiar routes, such as commuting to work, showcasing spatial memory and recall of environmental cues. Bad Memory: Conversely, many people struggle with remembering names, which can lead to social awkwardness and challenges in personal relationships. Information Retention: Retention of information varies across individuals, influenced by factors such as interest, relevance, and cognitive abilities. Some individuals may excel in memorizing lyrics or vast amounts of information, showcasing differences in memory capacity and retrieval strategies. Memory Illusions Concept: Memory illusions occur when people recall words or details not actually present in an original list or event. This can reveal the malleability of memory and that our memories are not perfect recordings of the past.  Cognitive Heuristics: Our brains use cognitive heuristics to fill in missing information, which, while useful, can lead to significant errors and distortions in memory. Reconstructive Memory Nature of Memory: Memories are actively reconstructed rather than merely reproduced. The act of retrieval can alter memories based on current context, beliefs, and suggestions. Perspectives: Different perspectives in memory can affect recollection: the observer perspective involves viewing the event as if it were a photograph, while the field perspective entails reliving the experience from one's own viewpoint, which can influence emotional impact and detail. Key Questions in Human Memory 1. How does information get into memory? 2. How is information maintained? 3. How is information retrieved? Stages of Memory Processing Encoding: Encoding is the initial phase where information is recorded for memory, involving attention and integration of new information. Storage: Storage refers to the maintenance of saved material for future retrieval, encompassing various types of memory. Retrieval: Retrieval is the process of locating and bringing stored memories into consciousness, which can be influenced by various cues and context. Attention in Encoding  Importance: Attention is crucial for effective encoding of information into memory. Without adequate attention, most events may not be effectively encoded, leading to gaps in memory (cognitive misers). Selective Attention: This concept describes the selection of specific inputs for processing, such as focusing on a conversation in a noisy room (the cocktail party effect), which is vital for memory formation. Levels of Processing Model (Craik and Lockhart) Shallow (Structural): This level involves processing physical characteristics of stimuli with questions such as "Is the word in capital letters?" Intermediate (Phonemic): This level focuses on the sound of words, evaluating them with questions like "Does it rhyme with [word]?" Deep (Semantic): The deepest level centers on the meaning of information, exemplified by questions like "Would it fit in this sentence?" This level is most effective for lasting memory retention. Enriching Encoding Techniques Elaboration: Linking new stimuli with existing knowledge strengthens memory formation. Visual Imagery: Creating vivid mental images associated with words enhances recall. Self-Referential Encoding: Making information personally meaningful aids in deeper retention of memory. Storage Mechanisms Atkinson & Shiffrin Model: A foundational model categorizing memory into three types: ○ Sensory Memory: With a very short duration (approximately 1 second), it captures incoming sensory information. ○ Short-Term Memory (STM): Lasts 15-25 seconds and holds information briefly; capacity often described by Miller's Magic Number (7 ± 2).  ○ Long-Term Memory (LTM): Serves as a vast storage system with potentially infinite capacity and duration. Types of Memory Sensory Memory: The initial repository for incoming sensory inputs, with types such as iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory. Short-Term Memory: Facilitates the translation of sensory memory into meaningful formats; engagement in rehearsal is critical for retention. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Further divided into: ○ Declarative Memory: Comprising semantic (general knowledge) and episodic (personal experiences) memories. ○ Non-Declarative Memory: Encompassing procedural memory related to skills and habits, often unconscious in nature. Working Memory Model Active System: Working Memory functions as an active system that processes both new and previously acquired information, incorporating several components: ○ Central Executive Processor: Controls attention and coordinates information. ○ Visual Store: Holds visual and spatial information. ○ Verbal Store: Handles auditory and verbal information. ○ Episodic Buffer: Integrates information from different sources into a coherent memory. Indigenous Perspectives on Memory Oral Traditions: Indigenous cultures utilize oral traditions as collective episodic memory, ensuring that histories and experiences are passed down through generations. Storytelling: Vital for reinforcing memory and preserving cultural identity and collective experiences. Neuroscience of Memory Hippocampus: A vital brain structure involved in the consolidation of memories, particularly during the transfer from short-term to long-term memory. Amygdala: Critical for emotional memory formation, often enhancing the retention of memories tied to emotional experiences. Memory Retrieval Retrieval Cues: Specific stimuli or prompts that assist in accessing long-term memories, highlighting the intertwining of context and memory. Recall vs. Recognition: Different processes for accessing stored information; recall involves generating information without cues, while recognition requires identifying previously learned information among choices. Reasons for Forgetting Failure of Encoding: The inability to store information effectively due to lack of attention. Decay: Information fades over time, primarily through non-use. Interference: New information can disrupt the recall of previously stored information, with types including proactive (old info affecting recall of new) and retroactive (new info affecting recall of old). Memory Dysfunctions Alzheimer’s Disease: A neurodegenerative disorder that progressively diminishes cognitive function and is closely linked to memory loss. Amnesia: A condition characterized by a loss of memory, which may manifest as retrograde (inability to recall old memories) or anterograde (inability to form new memories). WEEK 10 &11 Memory Slides Overview of Memory Memory is defined as the retention of information over time, playing a crucial role in shaping our identities, thoughts, and behaviors. Our identities and functionality are intricately connected to our memories, as they influence our decision-making, personality, and social interactions. Memory performance is increasingly linked to academic and professional success, making it a vital area of study in psychology and neuroscience. Paradox of Memory Strength of Memory: ○ Surprising proficiency in certain scenarios (e.g., finding one’s way to work or recalling a beloved childhood song). ○ Great variability in memory quality across individuals, influenced by factors such as genetics, environment, and personal experiences. Memory Illusions: ○ Example: Remembering words not actually on a presented list demonstrates how memory can be misleading, leading to false memories. ○ The brain utilizes representative heuristics for sense-making, which can result in both beneficial and erroneous outcomes, impacting our ability to trust our recollections. Types of Memory Processes Reconstructive Memory: ○ Memories are reconstructed actively rather than passively recalled, indicating that memory retrieval is not a perfect replay of the past. ○ Personal memories may vary in perspective:  ○ Observer view: Seeing oneself as in a photo, creating a detached recollection. ○ Field view: Experiencing events from one's own perspective, creating a more emotional recall. Information Processing Basic Questions: ○ How does information enter, maintain, and exit memory? Processes Involved: ○ Encoding: Initial recording of information through sensory input and perception. ○ Storage: Maintenance of encoded information over time, categorized into short-term and long-term memory. ○ Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed, influenced by cues and context. Encoding Techniques Attention: Required for encoding information effectively, as without it, memories may not form correctly. Selective Attention: The ability to focus on specific stimuli (e.g., the cocktail party effect) enhances encoding by filtering out extraneous information. Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart): ○ Deeper processing allows for longer-lasting memory: ○ Structural (shallow): Focusing on physical characteristics. ○ Phonemic (intermediate): Processing sounds of words. ○ Semantic (deep): Understanding meaning and context, leading to stronger memory traces. Enriching Encoding  Elaboration: Connecting new information to existing knowledge broadens understanding and improves recall. Visual Imagery: Creating vivid mental images that relate to the information enhances memory retention. Self-Referent Encoding: Making information personally relevant significantly enhances retention and recall by linking it to one’s own experiences. Memory Storage Atkinson & Shiffrin Model: ○ Sensory Memory: Initial memory repository with a brief lifespan. ○ Types include: ○ Iconic Memory: Visual stimuli (lasts ~½ second). ○ Echoic Memory: Auditory stimuli (lasts 2-3 seconds). Short-Term Memory (STM): ○ STM offers meaningful representations of information rather than raw stimuli, allowing for immediate processing. ○ Magic Number 7: STM can typically hold a limited number of pieces (7 ± 2). ○ Chunking: Organizing information into manageable units (e.g., phone numbers) to extend capacity and improve retrieval. Peterson & Peterson Studies: ○ Demonstrated rapid decay of STM over short intervals when rehearsal is prevented, underscoring the fragility of short-term storage. Memory Transfer Techniques Rehearsal: ○ Types of Rehearsal: ○ Maintenance Rehearsal: Simple repetition keeps information in STM but doesn’t guarantee transfer to LTM. ○ Elaborative Rehearsal: Involves deeper processing methods such as linking new information with existing knowledge, aiding transfer to LTM. Working Memory:  ○ Modern theory depicts STM as an active workspace (working memory) that processes and manages new and retrieved information, essential for complex tasks. ○ Central Executive Processor: Manages rehearsal, attention, and storage systems (visual store, verbal store, episodic buffer), facilitating problem-solving and comprehension. Long-Term Memory (LTM) Definition: Mixture of facts, experiences, and skills that are encoded for retrieval at later times. Capacity: Seen as vast, perhaps infinite, allowing for long-term storage of experiences and knowledge. Memory Modules: ○ Declarative Memory: Knowledge of facts, which can be subdivided into: ○ Semantic Memory: General knowledge about the world, concepts, and facts. ○ Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and specific events in time. ○ Non-Declarative (Procedural) Memory: Skills and habits, which often operate unconsciously, allowing task performance without conscious thought. The Neuroscience of Memory Key Brain Structures: ○ Hippocampus: Central to memory consolidation and initial encoding; crucial for forming new memories. ○ Amygdala: Manages emotional aspects of memories, strengthening those that are emotionally charged. ○ Memory Storage: Distributed throughout the brain, linked to original sensory processing areas; emphasizes the interconnectedness of memory systems. Role of Sleep in Memory Function of Sleep: Sleep enhances memory retention by allowing the brain to consolidate information from STM to LTM. Impact of Sleep Deprivation: Lack of sleep can hinder memory performance, while deep NREM sleep plays a crucial role in memory transport and fixation, affecting learning and cognitive function. Memory Retrieval Cues and Effects: ○ Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that assist in recalling information from LTM, essential for effective memory retrieval. ○ Recall vs. Recognition Tasks: Recall tasks involve actively retrieving information without hints, while recognition tasks provide options. The Serial Position Effect: ○ Primacy Effect: Better recall for the first items presented in a list due to increased attention and rehearsal. ○ Recency Effect: Better recall for the last items presented, as they are still active in STM. ○ Von Restorff Effect: Unique or distinct items are more easily remembered, highlighting the influence of novelty on memory. Types of Memory: Explicit Memory: Conscious recollection of information, such as facts and experiences. Implicit Memory: Unconscious memories influencing behaviors, like riding a bike or typing on a keyboard. Forgetting: An Adaptation?  Potential Adaptive Value of Forgetting: Forgetting may serve to clear less relevant memories, thus reducing confusion and enhancing cognitive efficiency. Ebbinghaus’s Research: Highlighted rapid initial forgetting followed by a slower decline, emphasizing how quickly new information can fade from memory if not reinforced. Reasons for Forgetting: ○ Failure of Encoding: Information may never enter memory properly. ○ Decay: Memory fading over time without reinforcement. ○ Interference: Competing memories can disrupt retrieval. Memory Disorders Alzheimer's Disease: A progressive disorder leading to cognitive decline; initially characterized by forgetfulness and eventually causing severe impairment in daily functioning. Amnesia Types: ○ Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memory prior to an event, often linked to trauma. ○ Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after an event, making it difficult to learn and retain new information. Constructive Processes in Memory Influence of Schemas: Memory is influenced by schemas, which means biases affect how we store and recall information, shaping our perceptions and recall accuracy. Errors and Reconstructive Nature of Memory: The potential for errors in memory processes can have significant implications, particularly in situations such as legal contexts. Misinformation Effects  Dr. Elizabeth Loftus’s Research: Demonstrated how the wording and presentation of questions can alter eyewitness recollections, highlighting the fragility and malleability of memory. Conclusion: Memory in Legal Contexts Implications for Eyewitness Testimony: Eyewitness testimony can be unreliable, leading to wrongful convictions; enhancing our understanding of memory retrieval may improve the justice system's efficacy by informing interrogation, questioning, and trial procedures. VIDEOS Eugenics and Francis Galton: Crash Course History of Science Francis Galton, a polymath and Darwin’s cousin, founded eugenics, misapplying evolutionary theory to advocate for selective breeding in humans. 🧬 Highlights Galton’s Polymath Nature: Galton was a co-founder of various scientific disciplines, 🌍 showcasing his broad intellectual pursuits. Eugenics Origin: He coined the term “eugenics,” promoting the idea of improving the human 📊 gene pool through selective breeding. Statistical Innovations: Galton developed statistical methods, significantly impacting fields 👶 like psychology and forensics. Influence of Darwin: His ideas stemmed from Darwin’s theories, misinterpreting natural 🧪 selection as a basis for human breeding practices. Hereditary Genius: His book popularized the concept of “nature versus nurture” and ⚖️ historiometry, studying human traits through ancestry. Negative Eugenics: Although he advocated for “positive eugenics,” his ideas led to harmful 📚 policies, including forced sterilizations. Legacy of Misuse: Galton’s work inadvertently laid the groundwork for discriminatory practices and flawed intelligence testing. 💡 Key Insights Polymathy vs. Specialization: Galton exemplifies the polymath approach, contributing to various fields, yet his broad reach also led to dangerous misapplications of science. 🔍 Misinterpretation of Darwin: His flawed understanding of Darwin’s work highlights how 📉 Statistical Foundations: While Galton advanced statistical science, his methods for measuring scientific theories can be distorted for social agendas, leading to unethical practices. 🌱 Nature vs. Nurture Debate: Galton’s work initiated crucial discussions about heredity, but his human traits contributed to a legacy of quantitative discrimination. ⚠️ Ethics in Science: Galton’s story serves as a cautionary tale about the ethical responsibilities conclusions were often misused to justify eugenics. 📜 Historical Impact of Eugenics: The eugenics movement, fueled by Galton, led to policies of scientists and the potential for harm in their theories. 🔬 Legacy in Modern Science: Despite being discredited, the remnants of eugenic thought with lasting consequences, emphasizing the need for critical evaluation of scientific ideologies. persist in contemporary discussions around genetics and intelligence, reminding us of the need for careful ethical scrutiny. How reliable is your memory? Elizabeth Loftus discusses the case of Steve Titus, wrongfully convicted due to false eyewitness memory, highlighting the fragility of human memory. 🚔 Highlights Wrongful Conviction: Steve Titus was convicted based on a false memory from an 📰 eyewitness. Investigative Journalism: An investigative journalist helped uncover the real rapist, leading to 💔 Titus’ exoneration. Personal Loss: Despite being freed, Titus lost his job, fiancée, and savings due to the 🧠 conviction’s aftermath. False Memories: Loftus studies how people can remember events that never happened, 🔍 emphasizing memory’s reconstructive nature. Memory Research: Research shows that misinformation can distort memories, affecting 📊 eyewitness testimonies. Ethical Concerns: The ability to plant false memories raises ethical questions in therapy and ⚖️ parenting. Need for Corroboration: Confidence in memory does not guarantee its accuracy; independent verification is crucial. 🧩 Key Insights Memory is Constructive: Memory is not a static recording but a dynamic process, often ⚠️ influenced by external factors, leading to inaccuracies. Impact of Stress: High-stress situations can lead to misidentifications and distorted memories, as shown in military studies. 🗣️ Influence of Language: The wording of questions can significantly affect how people recall 🔄 Therapeutic Memory Planting: Certain therapeutic practices can unintentionally lead to the events, demonstrating memory’s malleability. 📉 Consequences of False Memories: False memories can have real-life repercussions, creation of false memories, affecting patients’ realities. 💡 Public Skepticism: Awareness of memory fallibility encourages skepticism about confident influencing behavior and decisions long after they are formed. 🌍 Broader Implications: The implications of memory research extend beyond the courtroom, claims and urges seeking corroborative evidence. affecting personal relationships and societal perceptions of truth. 1. Classical Conditioning - NS (Neutral Stimulus): A stimulus that initially produces no specific response. - UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. - UCR (Unconditioned Response): The natural reaction to the UCS. - CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Initially neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a conditioned response. - CR (Conditioned Response): The learned response to the CS after conditioning. - Extinction: The gradual weakening of the CR when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS. - Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of the extinguished CR after a pause. - Stimulus Generalization: The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS. - Stimulus Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between the CS and other irrelevant stimuli. - Little Albert Study: Watson and Rayner’s experiment where a young boy was conditioned to fear a white rat, demonstrating how fear can be conditioned. - Seligman’s Learned Taste Aversion: A form of conditioning where individuals develop an aversion to a food associated with sickness. - Advertising: Classical conditioning is used to pair products with positive stimuli (e.g., attractive people or happy settings) to evoke positive responses in consumers. 2. Operant Conditioning - Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior to encourage complex behavior. - Positive & Negative Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus, while negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.  - Positive & Negative Punishment: Positive punishment adds an unpleasant consequence, while negative punishment removes a desirable stimulus to reduce behavior. - Primary & Secondary Reinforcers: Primary reinforcers fulfill biological needs; secondary reinforcers are associated with primary ones (like money). - Stimulus Control Training/Discriminative Stimulus: Using specific cues to signal when behavior will be reinforced. - Schedules of Reinforcement: Different reinforcement schedules (fixed or variable, interval or ratio) influence how quickly and consistently a behavior is learned. - Risks of Physical Punishment: Physical punishment can cause fear, aggression, and hinder effective learning. 3. Cognitive Learning - Latent Learning/Tolman’s Cat Maze Study: Learning that occurs without reinforcement, revealed only when a reward is introduced. - Observational Learning/Bobo Doll Studies: Bandura’s work on learning through imitation; he found that children exposed to aggressive models are more likely to exhibit aggression. - Violent Media & Aggression: Studies suggest a correlation between violent media and real-life aggression, particularly in susceptible individuals. 1. Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval: The process of taking in information, storing it for future use, and retrieving it when needed. 2. Types of Memory - Sensory Memory: Holds sensory information briefly. - Short-Term Memory: Limited in duration (a few seconds) and capacity. - Long-Term Memory: Has a larger capacity for information that can last indefinitely. - Levels of Processing Theory: Memory retention is better when information is processed deeply (meaning-based) rather than shallowly. - Rehearsal: Maintenance (repetition) and elaborative (linking to existing knowledge). - Chunking: Grouping information to enhance memory capacity. 3. Serial Position Effect - Primacy and Recency Effects: Better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list. 4. Types of Long-Term Memory - Declarative (Explicit) Memory: Includes facts and events, further divided into: - Semantic Memory: General knowledge, facts. - Episodic Memory: Personal experiences.  - Non-Declarative (Implicit) Memory: Includes procedural memory for skills, and the role of Indigenous storytelling traditions in memory. 5. The Biology of Memory - Consolidation and the Hippocampus: The hippocampus plays a critical role in the consolidation of memories. - Amygdala’s Role: Involved in emotional memories. - Long-Term Potentiation: Strengthening of synaptic connections, believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. - Memory Traces: The physical basis of memory. - Role of Sleep: Important for memory consolidation. 6. Forgetting - Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve: Demonstrates how quickly information is forgotten over time without reinforcement. - Decay, Proactive & Retroactive Interference: Decay theory suggests memories fade over time, while proactive interference is when old information hinders new, and retroactive interference is the opposite. - Amnesia: Includes retrograde (loss of past memories) and anterograde (inability to form new memories). 7. Constructive Memory - Dr. Loftus’s Work on Misinformation: Demonstrates how false memories can be created through suggestion, impacting eyewitness testimony accuracy. 1. Thinking - Mental Representations, Prototypes, Concepts: Simplified representations that help in categorization. - Problem-Solving Approaches: Includes means-ends analysis, working backward, heuristics, and algorithms. - Types of Problems: Transformation (changing one state to another), inducing structure (finding a pattern), and arrangement (rearranging components to achieve a goal). - Barriers to Problem-Solving: Irrelevant information, mental sets, and functional fixedness. - Heuristics: Availability (relying on immediate examples), representativeness (judging based on similarity), and confirmation bias (favoring information that confirms beliefs). - Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking: Convergent thinking is linear, while divergent thinking fosters creativity.  - Framing Effect: The way a problem is framed can influence decision-making and behavior. 2. Language - Grammar (Phonemes, Syntax, Semantics): Building blocks of language, including sounds, structure, and meaning. - Language Development Benchmarks: Stages like babbling, telegraphic speech, and common errors. - Case of Genie: Illustrates the importance of critical periods for language development. - Theories of Language Development: - Nativist: Proposes a biological basis for language. - Learning Theory: Language is learned through reinforcement. - Interactionist Theory: Suggests that language develops through a combination of innate ability and environmental influence. - Bilingualism: Research by Dr. Bialystok highlights cognitive benefits like enhanced executive functioning. 3. Intelligence - Galton’s Views: Early attempts to measure intelligence, though his work later influenced eugenics. - Theories of Intelligence: - Spearman’s g: General intelligence factor. - Sternberg’s Triarchic Model: Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence. - Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: Eight distinct intelligences, such as linguistic, musical, and spatial. - Emotional Intelligence: The ability to perceive and manage emotions. - Psychological Tests: Include achievement tests, aptitude tests, and IQ tests. - Group Differences in Intelligence: Research suggests that intelligence may be influenced by both genetics and environmental factors. - Range of Reaction Theory: Suggests that genes set a range within which environment can influence an individual’s development, including intelligence.