PSYCH 221 Experimental Psychology PDF - Saint Louis University

COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01...

COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 1 of 158 Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 1  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 2 of 158 REF STELA-BSPSYCH- PSYCH 221 Lab/Lec-2020 PSYCH 221 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES Upon completing the course, you should be able to: 1. Explain the principles and concepts of the scientific method and experimental psychology in relation to other fields of psychology. 2. Demonstrate the mastery of the steps in conducting research using the experimental method. 3. Interpret scholarly experimental findings in line with developing trends and practices. 4. Defend experimental findings critically and appropriately. 5. Compose experimental reports following proper format and procedures. 6. Display effective communication in both oral and written forms reflecting good organization and sound synthesis of findings. EXPERIMENTAL 7. Apply local, national, and international research findings in analyzing experimental findings. PSYCHOLOGY Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, 8. Evaluate distributing, findings uploading or postingand recommendations online, or transmitting in any formin relation or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document,to the Filipino without the priorpersonality written permissionand is strictly prohibited. 2 culture. of SLU, 9. Demonstrate respect for the uniqueness of each human being in the administration, interpretation, and delivery of experimental results. 10. Execute intrapersonal and interpersonal skills that enable enhancement of competence and creativity 11. Exhibit a sensibility to the ethical guidelines in the conduct of research. 12. Display professionalism through team collaboration, acceptance of constructive feedback and a willingness to improve research competencies.  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 3 of 158 Dearest undergraduate Psychology Learners, Welcome to Psych 221 Lec/Lab class! This course strengthens your journey in Psychology as a scientific inquiry. It allows you not only to “think” science but to “do” science as well. This module consists of the basics you need to learn Experimental Psychology. The accompanying Course Guide will be more detailed in terms of scheduling and specific learning outcomes for each topic. What you need to know of PSYCH 221 (Experimental Psychology) This course is a 5-unit course in Psychology. The 3-unit lecture part which will cover topics on general behavior and its principles being the focus of Experimental Psychology. The 2-unit laboratory part shall provide you with the opportunity for first- hand experience in the experimental research of these behavioral phenomena. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 3  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 4 of 158 The SLU Faculty of the Department of Psychology has prepared modules with the different topics to be covered in this course, that you will find in this book. Enjoy the Journey to Experiments in Psychology! We continue to remain committed to the Psychology profession. We are grateful to our mentors who came before us and paved the way to SLU Psychology and we remain steadfast as we train those who would follow in our footsteps. Sincerely, THE SLU FACULTY, DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY Modules prepared by: Ylona Veronica A. Bayod, RPm England Danne B. Castro, RPsy, RPm Sally Itliong Maximo, PhD, RPsy Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 4  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 5 of 158 TABLE OF CONTENTS page OVERVIEW 6 MODULE 1: EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 10 UNIT 1. Introduction 10 UNIT 2. Science and the Need for Scientific Methodology 15 MODULE 2: EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 21 MODULE 3: PSCHOPHYSICS 34 MODULE 4: PERCEPTION 53 MODULE 5: REACTION TIME AND PERSONALITY FACTORS IN 67 PERCEPTION UNIT 1. Reaction Time 67 UNIT 2. The Influence of Personality Factors on Perception 75 MODULE 6: LEARNING 80 UNIT 1. Learning and the Learning Process 80 UNIT 2. Transfer of Learning 102 MODULE 7: MEMORY 109 MODULE 8: DECISION-MAKING 122 MODULE 9: EMOTIONS 136 REFERENCES 154 Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 5  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 6 of 158 OVERVIEW MODULE 1: EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Unit 1: Introduction Unit 2: Science and the Need for Scientific Methodology This 2-unit module will introduce you to the focus of Experimental Psychology as a method subject in the field. It will also emphasize Psychology as the study of behavior that uses the scientific method as opposed to non-scientific ways of knowing Topic Learning Outcomes 1. Understand the context of Experimental Psychology in the entire field of study 2. Differentiate varied ways of knowing about behavior and contrasting science from non-science sources. MODULE 2: THE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN In this module, you will understand the different elements in an experimental design and also briefly describe how these are presented, using some standard guidelines, in a research report. Topic Learning Outcomes 1. Demonstrate deep understanding of the relationship between the elements or concepts in experimental design and research 2. Critically evaluate experimental research papers according to the basic elements of experimental design 3. Develop observation skills in order to formulate plausible problems for research inquiry. MODULE 3: PSYCHOPHYSICS This module introduces Psychophysics which studies the relationship between the physical attributes of a stimulus and the quantitative/qualitative attributes of the sensation. The module highlights several concepts and methods related to this science. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 6  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 7 of 158 Topic Learning Outcomes 1. Demonstrate understanding on the important concepts related to Psychophysics MODULE 4: PERCEPTION This module titled perception will delve deeper into the concept of ‘perceptual thresholds’ and how an understanding of this allows the exploration of some psychological processes. Topic Learning Outcomes 1. Appreciate and critically evaluate the methods used in the scientific study of perception 2. Conduct a short experimental research and produce a research report. 3. Demonstrate critical thought through effective scientific writing Module 5: REACTION TIME AND PERSONALITY FACTORS IN PERCEPTION Unit 1: Reaction Time Unit 2: The Influence of Personality Factors on Perception This 2-unit module deals expands understanding of perception as determined by reaction time and personality variables. Unit 1 will largely deal with the factors affecting reaction time while Unit 2 will focus on experiments describing how personality variables affect perception. Topic Learning Outcomes 1. Appreciate and critically evaluate the methods used in the scientific study of reaction time and personality factors affecting perception 2. Conduct a short experimental research and produce a research report 3. Demonstrate critical thought through effective scientific writing Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 7  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 8 of 158 Module 6: LEARNING Unit 1: Learning and the Learning Process Unit 2: Transfer of Learning In this 2-unit module, you will review basic concepts in learning, some of which have been tackled in General Psychology. You will understand how the learning process is depicted through learning curves. This module will also include how learning process and transfer of learning are explored through experimentation. Topic Learning Outcomes 1. Differentiate learning curves and appraise conditions of effective learning. 2. Analyze the learning processes of tasks explored in Psychology researches. MODULE 7: MEMORY In this module, you will review basic concepts in memory and forgetting, some of which have been tackled in General Psychology. You will get to explore how some processes related to memory are studied experimentally. This module covers topics on some theories that relate to memory systems and processes. Topic Learning Outcomes 1. Contrast systems and processes of memory and forgetting 2. Distinguish the memory processes involved in accessing different types of Information. 3. Conduct a short experimental research and produce a research report 4. Demonstrate critical thought through effective scientific writing MODULE 8: DECISION-MAKING This module focuses mainly on the cognitive processes underlying human capacities of reasoning, judgment and decision making. It is based mainly on behavioral experiments, as well as some computational modelling techniques. Specific areas Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 8  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 9 of 158 include algorithms, heuristics, and reasons for deviations from logic and rationality observed in the decision-making process. Topic Learning Outcomes 1. Demonstrate understanding on the different processes and concepts in decision-making 2. Integrate concepts and processes of decision-making as applied in real life MODULE 9: EMOTIONS This module tackles the concept of emotions by understanding it as conscious feelings and as a response. The module also reviews theories of emotion gleaned from researches that analyze interplay of aspects in emotional experiences such as stimulus, context, cognition and physiological responses. Topic Learning Outcomes 1. Differentiate aspects, concepts and theories relative to emotion. 2. Design or adopt an experimental research and produce a research report 3. Organize a presentation to report experimental results while demonstrating effective communication. 4. Demonstrate critical thought through effective scientific writing and oral presentation. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 9  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 10 of 158 MODULE 1 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Unit 1: Introduction Engage In the field of Psychology, sort the “field” from the “method” subjects. Distinguish the focus of a field subject from a method subject. How do we situate Experimental Psychology in the fields of Psychology? CROSS-SECTIONAL NORMAL Learning INDIVIDUAL Motivation GENERAL Sensation P Perception HUMAN Mental Activities S Affective States Stress and Coping Y DEVELOPMENTAL C GROUP Child Psychology Adolescent Psychology H Psychology of Adulthood APPLIED Psychology of Old Age O Industrial Psychology Forensic Psychology NON-NORMAL L Educational Psychology PSYCHOPATHOLOGY Engineering Psychology Clinical Psychology O Guidance & Counseling Psychopharmacology G Religious Psychology Consumer Psychology Environmental Psychology Y Sports Psychology Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 10 SUBHUMAN Animal Psychology Comparative Psychology  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 11 of 158 This 2-unit module will introduce you to the focus of Experimental Psychology as a method subject in the field. It will also emphasize Psychology as the study of behavior that uses the scientific method as opposed to non-scientific ways of knowing. I. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY - Is more of a “method” subject as opposed to the “field” subjects in Psychology. It seeps through the different field subjects in Psychology. Field subjects focus on content, principles and theories in Psychology while method subjects are tools which help investigate the field of discipline. - The goal of Experimental Psychology is to understand the fundamental causes of behavior - It deals with principles of Psychology which apply to man or organisms in general. It focuses on the basic elements of behavior and mental processes. II. PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR - As Psychologists we take the scientific approach in understanding behavior. That is, our knowledge/ understanding of human behavior is based on scientific evidence accumulated through research. - As scientists, we rely on scientific methods, where it entails:  Specifying conditions under which we make our observations.  Accepting/ rejecting alternative explanations of behaviors on the basis of our observations. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 11  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 12 of 158 EXPLAIN: NOT all ways of understanding behavior is SCIENCE! Authority – a belief in something because some respected source told them to be true. The catch! – these sources of knowledge may be prone to error as well Logic – drawing conclusions about the world by inferring on the relationships of previous premises or statements. The catch! – a conclusion may be logical but it is still not true because its assumptions/premises are not true (ex: fallacies) Intuition – a spontaneous perception or judgment not based on reasoned mental steps but on a number of factors which contribute to the “sizing up” of a situation or person. Common Sense and Mysticism are varieties of intuition:  Common Sense – It is intuition because it relies on informal methods. It is the kind of everyday, non-scientific data gathering that shapes expectations and beliefs. One’s judgment agrees with the shared (hence, common) attitudes, experiences and standards of a group of people. Ex. The common sense that when mom/ dad is in a bad mood, you don’t ask for a favor or ‘dress up’ when you are going for a Job Interview. The catch! Standards differ in time, place and culture. It is more pragmatic rather than theoretical.  Mysticism – a kind of direct insight associated with an altered state of consciousness apart from ordinary experience. The catch! There is difficulty in describing the experience and the messages received from it in a convincing way. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 12  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 13 of 158 ELABORATE: So what’s the catch with these non-scientific data sources?  These sources of knowledge are constrained by two (2) factors: 1. A concern on the accuracy of the information - conclusions are subject to inherent tendencies, biases, or prejudices that limit their accuracy and usefulness. - we are often unaware of factors that influence our attitudes and behavior. - we use data from our own experiences to come up with common sense assumptions about cause and effect. 2. A concern on inferential strategies - explanations and predictions are likely to be imperfect/ misleading - these inferential biases as shortcuts to thinking are the brain’s way of coping with an immense volume of information. Although they allow us to function well, they are not always accurate.  Here are related processes to elaborate on these constraints:  Confirmation Bias – once we believe we know something, we tend to overlook instances that might disconfirm our beliefs, and we seek, instead, confirmatory instances of behavior. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 13  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 14 of 158  Halo-Effect, and its opposite Horn Effect - these are snap judgments or cognitive biases based on the initial good (halo) or bad (horn) impressions we have of something/someone. Ex: Authority figures (priests/ pastors, doctors, professionals, CNN, etc.) who are popular, attractive, high in status, seemingly expert, confident, powerful, etc tend to be more persuasive than infamous characters (thieves,  When we understand other people’s behavior, there is a strong bias to overlook situational data in favor of data that substantiate trait explanations (a bias for trait attributions)  Problems on stereotyping  Underestimating/overestimating the probabilities of events. Ex. Gambler’s Fallacy – believing the self as lucky at a certain time/day when the probabilities (for slot machines) are often identical for any time or day. Overconfidence Bias - our predictions/ explanations tend to feel much more correct than they actually are.  Method of Tenacity as termed by philosopher Charles Sanders Pierce where one rigidly clings to a belief regardless of evidence to the contrary. Pierce also described Method of Authority and the ‘A Priori Method’ where one believes in something without prior study or examination. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 14  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 15 of 158 Unit 2: Science and the Need for Scientific Methodology III. SCIENCE AND THE NEED FOR SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY “Scientia” (means knowledge) has two (2) definitions: 1. Content definition – Science is the accumulation of integrated knowledge (a body of knowledge), providing descriptions of events taking place under specific conditions. The formulation of laws leads to the possibility of explaining (etiology) and predicting (prognosis) behavior. Science as a body of knowledge held together by common theories, principles and facts * In Psychology, the content deals with facts about behavior. It is a ‘body of knowledge’ about behavior with emphasis on human behavior. 2. Process definition - an activity that includes the systematic ways in which we go about gathering data, noting relationships, and offering explanations. The focus is on the scientific method of collecting, analyzing and evaluating data. EXPLORE: The Fundamental Objectives of Science The basic assumption is that behavior must follow a natural order; therefore, it can be predicted. If no inherent order existed, there would be no point in looking for one and no need to develop methods for doing so. (Alfred Horth Whitehead, Philosopher of Science on ‘scientific mentality’) Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 15  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 16 of 158 The fundamental objective of science is to formulate laws or develop theories (that is, to seek general principles) in order to make EXPLANATION possible. A theory is a set of related statements that explains a variety of occurrences: - The more occurrences and the fewer the statements, the more powerful the theory. However, this does not necessarily mean it is the correct theory since there are some events it cannot explain. Note that a behavioral phenomenon can be accounted for by several theories - Functions of a theory: o Organize Data – Provides a framework for the systematic and orderly display of data (that leads to the explanation of the data) o Generate prediction – as related to the fundamental objective of science. Etiology (a branch of knowledge dealing with causes) or explanation tries to explain how a phenomenon works and why it works as it does. Explanation leads to PREDICTION (Prognosis) which is: a) The consequence of the explanation b) The best evidence of the adequacy of the explanation However, prediction does not lead to explanation. Prediction only requires a relationship (correlational only) but explanation requires a direction of the relationship. Direction here refers to a ‘cause and effect’ relationship (that is, causal explanation). The scientific method (going back to the process definition of science) requires collecting, analyzing and evaluating data. - To collect data, there is a need for observation and measurement. - To analyze data, there is a need for good thinking. - To evaluate data, there is a need for replication. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 16  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 17 of 158 Of these, the three main tools of psychological science are observation, measurement and experimentation. Gathering empirical data in this systematic and orderly way is preferable to common sense data collection but it cannot guarantee correct conclusion. Ex. Based on empirical data, Aristotle concluded that heavy objects fall faster than light objects. However, Galileo concluded that if we set up the proper testing conditions (testing objects in a vacuum), light objects will fall just as fast as heavy objects. A. Observation - Is the systematic noting and recording of events. Only events that are observable can be studied scientifically. Events beyond our observation (supernatural entities, ESP etc) are beyond science. Events going on “inside” (thinking, feeling, dreaming…) or internal processes must be made observable, as for instance: - Hunger through eating (how much, how many times) - Thinking through answers to a questionnaire, time it takes to solve problems - Feelings through polygraph - Dreaming through REM Observations must be made objectively, that is, without distortions as a result of pre-conceived notions (see previous notes on biases). The scientific attitude requires an objective and impersonal approach to observations. Observations, as part of the scientific method, are done systematically. B. Measurement - Is the determination of the dimensions of an event or behavior. Everybody seems familiar with the common dimensions of physical reality (length, width, height, volume, time, etc). These dimensions are expressed in standardized Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 17  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 18 of 158 units (ex: feet, pounds, seconds, liter etc). Standards are used to make information meaningful and understood by everybody. - For the dimensions of human behavior, however, standards are not always clear-cut for dimensions of human behavior. To measure behavior on dimensions like thinking, feelings, social style, controls and self-concept, etc. is not so simple and easy. There are certain standards recommended (intelligence tests, personality tests) but these are often determined by the context of a particular study. - Important: In observations, our measurement must be consistent across each set of conditions. o If measurement is inconsistent, we cannot compare our observations. As such, we need to use the same instruments and procedure to make results comparable - Note that there is a danger for meaningless, global impressions as evidenced by the Barnum Effect. This is in honor of P.T. Barnum (Phineas Taylor Barnum) who said: “There’s a sucker born every minute.” In this effect information about a personality functioning is believed to be unique of oneself when in fact, it can be applied to almost anybody. Because it is so general, it becomes meaningless and trivial. C. Good Thinking - Refers to the process of adequately considering an issue in the mind. The approach to the interpretation of data should be: o Logical – in accordance with inferences drawn from the data o Objective – independent of personal feelings of like and dislike about the data. Hence, it includes being open to new ideas even when they contradict our prior beliefs or attitudes. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 18  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 19 of 158 o Organized – arranging the different aspects into a coherent unity. - Good thinking follows the principle of parsimony. William of Occam, a 14th Century Philosopher advised to stick to a basic premise: “Entities should not be multiplied without necessity.” It means: o simplicity, precision, and clarity of thought o avoiding unnecessary assumptions (ex: causal entities that cannot be observed) to support an argument or explanation. o when two explanations are equally defensible, the simplest explanation is preferred until it is ruled out by conflicting data. Example: Tooth decay in women with many children must not be explained by the number of their children but by linking it up with its more direct cause which is calcium deficiency. The most direct explanation to abnormal behavior can be psychological distress or brain chemical imbalance, rather than attributing to the spirit of a dead person D. Replication - is the process of repeating the same procedures of the investigation in order to see if the same results will be obtained. Replication is the most adequate test to check the validity of the original findings. - Note that it is quite impossible to replicate findings about phenomena beyond scientific inquiry. Most of the ESP phenomena cannot be replicated and fall therefore in the field of Parapsychology. E. Experimentation - Refers to the use of the experimental method to collect, analyze and evaluate data. It is a process undertaken to test a hypothesis that particular behavioral events will occur reliably in certain, specifiable situations. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 19  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 20 of 158 - An experiment is “a definite arrangement of conditions under which a phenomenon to be observed shall take place with the purpose of determining for that phenomenon the respective causal influences of these conditions (English – A dictionary of psychological and psychoanalytical terms, p.194)” o The “phenomenon to be observed” is the dependent variable o The “conditions under which it takes place” are the independent variables o The whole set of “definite arrangements” is the experimental design - The experimental design will be discussed in the next module. Take not that in experimentation: o We systematically manipulate aspects of a setting to verify our predictions about observable behavior under specific conditions. o The predictions must be testable. o Three (3) requirements for experimentation:  There must be procedures for manipulating the setting.  The predicted outcome must be observable.  We must be able to measure the outcome. o Experimentation must be objective. That is:  One does not bias the results by setting up situations in which predictions will automatically be confirmed.  Experimentation should be done within the bounds of ethics. That is we prevent risks/harm/dangers to be inflicted on participants. Example of unethical experiments > effect of smoking on fetal development? > peeping through windows to study sexual behaviors. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.20  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 21 of 158 MODULE 2 THE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ENGAGE: Defining the word ‘EXPERIMENT’ An experiment is a controlled procedure for investigating the effects of one or more independent variables on one or more dependent variables. The independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter, whereas the dependent variable is observed and recorded. (Kantowitz et al., 2009) In this module, you will understand the different elments in an experimental design and also briefly describe how these are presented, using some standard guidelines, in a research report. Elements in an Experimental Design An experimental design is a set of exactly planned procedures to be followed in carrying out an experimental investigation. Here are the basic elements in the design. Some call these ‘steps’ although these are not necessarily sequential. For example, the ‘variables’ can already be determined Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 21  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 22 of 158 in the ‘problem/s’ and ‘observations’ are fundamental in all the elements and may occur even before planning the experimental design. 1. The problem (s) 2. The hypothesis (es) 3. The variables 4. The method 5. Data presentation, analysis and interpretation 6. Conclusions 7. Observations, if any. EXPLAIN: KNOW the steps/elements in an experimental design I. The Problem Every scientific inquiry starts with a problem. From a vague impression that a problem exists, the researcher comes to a complete statement of the problem in terms of operations. Hence, an operational definition of a problem is needed. An operational definition is a definition of a phenomenon by specifying the operations involved in producing and measuring the phenomenon. Problems then become observable. Example: consider the observation that ‘people who are hungry become more aggressive.’ To operationalize ‘hungry,’ we specify what is done: - To produce the phenomenon: deprivation of food - To measure the phenomenon: number of hours of food deprivation To operationalize ‘aggressive’ we specify the manifestation of aggression on an aggression test (Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study) and the measurement of it through the extra-punitive scores. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 22  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 23 of 158 Advantages of operational definitions: Since operational definitions clearly communicate and specify what the researchers did to produce and measure the phenomenon,  Other researchers will be able to understand exactly the findings and conclusions  Other researchers can reproduce the phenomenon and replicate the study to validate the findings. Ways in which a problem is manifested: A scientific inquiry starts when we have already collected a certain amount of knowledge and that knowledge indicates that there is something we do not know. For someone who is totally ignorant, there is no problem of knowing. Knowledge helps us to know what we do not know, in other words knowledge makes us aware of problems. ELABORATE: How are problems manifested? Problems are manifested in at least three, to some extent overlapping ways:  When there is a noticeable gap in the results of investigations. We are aware of what we know and there is simply something that we do not know. There is straight forward absence of information.  When the results of several inquiries disagree. Possible reasons for conflicting results may be that some investigations were poorly conducted. Perhaps the most common error in experimentation is the failure to control important extraneous variables.  When a “fact” exists in the form of a bit of unexplainable information. If a fact does not fit in with the already existing body of knowledge, it demands for an explanation. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 23  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 24 of 158 Note: Problems may be stated in the experimental design under the form of a question or under the form of a statement. IV. The Hypothesis A hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. As such, it gives direction to our inquiry. A hypothesis sets some priority on the kind of data that we study. It serves to guide us to make observations that are pertinent to our problem and to omit those observations which are irrelevant. A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a problem. It is the purpose of the experiment to determine whether the data confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis, i.e., the experiment leads to an acceptance or a rejection of the hypothesis. ELABORATE: When is a hypothesis good for research? Criteria for a good hypothesis: A. A hypothesis must be a meaningfully possible answer to the specific problem under study. It must follow the rules of logic and good thinking. B. A hypothesis must be parsimonious. This means that it must be the simplest tentative answer to the problem. Example: if we have evidence that someone has correctly guessed the symbol on a number of cards significantly more often than chance, we might advance several hypotheses to account for this phenomenon. One hypothesis might be to call on extra sensory perception (ESP). Another would be that the subject has used a certain trick which enables him to peep into the symbol of the cards. The latter hypothesis would be more Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.24  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 25 of 158 parsimonious because it does not require that we hypothesize new very complex mental processes. C. A hypothesis must be verifiable. To hypothesize an act of God to explain a tragedy is not a verifiable and hence not scientific. Problems are easy to find, but good hypothesis with some chance of acceptance are not that easy to arrive at. There are no general rules that can be used to generate hypotheses. As Bertrand Russell said: “As a rule, the framing of hypotheses is the most difficult part of scientific work and the part where great ability is indispensable. So far, no method has been found which would make it possible to invent hypotheses by rule.” (The History of Western Philosophy, p. 545) It is recommended to follow the same sequence for the hypotheses as for the problems. V. The Variables As mentioned before (see definition of an experiment), it is the purpose of an experiment to determine a relationship between an independent and a dependent variable. A. The INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV) is the factor which is manipulated by the experimenter to discover its relationship with the dependent variable. Manipulation implies that we vary the IV in its different values among some dimensions like intensity, frequency, time etc. in order to see the effect of this manipulation on the dependent variable and hence to assess a causal relationship. The variable is called independent in the sense that its different values are set by the experimenter; they are not affected by anything else that happens in the experiment. The researcher decides what the particular conditions will be. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 25  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 26 of 158 Since the IV is ‘presented’ to the subject in order to assess its effect on behavior, this variable is also called ‘stimulus variable’ because it may trigger certain reactions when varied. Two different kinds of IV can be recognized:  Organismic IV – when it refers to a physiological or psychological characteristic within the individual  Environmental IV – when it is a variable in the environment The operational definition of the IV focuses on how the IV is produced. EXPLORE: The HOWs of manipulating the IVs Ways of manipulating the IV An IV needs to be manipulated, to be varied in order to assess its possible effect on the dependent variable. 1) Simplest manipulation – limited to two treatment conditions indicating the presence or absence of the IV. Example: in a study where performance on a reading comprehension test with music in the background (IV). Two groups of subjects are needed:  Experimental group – wherein subjects are exposed to the IV (example: with music in the background)  Control group – wherein subjects carry out exactly the same procedures as the control group with the absence of the IV (example: no music in the background). This is known as the ‘no treatment’ condition. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.26  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 27 of 158 B. The DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV) is the variable which appears, varies, disappears as the experimenter introduces, changes, removes the independent variable. In other words, the DV is the variable measured to determine whether the independent variable (IV) had an effect. The DV is ‘dependent’ in the sense that its values are assumed to depend on the values of the independent variable. A synonymous term for it is ‘response variable’ as it depends on how the subjects react. The operational definition of the DV focuses on how the DV is measured since we need an objective measure of the effect of the IV. EXPLORE: The HOWs of measuring the DVs Some standard ways of measuring the DV: 1) Accuracy of the response as expressed in scale values (higher values for more accurate responses) or as expressed in the number of errors committed (fewer errors for greater accuracy). 2) Latency of the response as measured by the time it takes the organism to begin the response (reaction time studies) When an experimenter gives a signal and the subject responds, the reaction time is the time interval between the onset of the signal to the onset of the subject’s response. 3) Speed (duration) of the response. How long does it take the organism to complete the response? This is the time interval between the onset of the response to the termination of the response. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 27  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 28 of 158 4) Frequency of the response – refers to the rate of the response or the number of times a response in made within a given period. 5) The use of rating scales with different gradations to describe levels of behaviors. For example, a 5-point rating scale from 1 – not anxious to 5 – extremely anxious. C. The EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES (EV) are variables which are also operating at the time of the experiment but their effects on the DV are not assessed in this experiment since they are not the focus of the inquiry. They are neither intentionally manipulated as IV, nor DV which are measured as indices of the effect of the IV. They can include inconsistent instructions, different time of the day, equipment failures, disturbances during the experiment. In short, anything that varies which have potential to affect the DV, but is NOT the focus of inquiry Since these EV’s may have an effect on the DV, they ought to be identified and controlled. If not properly controlled: o We may not be able to tell whether changes in the DV were caused by changes in the IV or by EV’s which also changed across conditions. o Uncontrolled EV will contaminate the results leading to wrong findings and interpretations.  The golden rule is therefore: no experiment is better than its poorest control. For these reasons, an experimenter must identify the relevant EV’s and specify how they will be controlled. EXPLORE: The HOWs of controlling the EVs Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.28  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 29 of 158  The techniques of control are: 1) Elimination – the most desirable way to control the EV is to eliminate it from the experimental situation. Example: if noise during the experiment is an EV, see to it that there is no noise and that the experiment is conducted in a quiet place. Elimination is the most desirable control technique, but frequently inapplicable. Consider some organismic EV’s such as sex, IQ or age. 2) Constancy of conditions – if we cannot eliminate an EV, we make sure that it stays the same in all treatment conditions. For this reason, we take subjects of the same age, same IQ, we read the same instructions to the participants, we take the same number of boys and girls, etc. 3) Balancing – it means that the effects of an EV are distributed across the different treatment conditions of the experiment. Example: in order to control the effect of the EV ‘sex’ when there is an unequal number of boys and girls available, we make sure that the inequality balances out in the different treatment conditions. This would be done by assigning an equal number of participants of each sex to each group. With a total number of 50 boys and 30 girls and assigning 25 boys and 15 girls to the experimental group and the same number to the control group, we have balanced out the effect of this EV. 4) Counterbalancing – some experiments are designed in such a way that the same participants must serve under two or more different experimental conditions. In this case, some ‘order effects’ such as ‘amount of previous practice’ and/or ‘fatigue and boredom’ can be an EV. The method of counterbalancing attempts to distribute all these order effects equally to all conditions by using all possible sequences of the conditions and using every sequence the same number of times. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.29  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 30 of 158 Example: if a subject has to take three different brands of “cola” to indicate his preferences, it is imperative to control the order effect. With three treatment conditions (A,B,C), there are six possible sequences: A-B-C B-A-C C-A-B A-C-B B-C-A C-B-A To counterbalance completely, we use all the sequences and use each sequence the same number of times. With six sequences, we need therefore a multiple of six as the total number of subjects in the experimental design. With 36 subjects, 6 subjects will be assigned to each sequence. 5) Randomization means that the EV is allowed to fluctuate in an equal manner in the experimental group. Example: for the EV of IQ we assume that more intelligent, average intelligent and less intelligent subjects taken at random will “randomize out” the influence of IQ as EV. Randomization is used:  Where it is known that certain variables operate in the experimental situation, but it is not feasible to apply any one of the above techniques of control.  Where we assume that some extraneous variables will operate but we cannot specify them and therefore we cannot apply the other techniques. VI. The Method This section of the experimental design tells how the experiment was carried out. It gives the information which is necessary to allow another researcher to replicate the experiment. It contains different topics: Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.30  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 31 of 158  The Subjects – Information about the important characteristics of the sample is given: number and relevant characteristics of the subjects, the manner of recruiting, manner of assignment to conditions etc.  The Apparatus – A description of the equipment used in the experiment is given  The Procedure – This section should contain a clear description of all the procedures followed in the experiment. The easiest way is simply to report every step in chronological order. VII. Data presentation, analysis and interpretation This section should contain what you found. Results can be summarized in tables and figures. Indicate what statistical tests were used and report the findings. Give an interpretation of the findings. It is highly recommended to follow in this section the sequence of the problems and their corresponding hypothesis as given earlier. VIII. Conclusions To round off the scientific investigation, we bring together in summary form what can be concluded from the results of the experiment. In a straightforward way, without mentioning anymore numerical data and supportive evidence, the conclusion – preferable in proper sequence – are given. IX. Observations This section may be added as a kind of a post-scriptum (PS) if some observations pertaining to the experiment are noteworthy and if these observations could not appropriately be mentioned under any to the Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. 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