Psych 2076 Lecture Notes PDF

Chapter 1: Perspectives on sexuality Sex: biology, sexual anatomy Gender: one’s (personal, social, legal) status as male or female ○ Social construct ○ Thing we have created as a society Sexual behavior: behavior that produces arousal and increases the chance...

Chapter 1: Perspectives on sexuality Sex: biology, sexual anatomy Gender: one’s (personal, social, legal) status as male or female ○ Social construct ○ Thing we have created as a society Sexual behavior: behavior that produces arousal and increases the chance of an organism Human sexuality: the ways in which we experience and express ourselves as sexual beings Biopsychosocial approach (we are mix of all 3) ○ Biological Physiological Medications Neurochemistry genetics ○ Psychological Emotions and attitudes Learning Beliefs Stress management ○ Social Family Peer relationships Culture Socioeconomics Understanding sexuality: religion Until the 19th century, dominant source of information about sexuality ○ Worship of deities ○ Moral codes ○ Every religion has included scriptions on what you should or shouldn’t do ○ Religion has influences everyone regardless of if you follow a religion ○ Pompeii had a lot of penis imagery and british museum had to hide it all away ○ Every culture has messages and values regarding sexulaity Understanding sexuality: science Began in the 19th century Victorian era ○ Very conservative english values ○ Sexual restraint device to stop people for giving into sexual urges Belt goes around penis and if he got an erection and the spikes would prick the penis Important sex researchers  ○ Sigmund freud One of the first to look at psych of sex Wacky things he talked about like opedeius complex ○ Alfred kinsey First for sexual behavior Studied wasps and used these techniques to study sexuality ○ Masters and johnson Studied physiology of sex Had people masturbate in a lab and study what happens during orgasms Understanding sexuality: The media Primetime TV: average of 10 instances of sexual behavior per hour Many people learn from the media Doesn’t show safe sex The internet: ○ There is porn everywhere (fake news, many get their sex education from here but bad place to learn) ○ Sexual predators: 20% of teens solicited online Media has 3 types of influences ○ Cultivation What you see you come to believe represents reality ○ Agenda setting What is important, what to think about Example: news coverage of a celebrity’s sexual misconduct allegations ○ Social learning What to do, how to do it Cross-cultural perspectives on sexuality Ford and beach (1951) ○ Biology and genetics ○ No specific sex gene that accounts for sexuality ○ All societies regulate sezual behaviour (incest , rape, extramarital sex) Results in disruptions ○ Importance of sexuality in out lives ○ Found it is entirely learned Ethnocentrism ○ There are different cultures with different beliefs ○ We need to understand the meaning of other peoples values and meanings that come from their culture since in theirs it may be important to them while from another view we may see something as sexist Importance of cross cultural studies Understanding variation that exists in animal sexual behavior Put our own standards and behavior in perspective  ○ We are not the norm, just our norm, not the universal norm since something else may be the norm for another person Importance of culture (biology) and learning in shaping our sexual behaviour ○ Understand the importance of learning since it has influences on our sexuality which is learned since we have a biological drive to have sex and reproduce which is also influenced by society Lets us look at the bigger picture Cross-species perspectives on sexuality Humans are not the only species who use sex for non reproductive purposes Masturbation ○ Monkeys and apes in zoos ○ Female porcupine vibrator (straddle a stick and walk forward so it bounces off the ground and hits her genitals) ○ Autofellatio in primates (oral sex on themselves) Same sex behavior ○ Male sheep (9%), porpoises, giraffes ○ Different from homosexuality in humans For example, only when a female dog is unable to reproduce will it possibly get with another female dog Sexual behaviour vs sexual orientation ○ Driven by biology Fetishism ○ Less common ○ Classical conditioning where intense arousal and sexual feelings can get attached to an unrelated object ○ For example, a male chimpanzee raised in captivity developed a shoe fetish, masturbating obssively by rubbing his caretaker’s leather boot Human uniqueness ○ Sexual behaviour more instinctively controlled among lower species and more controlled by the brain in higher species ○ Learning does occur among lower animals Rhesus monkeys vs rats Chapter 2: theoretical perspectives on sexuality Multidisciplinary approach Psychology Evolution sociology What is a theory Explanations proposed to explain a concept or phenomenon  Open to be tested Are dynamic and can change and evolve They are not a fact, they are an explanation we believe to be true until disproved by other theories Every perspective has something unique to offer about sexuality Evolutionary theories: Sociobiology Sociobiology: Social behavior and evolution ○ Suggests that everything is happening in the moment and everything is about reproduction and finding a partner with good genes Explains why or how certain patterns of sexual behaviour evolve Natural selection where animals best adapted are more likely to survive and pass their genes to future generations Physical characteristics are indicative of good genes Symmetrical face and smooth skin are attractive features that you would want to pass to your offspring ○ This is also seen in animals when wanting to attract a mate ○ Any species has their own set of mating behaviours and characteristics known to be attractive ○ We consider certain features to be attractive because they reflect a healthy partner who is able to provide to us genes to have healthy offspring which would give our genes the best chance of surviving Sexual selection is about attracting a mate Selection shapes our society and species to survive and reproduce Intrasexual selection ○ Competition, usually among males ○ Big horn rams budding heads to see who is most dominant and more worthy of access to females Intersexual selection ○ Choice, usually by females ○ Females prefer certain males and refuses mating with the other males ○ Females are the ones usually who have choice of who they want Parental investment ○ What it takes for an individual to reproduce ○ Like for a male all it takes is to do the act of reproducing and they can leave while their genes are passed on ○ Females actually have to carry their offspring when they get pregnant and give birth and take care of the child so a lot of resources and risk are present ○ Differs across species like sea horses where males carry the child ○ Where females have a greater investment, they are more selective and careful when choosing a partner whereas a male doesn’t have as much risk and does not have to be as careful choosing a partner ○ This has shaped patterns for mating and reproduction Evolutionary theories: evolutionary psychology Psychological mechanisms have been shaped by natural selection ○ Attachment and internal working models ○ Sexual strategies and mate choice We are driven to have sex with people because it feels good and creates a good bond, not necessarily because we want to reproduce Sex feels good so that we are willing to reproduce Regardless of our conscious thoughts, we have inherited certain preferences and characteristics for certain physical features in partners that we find attractive and tend to show youthfulness and good genes, but we don’t need to know why it is just what we think Attractive features are associated with health and those good genes will be passed on and inherited and become more prominent Those attracted to physical characteristics that are not associated with health are less likely to successfully reproduce and pass on their genes to future generations Mechanism in our DNA that draws us to be protective of babies and babies cry out to receive help which has been inherited through previous generations Psychological theories: psychodynamic theory Erogenous zones: pleasure zones He saw sex as one of the key force and is important to personality development Psychosexual development ○ Oral stage: mouth source of pleasure like eating and sucking on things ○ Anal stage: toilet training and anus source of plasure ○ Phallic stage: children discover their genitals, oedipus complex comes in ○ Latency: 6-10 where nothing sedxually changes or hapepens ○ Genital stage: puberty onward Id: pleasure principle ○ We are born with it ○ Get our basic needs as a newborn like when it wants food, the id cries ○ Doesn’t consider anyone else like babies not caring about their parents and just wants what it wants Ego: reality principle ○ Understands other people have needs and desires ○ Take into consideration ○ Is the strongest since satisfies id and superego Superego: morality principle ○ Around age 5 ○ Develops due to moral and ethical constraints due to caregivers and parents ○ If too much will be too judgy Psychological theories: learning theories Classical conditioning  ○ Placing a conditioned stimulus or what would originally be a neutral stimulus with no meaning with a stimulus that has meaning or significance then the neutral stimulus will take on the characteristics and feeling of the meaningful stimulus ○ Example: bell no meaning to dog but food has one so over time when hearing it over and over again when does hears bell with food when he just hears the bell, the dog will salivate ○ Learned from experience ○ Used to understand learning and explain sexual behaviors like fetishes and pairing something like shoes with sexual behavior and the object will cause sexual arousal ○ An association with something causing a reaction Operant conditioning ○ Environmental factor comes after the behaviour ○ Person is more likely to repeat a behaviour if it gets rewarded ○ Less likely to repeat a behavior if it is punished ○ BF skinner testing rats inside a box with a lever on the wall and if it presses it, he fets a food pellet and a light turns on, so it starts to learn that he wil get food when the light turns on ○ The rat through experience presses the lever to get a reward ○ May learn when the light is offf, the floor may get electrified and hurt its paws ○ So if you press lever when light is off, you get punished, so knows to press it only when the light is on ○ Rewards and punishments are most effective in certain environments when it comes immediately For example, an STI is not immediate but gratification after sex is which is why they still may engage in unprotected sex next time because immediate gratification may override the delayed punishment Behavior therapy ○ Aversion therapy Pairing an aversive stimulus with a problematic beahvoir so next time they think about engaging in it, they would think of the nauseating smell and cause them to avoid engaging in the behaviour again ○ Techniques to change their behaivor ○ Based on classical and operant conditioning ○ Behaviors can be learned or unlearned Social learning ○ We don’t have to actually engage in a behaviour for us to engage in operant conditioning ○ We can observe someone else and experience the conseuqnence and that will cause us to be less likely to engage in this behavior ○ If we see someone else gets rewarded, we will want to engage to experience the same reward ○ Can learn new behaviors from observing other people that we may not know how to do yet  ○ Based on operant conditioning and imitation ○ Like imitating your mother doing makeup and observing and trying to do the same ○ Identification, more you identify with target, more likely learning is going to occur Someone you’re close to or similar to Will be more impactful Psychological theories: cognitive theories What we think influences what we feel ○ Psychological distress ○ perception/ appraisal of sexual event Gender schema: attributes that we associate with males and females ○ Mental framework ○ Organizing information we already have ○ Incorporating known information to create new information ○ Now there is also Certain schema that also applies to trans that don;t fit male or female ○ People over the last few years had to have their schema go under huge revisions since people fit outside of these categories or maybe there is no category and its a continuum or many dimensions ○ Schemas come from society and experience and can be difficult to change ○ A tool Researches have developed to study the impact of schemas on our thinking is who said what paradigm Interested in how did you get it wrong- are you more likely to attribute a statement to male or female when you get it wrong, like mistaking a females statement with the same gender or different gender and how much you are using gender schemas to answer Application: sexual variations Fetishism: recurrent, intense sexual urges and fantasies involving an inanimate object or a body part USE AS A BASIS FOR ONLINE DISCUSSION (54 MIN) ○ Evolutionary ○ Psychodynamic ○ Conditioning ○ Cognitive Extradyadic sex: engaging in sexual activity such as cheating with someone other than one’s partner (a dyad is a pair) ○ Evolutionary ○ Psychodynamic ○ Conditioning ○ Cognitive Sociological perspectives: social institutions Our sexuality is influenced by powerful social institutions  ○ Different societies view sexual behaviors differently ○ Religion ○ Economy ○ Family ○ Medicine ○ Law ○ Media ○ These all dictate certain beliefs and what is considered normal Medicalization of sex: Female hysteria Turning a completely normal experience into a medical condition Example: female hysteria which was an incorrectly diagnosed medical condition that is not currently acknowledge Victorian area Symptoms included ○ Faintness ○ Nervousness ○ Insomnia ○ Fluid retention ○ Heaviness in the abdomen ○ Muscle spasms ○ Shortness of breath ○ Irritability ○ Loss of appetite for food or sex ○ Tendency to cause trouble Essentially, if a women went to a doctor and there was no obvious physical trauma then there is a good chance she’d be diagnosed with female hysteria The treatment was pelvic massage which is manual stimulation of the women’s genitals by the doctor to the point of hysterical paroxysm (an orgasm) A more efficient way was invented which was the personal massager (vibrator) ○ Shortened possible hours of treatment to just minutes and removed any need from the doctor and in turn allowed doctors to see more women per day and administer more treatments Diagnosis of this condition peaked in the 1890s and early 1900s and the quickly dropped after that, coinciding with when personal massagers became available to the public and when people realize how this condition was just nonsense and not medically valid Sociological perspectives: sexual scripts A script is a socially defined expectation for how an encounter is supposed to play out just like a script for a play Refers to how we are expected to carry out those encounters in our daily lives ○ Just like how a male is generally the one expected to make the first move Teach us the meaning of various behaviors  Teach us the etiquette of sexual behavior Help us how to interpret specific situations Very heteronormative: guy asks the girl and she decides yes or no- but this applies less now more than it ever has and this is because scripts change overtime These scripts are valuable because they allow us to speak a common language and get along and share an understanding of a situation Pizza is better metaphor because people together can decide if they want to eat pizza and what that pizza will look like instead of looking at it like scoring a goal Application: women raise children, men work Sociobiologist ○ Natural and sexual selection Psychologist ○ Psychodynamic, conditioning, schemas Sociologist ○ Societal influences on sexual expression Summary- Theories Theories help explain phenomena in the real world ○ Like women are caregivers and use as a basis for research and see if it it something we can have faith in when trying to explain it or do we find something that contradicts it There is no one size fits all explanation for sexual behavior ○ Multiple perspectives contribute to our understanding ○ Not one theory that will fully explain everything ○ We need multiple perspectives to explain even if they are competing theories because they have informative value to add ○ Competing theories against each other and see under what circumstances they stand better in- one does not have to be superior to the other Theories change over time as science progresses ○ It is designed to be changeable as we gain more knowledge Chapter 3: sex research Open minded skepticism Be skeptical ○ Everyone has bias ○ Make sure you are careful of what you think is true when reading ○ Do your own research, but not just to believe what you want ○ Look for actual data Examine definitions of terms ○ Some statements are true when defined one way but not another  ○ Like love is blind- can be true or not but depends on how you define the word love, is it infatuation or is it in terms of a long lasting relationship Examine assumptions / premises ○ Like abortion is murder- murder is defined of one human being killing another so one argument is dating a fetus is a human being another argument saying an embryo is just a clump of cells ○ Until you recognize the premises, two people can have 2 different valid arguments Be cautious in drawing conclusions ○ Ex. a statement saying 2 people who lived together before getting married are more likely to get a divorce first than those who did not ○ But you have to think that the people who cohabit before marriage or not are 2 different populations and groups of people who have different characteristics before that anyways, so there are many factors leading to this Consider alternative interpretations ○ People are different to begin with, causing them to cohabit or not, causing them to be more or less likely to divorce which means that this is not the cause of divorce, it's the type of people Consider the evidence provided ○ Some are based on personal claims, not actual research Don’t overgeneralize ○ A statement says gay males engage in less safe sex than straight males; finding may be limited to a very specific and limited population/ sample that was studied, and may not apply to the greater population outside the study ○ Don’t apply things to a whole group doesn’t actually apply to the whole population Conduction a research study Always start with question ○ What are you studying ○ Why is it important Sampling ○ Random sample ○ Convenience sample ○ Refusal; volunteer bias ○ Is sex research biased? Are sex research participants a special group ○ Saunders et al. (1985) Responses to erotica vs. personality inventory Posted on a board if wanted to participate, but the studies had the exact same question, just wanted to see the demographic for who would sign up for what study Collected info on demographics, personality, sexual attitudes, sexual experiences No differences in terms of demographics or personality factors Women were more open to it, what explains these differences  People who signed up for the erotica study reported having more sexual experience and more positive attitudes towards sexuality More likely to talk about sex in a sex study instead of personality study where they might feel ashamed Interviews vs. questionnaires Interviews ○ Establish rapport= honesty? ○ Convince person importance of study and their responses and directly tell them ○ More costly, have to train people and lots of resources Questionnaires ○ Anonymity = honesty? ○ Efficient and cheap and easy and quick Advantages disadvantages Self reports vs direct observations Direct observations ○ More accurate than self reports Self report ○ reliability/ validity issues Ethical issues in sex research Respect for human dignity Free and informed consent ○ Under 18 cannot provide consent Protection from harm ○ Can cause psychological damage like if bringing up a traumatic event ○ Need to protect their identity and sensitive information Balancing harms and benefits ○ In order to do the research, there my be potential harm like bringing up a traumatic event like sexual violence so you need to see if there are any benefits to this study and if it is justified which is why informed consent is important so they clearly know what they are getting themselves into Statstical concepts to analyze data found Average ○ Mean ○ Median ○ Mode ○ Not gonna give us the full picture necessarily Variability ○ Range  ○ How much do scores vary ○ Spread or dispersion Incidence versus frequency ○ Frequency: how often does it occur ○ Prevalence: how many people do it ○ Cumulative incidence: how many people have done it before a certain age Correlation ○ Measure of the relation between two variables Types of sex research Case studies ○ Good for like rare diseases and understanding a certain case and how it can be applied to others ○ Can discover something interesting to test Large scale sex surveys ○ The kinsey report (1940s) Encourages people to answer like instead of saying do you masturbate, where they would be likely to say no, he would ask at what age did you start masturbating ○ Studied american’s sexual behavior ○ Asking if 2 phenomena are related/ is there a correlation ○ If they are related, can be followed with an experiment ○ Survey allows us to collect a large amount of information ○ Is very efficient ○ Can use questionnaires (usually) but can also include interviews Lab studies using direct observations of sexual behavior ○ Masters and johnson (1950s) Studied the physiology of sexual response Can’t ask people about blood flow and muscle tension, so they used direct observations to measure what happens inside of our bodies when experiencing sexual arousal and orgasm Hooked people up with electrodes and measured the bodily processes Sampling was not random, but this is irrelevant since for the most part, peoples physiology is all the same ○ Overcomes the problems of things like purposeful distortion Lying Providing inaccurate information Inability to properly recall information Difficulty estimating certain aspects of behavior Participant observer research ○ Laud humphreys (1970) spied on men having sex in public bathrooms Is this ethical? Could it have been done in different ways Do the ends justify the means?  ○ Can help with understanding culture and seeing it through their lens and their experience Experimental sex research ○ Experiment: manipulate one factor while holding other factors constant ○ Need to randomly assign people to groups ○ Experimental design Independent variables: manipulated Dependent variables: measured Control: held constant? ○ Cannot do a causal research without doing an experiment ○ Donnerstein (1981) Does exposure to violent porn increase men’s aggression against women? Men angered (or not) by female confederate Viewed: violent porn, nonviolent porn, or no porn Administered shocks to female learner Compared to others groups, the group of men who viewed violent pornography and were angered by a female confederate administered more chocks to the female in a learning task They concluded that violent porn increases men’s aggression towards women Study design is influenced by The nature of the hypothesis Practical constraints choices of the researcher Chapter 9: sexual arousal The brain, spinal cord, and sex The brain is the biggest sex organ Limbic system (very big component) ○ Not very well understood except that it is the connection between neuroscience of sexuality and hormones of sexuality ○ How brain influences the body Sympathetic nervous system (autonomic) ○ Orgasm, ejaculation ○ Released of bodily energy from stored reserves like flight or response ○ Close association between anxiety and pre ejaculaiton ○ Also responsible for keeping penis unaroused Parasympathetic nervous system (autonomic) ○ Erection and movement of blood flow to genitals since its relaxing the blood vessels which allows the blood to flow through  ○ Brings elevated resources backed down to a normal relaxed state ○ Restoration Erection reflex center Sometimes brain isn’t even involved Located at base of spine If someone were to have their spine severed like in an accident, they may have 0 communication between brain and genitals but If genitals were still attached to erection reflex center, they may still be able to get an erection Hormones and sex Organizing effects ○ Permanent change in the brain or reproductive system ○ What you see during prenatal development and will see if testosterone is going to be in large amounts depending on if there is a y chromosome so continue to male trajectory ○ Puberty as well like surge in testosterone resulting in masculating effects ○ Females experience surge in female sex hormones like estrogen ○ Many physiological changes in bodies during this time and development of secondary sex characteristics Activating effects ○ Activation of behaviours ○ Happens in the moment ○ If someone has a high level of testosterone, they will be more likely to experience sexual desire or arousal compared to someone who has less testosterone (males and females role is same in both) ○ People with more testosterone are more likely to cheat on their partner (in the moment, driving that behavior) Pheromones Biochemicals secreted outside the body ○ Clearly influence lower animals Body emits them to the air externally vomero Effects in humans ○ Sexual attraction ? ○ Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)- we seem to be attracted to someone whos MHC is different than ours ○ Genetic compatibility way for our brains to recognize someone whos genetic makeup is a good compliment to our own ○ We may be sensitive to pheromones, we may not be Masters and johnson Names for arousal research  First people who did decent work in physiology of sexual response Similarities between men and women in terms of physiology Female response- most people didn’t believe kinseys research of multiple orgasms ○ Clitorial stimulation is almost always involved ○ Originally had 4 stages- orgasm, plateau, excitement, resolution Two basic physiological processes ○ Vasocongestion: accumulation of blood in blood vessels of a region of body (genitals) ○ Myotonia: muscle contraction or muscle tension Excitement First stage Beginnings of vasocongestion and myotonia Males and females: ○ Increase in sympathetic nervous system ○ Increased heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension ○ Erection of nipples and genitals ○ Sex flush- skin gets red Males ○ Erection ○ Testes elevate and swell Females ○ Vaginal lubrication ○ Clitoris and inner labia swell ○ Breasts enlarge What used to be called plateau, now just excitement Males ○ Penis fully erect, glans swell ○ Cowper’s gland secretions (precum) Females ○ Orgasmic platform forms- blood flow and muscle tension ○ Tightening of the vagina and thicken ○ Clitoris retracts ○ If penis closer to the end of vagina, there is more tightening there so more stimulation Orgasm In males and females, there are sharp increases in pulse rate, blood pressure and breathing rate Release of tension built up throughout excitement stage Males ○ Series of rhythmic pelvic contractions at 0.8s intervals  ○ 2 stages of muscle contractions Females ○ Orgasmic platform contractions ○ Uterine contractions ○ Clitoral vs. vaginal orgasm? Clitoris is involved in every orgasm and is very large shaped like a wishbone with 2 large arms around opening of labia Any tension at the opening, if if not directly stimulating the clitotirs it is still stimulated Freud suggested clitorial orgasms were immature sincechildren can masturbate and vaginal was mature Resolution Gradual return of pulse rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate to the unaroused levels due to parasympathetic nervous system ○ penis , clitoris, breasts, and nipples return to normal size ○ Takes about 15-30 minutes ○ Lasts longer if a person did not have an orgasm Refractory period: time during which men are incapable of being aroused, having an erection, or having an orgasm ○ So that orgasm tends to be the end of the process Chronic pelvic congestion, blue balls ○ If you do not have an orgasm ○ Tension and discomfort from having sexual arousal without orgasm to resolve everything and go back to normal state ○ Many sex workers report chronic pelvic congestion since lots of sex, not lots of orgasms Multiple orgasm especially for women with continued stimulation ○ Possible for some men as well Criticisms of the physiological model No psychology involved- Ignores the emotional and cognitive aspects of sexual response Omits subjective qualities of arousal and orgasm Cognitive physiological models Kaplan’s triphasic model: ○ Sexual desire- excitement- orgasm (last 2 in the physiological phase, desire in the psychological phase ○ Vasocongestion ○ Muscular contractions Basson’s intimacy model  Desire isn’t always the first stage since some people don’t experience desire until the physiological stage Emotional intimacy Sexual neutrality Sexual stimuli Sexual arousal Sexual desire and arousal Emotional and physical satisfaction Model comparisons Studied at western Sample of young women read description of models Women with higher score on the scale were more likely to enforce bassons model Behavior of sexual response: techniques of arousal To maximize her pleasure: Women on top (cowgirl) ○ Advantageous for women Control, clitoral stimulation, hands are free She can control depth and stimulation Can lean forward and grin clitoris on partners abdomen Can lean back and get less stimulation ○ Less stimulating for men May delay orgasm, prolong intercourse Cause penetration is deeper which is less stimulating for them Two women: ○ Kissing, caressing, manual stimulation like fingering and cunnilingus (oral sex) ○ Tribasism: women rub genitals together ○ Fisting, dildos, vibrators To reach orgasm (female) Many women have never had an orgasm 70% have had difficulty Takes longer for women compared to men masturbate/ clitorial stimulation Get to know your own body Talk to your partner Don’t fake it To maximize his pleasure Man on top: missionary position (most common) ○ Advantages Facing each other- eye contact, kissing, can be more intimate  Male stimulation He can control depth and rate ○ Disadvantages Less control for women but her hands are free which could stimulate her clitoris Pregnancy, obesity MSM (men who have sex with men) ○ kissing , caressing, fellatio, mutual masturbation, anal sex ○ Fisting, toys ○ Interfemoral intercourse ○ Buttockry To prolong intercourse Women on top Side by side Spooning or facing each other- extends because it is less stimulating Advantages ○ Extend intercourse, hands are free, eye contact, kissing Disadvantages ○ Difficulties with penetration, keep momentum To delay orgasm (male) Premature ejaculation- inability to control/ delay ejaculation Stop-start technique (goes to where they feel like they will reach an orgasm and then they stop) Squeeze technique To try anal intercourse Anal sphincter needs to be relaxed Better to lay on your back Some people may preger on top ○ More control over depth and speed Missionary may be best for comfort and ease ○ Easier to relax muscles If overweight/ pregnany Rear entry (doggy style) Advantages ○ Very stimulating for both partners ○ Inserting partners hands are free to stimulate receiving partner Disadvantages ○ Less personal and intimate, cannot look in eyes, no kissing ○ For receiving partner, less clitoral stimulation/ no penile stimulation (unless manually) For virgins who still want to have fun Oral sex Cunnilingus: oral sex on vulva Fellatio: oral sex on a penis 69: mutual oral sex Anilingus: oral stimulation of the anus ○ Rimming ○ Hygeine Manual sex ○ Mutual masturbation ○ Safer sex: bodily fluids are not exchanged If you have no partner Masturbation ○ In past, feared as a cause of mental and physical problems Largest gender difference in sexual behavior is in masturbation frequency ○ Men do it 3 times more than women Part of healthy sexuality ○ Decrease tension and anxiety ○ Outlet for sexual fantasy ○ Get to know your own body To overcome sexual boredom Communicate Rejuvenate other aspects of relationship Sex manuals for ideas or inspiration Reject stereotypes assumptions ○ Ex. the man's role and the women’s role Dont expect too much from sex Chapter 13: Gender and sexuality Defining gender John money (1987): 8 variables of gender ○ Chromosomal gender ○ Gonadal gender ○ Prenatal hormonal gender ○ Internal accessory organs ○ External genital appearance ○ Pubertal hormonal gender Testosterone surge in puberty  ○ Assigned gender ○ Gender identity Redefining gender Male Female Two-spirit Transgender: crosses traditional description of gender Transsexual: changes sex Intersex genderqueer Defining gender Criticism of the traditional approaches: ○ Dichotomy (masculine vs. feminine) ○ Sex typing: thought processes that split the world into male and female categories Sandra Bem ○ Masculinity and femininity should be viewed separately ○ Androgyny ○ Both masculine and feminine traits ○ May be capable of summoning a wider range of masculine and feminine traits to meet the demands of various situations ○ Gender stereotypes are limiting ○ Androgynous men and women tend to have: Greater comfort with their sexuality Broader repertoire of sexual behaviours Higher self esteem Gender roles and stereotypes Gender roles: set of norms (culturally defined expectations) that define how people of one gender ought to behave Most of what we know is limited to cisgender males and females so there is less information on people who are trans or androgynous Gender stereotypes: assumptions and social expectations regarding how men and women are supposed to be or behave Stereotype threat Shih, pittinsky and ambady (1999) Asian american female participants IV: primed ethnicity or gender ○ What are our steorotypes regarding asian people or regarding women? DV: math performance Gender stereotypes 4 broad cateogoreis of gender sterotypes ○ Personality traits ○ Role behaviours ○ Occupations ○ Appearance Stereotypes are strong and pervasive Bem: both adults and children will modify their memories to better fit pre-existing gender schemas Broverman (1972) ○ Masculine traits rated as more desirable However: ○ There is more overlap than difference ○ The more we learn about a person, the less important are gender stereotypes Gender differences Personality Health Intelligence Communication Love Sexuality The tradition sex script (TSS): ○ Sexual desire ○ Sexual experience ○ Sexual knowledge ○ Sexual initiation ○ Sexual limits ○ Meaning of sex Beyond TSS: ○ Orgasm consistency ○ Masturbation ○ Motivation for sex ○ Attitudes about casual sex Clark and hatfield (1989) Go up to men and women on campus randomly and say “so i’ve been noticing you around campus and i find you very attractive and ask one of 2 questions: Would you go out with me tonight Would you go to bed with me tonight Go on a date: 50% chance of saying yes Have sex; 75% of men say yes, 0% of women say yes ○ Arousal to erotica (porn)  Men and women respond similarly, but there are differences in self report data ○ Peak of sexuality Gender theories Brain differences Hormones Anatomy Evolution Socialization Gender is a construct ○ Our understanding of gender continues to change Gender differences are typically small ○ More cultural than biological ○ Far greater variation within gender groups than there is between gender groups Chapter 12: Attraction, love, and communication Psychological variables Similarities ○ Birds of a feather is more true than opposites attract ○ Homophily (similarity of social characteristics such as race, religion, etc.) ○ Reciprocity: if someone is nice to you, you are likely to be nice again which increases attraction ○ Complementary personalities ○ Personality types is when opposites attract may come into play like submissive partner being able to rely on dominant partner Physical attractiveness ○ Universal constant that varies (every culture and gender looks at attractiveness the same) ○ Good skin and teeth, clear eyes ○ Cleanliness, good hair, firm muscle tone, steady gait ○ Variability in terms of what qualifies as good hair for example ○ May have played a role in reproductive potential and good genes ○ Men more attracted to youthfulness (linked to reproductive success, his ability to provide for a woman that bears children) ○ Women are more attracted to stability factors ○ In general, we all tend to be more attracted to physically attractive people (they seem to be happier, healthier, smarter, etc.) ○ Halo effect (attractive people are viewed more positively) ○ Attractiveness ranking  My own, my partners (partners tend to be given the same ranking by other people but people rank their own partners more attractive than themselves ○ Most important in the early stages of a relationship Proximity ○ Mere exposure effect ○ More attracted to people you see more often ○ Important to get out there and be seen if you want to find a partner ○ People are more likely to like someone who is next door to them than someone who is 4 doors down Playing hard to get? ○ Only works in specific circumstances (research shows there is no difference) ○ Always hard/ easy to get: no difference ○ Selectively hard to get: more attractive Acts hard to get except for one guy for example and he will find her more attractive ○ Gender differences? Somewhat strange attraction factors ○ Surroundings (more pleasant surroundings means more attractive) ○ Names (common names in their own generation were perceived as more attractive) ○ Breast size (culture specific, north america emphasizes it) Biological variables Pheromones? ○ Animals more driven by biology than humans Physiological arousal ○ Two factor theory of motion ○ Misattribution of arousal ○ Passionate love ○ Experiment, gave them adrenaline, told them it was a vitamin and they filled out a survey in a waiting room and there was a confederate that was either angry or excited so they wanted to see if participants would adopt the feelings of the confederate in their survey and they did, and they would misattribute their arousal to that cause they didn’t know where it was coming from (misattribution of arousal) ○ Could fear be misattributed for arousal ○ People on a suspension bridge: more likely to contact female researcher and more arousal involved ○ Roller coasters, horror movies, etc Models of love Attachment theory of love ○ Attachment between infant and caregiver forms basis for later attachments in adulthood and development in later relationships ○ Apparently there is no relationship between later attachment style and divorce/ parent death ○ These attachment styles are not carved in stone ○ Secure lovers (50%) Loving, caring caregivers Can trust others around them Positive view of themselves and others Comfortable with others Don’t catastrophize When jealousy occurs, will express their feelings and relationship wont be affected Realistic views of relationships Mutual dependency ○ Preoccupied lovers (10%) (anxious) Positive view of others and negative view of themselves Avoid intimacy Worried partner will leave them because they feel unworthy Relationship with caregiver was inconsistent Desperate clinging quality Can drive partner away due to need for constant reassurance When jealousy occurs, will feel anger more intensely but less likely to communicate because of fear of rejection ○ Dismissing lovers (20%) Positive view of themselves, negative view of others Dismissive Avoids intimacy as a form of self protection Positive of themselves so can maintain independence and autonomy When jealousy occurs, they are less likely to express their feelings and more likely to leave the relationship ○ Fearful lovers (20%) Negative view of others and themselves Usually did not have caregivers they could count on so they don’t feel comfortable in a relationship Hard time getting close cause of fear of getting hurt and may feel incapable of intimacy Avoidant lovers They are not comfortable with Mutual dependency because they anticipate rejection Have same needs as others so they are often unhappy cause they cannot trust  When there is jealousy, they would rather direct their anger towards the third party instead of dealing with their partner Sternberg’s triangular theory of love ○ Intimacy Feelings of closeness and connectedness in a loving relationship Mutual understanding Intimate communication Acceptance Emotional component Grows steadily in early stages then levels off Major component in all relationships ○ Passion Drives that lead to romance Physical attraction Sexual interaction Motivational component Develops quickly in relationships then typically levels off fairly early High degree of physiological arousal Intense desire to be united with your loved one Love at first site ○ Commitment/ decision Cognitive component Decision that you love one another and want to be together (in the short run) In the long run, it is that you want to maintain that commitment and stay together increases gradually early on, then rapidly as the relationship develops High level of commitment is characterized by a parent to their child relationship ○ Consummate love: All three of love intimacy, passion, and commitment Difficult but not impossible ○ Liking: intimacy alone Likely a friendship ○ Companionate love: intimacy and commitment Long term friendship Developed in marriage after passion has died down Happily married couples may longer have that passion that was there at the beginning ○ Empty love: only decision/ commitment May see in a couple whos been married for like 25 years ○ Fatuous love: passion and commitment Whirlwind romance They meet, 2 weeks later they;re in love and married Commitment is made based on passion  ○ Infatuation: only passion Love at first sight High degree of physiological arousal and really want to be around that person ○ Romantic love: intimacy and passion Can develop out of infatuation Romeo and juliet Liking with the physical arousal but no commitment Love styles (6) ○ Romantic love My lover and i were attracted to each other immediately men ○ Game playing love I keep my lover up in the air about my commitment I get over affairs easily men ○ Friendship love women ○ Pragmatic/ logical love I consider a lover’s potential in life before committing myself women ○ possessive/ excited love When my lover ignrores me i get sick all over women ○ Selfless love My lover’s needs and wishes are more important than my own Both men and women Communication When men and women agree, it is only in their conclusions; their reasons are always different Better communicators are happier couples Better sexual communicators have better sex lives How men and women communicate Conversations with the opposite gender are typically harder than with same-gender groups Genderlects: fundamental differences in how men and women communicate ○ Men see a the world as hierarchy ○ Women see the world as network of interactions and their goal is to form connections ○ Men use report talk: exchange of information and knowledge ○ Women use rapport-talk: establish a relationship or connection Women tend to soften opinionated statements with:  ○ Tag questions It’s really cold, isn’t it?- welcomes agreement or disagreement ○ Disclaimers I may be wrong but… ○ Question statements ○ Hedge words It seems… More conversation results in higher satisfaction for women Two categories of communication skills: ○ Affective: comforting, listening ○ Instrumental: persuasive, narrative Communication in relationships Onion theory ○ Self disclosure progresses in layers ○ Take of layers and share more personal layers ○ First is like what program, any signals, non-intimate ○ As time goes on, less superficial and more personal and intimate things ○ Do this one layer at a time ○ If said too much at first, may make other person uncomfortable Gottman’s magic ratio: 5:1 ○ How well a couple communicates can alter their happiness ○ For every 1 negative comment, there should be 5 positive ones ○ Cause or effect? ○ Markman (1981) longitudinal study Destructive communication patterns (gottman, 1994) ○ Criticism Verbally attacking partner ○ Contempt Insulting the person Intention to hurt them ○ Defensiveness Denying responsibility Protect yourself instead of hearing what your partner has to say ○ Withdrawal Ignore your partner Sexual communication What makes sexual communication so difficult ○ Poor socialization to talk about sex ○ We are not taught to talk about sex ○ We learn early on to not talk about sex ○ No good common terminology Some too clinical, some sound too gross and like talking down on  ○ Worry about partner reaction ○ Myth of perfect love It’s like we expect our partner is a mind reader ○ Poor feedback Getting started ○ Pick the right time and place to talk ○ Put partner on notice ○ Visual aids Communication skills: sending ○ Leveling: coming clean, say what is on your mind ○ Editing: don’t want to be completely critical, edit language a bit so you’re not attacking the other person ○ Avoid mized messages and be clear ○ Balance positive and negative (5:1) ○ Use I statements instead of you statements Communication skills: receiving ○ Active listening ○ Provide feedback (paraphrasing) ○ Acknowledge the effort ○ Temper defensiveness ○ Validate other’s position Helping partners talk about sex: ○ Clarifying questions ○ Self-disclosures ○ Requesting feedback ○ Permission to talk about sex Chapter 14: sexual orientation and identity Sexual orientation A person’s erotic and emotional orientation toward members of their own gender or members of another gender ○ Arousal, attraction, love, fantasy, behaviour Heterosexual ○ Opposite sex Homosexual ○ Same sex Bisexual Asexual ○ Individuals who do not experience sexual attraction to anyone ○ No sexual arousal to partners ○ Can still have emotional attachment but and want relationships but no sexual arousal Is bisexuality just a phase? Advantages, more variety Some controversy ○ It is not real, people who claim to be bisexual are either straight or gay, so called biosexuals are either fence sitters or still in the process of accepting their homosexuality Come out later Bisexual men will have same sex experiences then later on have opposite sex Bisexual women tend to have opposite sex experiences first Sexual identity vs sexual behaviour Identity is subjective Behaviour is objective and like can be quantifiable Sexual identity evolves throughout someones life Sometimes there is contradictions between identity and behavior like on the down low seen lots in African americans How many people are gay, lesbian, bi, or straight Kinsey: ○ 37% of males and 13% of females had at least one homosexual experience to orgasm in adulthood ○ 10% incidence of homosexuality ○ He didn’t use random sampling so these numbers are not generalisable to general population Depends on how you define homosexual and heterosexual Sexual identity (NHSLS) ○ Heterosexual 96.9% 98.6% ○ Bisexual 0.8% 0.5% ○ Homosexual Men: 2% Women: 0.9% Sexual behaviour ○ Same sex only last year Men: 2% Women: 1% ○ Both male and female last year Men: 0.7% Women: 0.3% ○ Same sex only since 18 Men: 0.9%  0.4% ○ Both male and female since 18 Men: 4% Women: 3.7% Sexual attraction ○ Only opposite gender Men: 93.8% Women: 95.6% ○ Mostly opposite gender Men: 2.6% Women: 2.7% ○ Both Men: 0.6% Women: 0.8% ○ Mostly same gender Men: 0.7% Women: 0.6% ○ Only same gender Men: 2.4% Women: 0.3% About 90% of men and women identify as exclusive heterosexual About 10% of men and women have had at least one same-sex sexual experience in adulthood About 2% of men and 1% of women identify as exclusively homosexual 3 ways of conceptualizing sexuality 1: the typology ○ Heterosexual ○ Homosexual ○ Categories have labels (these 2) ○ Too simplistic 2: kinsey’s continuum ○ Sexual orientation is continuum not dichotomy ○ There is a scale where you can identify yourself ○ Look at people’s behaviors not their identity ○ Some people think this is too simple 3: two dimensional scheme (storms, 1980) ○ Homoerotocusm ○ Heteroeroticicism Coming out to self and others Positive coming out experiences related to: ○ Higher self concepts  ○ Lower depression rates ○ Healthier psychological adjustments Families also have a coming out process Parental rejection ○ More loneliness, depression, isolation, suidice, homelessness, prostitution 6 stages of identity development ○ Identity confusion ○ Identity comparison ○ Identity tolerance ○ Identity acceptance ○ Identity pride ○ Identity synthesis ○ This model was developed in the 1970s Sexual orientation and mental health Homosexuality as a sin or heresy Homosexuality as a sickness or illness ○ Homosexuality was classified a DSM mental illness until 1973 Clinical studies ○ Therapy patients, case studies ○ Homosexuals found to be sick, abnormal, poorly adjusted ○ Circular: homosexuals assumed to be mentally ill, found evidence to support this Studied with control groups ○ Studied if homosexuals have more psychological problems than heterosexuals ○ Studied Homsexuals in therapy and heterosexuals who were not in therapy ○ They found more adjustment problems in homosexuals Non-patient research (not in therapy) ○ No differences between groups ○ Gays and lesbians are as well adjusted as heterosexuals ○ APA removed homosexuality from DSM list of disorders in 1973 More recent research ○ Random samples of general population ○ Gays and lesbians are less well adjusted than heterosexuals ○ They have more psychological problems Can sexual orientation be changed by psychotherapy Sexual dissatisfaction ○ M and J’s term for the discontent of gays and lesbians who seek therapy to become heterosexual Conversion therapy ○ Treatments designed to turn LGBs into heterosexuals ○ 10% success rate ○ They looked at people who were motivated to change What determines sexual orientation Learning theories ○ Rewards and punishments Interactionist theory ○ The exotic becomes erotic Sociological theory ○ Labeling creates homosexuality Biological variables- childhood temperaments- sex typical/ atypical activity and playmate preferences- feeling different from opposite sex- non specific autonomic arousal to opposite sex- erotic/ romantic attraction to opposite sex Biological theories ○ Genetics (twin and adopted studies) ○ Prenatal factors (birth order, 2D:4D, handedness) ○ Brain differences ○ Hormonal factors Homosexuality in other cultures Latin american countries ○ masculinity/ femininity, not homosexuality (the role you take in the relationship) ○ Not homsexual if taking the active, penetrating role Arab countries ○ Sex is based on power and dominance ○ Male homosexuality is taboo ○ Interactions typically limited to sex Chapter 18: sexual disorders and sex therapy Sexual disorders Sexual disorders are a problem with sexual response that causes a person mental distress ○ Ex. sexual dysfunction, preejaculation ○ Experiences fall on a continuum ○ Affects everyone differently Lifelong vs acquired ○ Lifelong (primary): person has always had it ○ Acquired (secondary): has come up recently, has not always been the case Generalized vs situational ○ Generalized: occurs in all situations, regardless of context ○ Situational: happens in some situations, but not all Kinds of sexual disorders Kaplan’s mode of sexual response ○ Sexual desire Psychological component  Lack of sex drive ○ excitement/ arousal Vasoconstriction, blood flow ○ Orgasm Muscle contraction Premature ejacutlation Disorders can be influenced by medical disorders, drugs, relationship issues, anxiety, interpersonal factors, people involved Desire ○ Men: male hypoactive sexual desire disorder ○ Women: female sexual interest/ arousal disorder excitement/ arousal ○ Men: erectile disorder ○ Women: female sexual interest or arousal disorder Orgasm: ○ Men: Premature ejaculation, male orgasmic disorder ○ Women: female orgasmic disorder Pain ○ Women: genito-pelvic pain/ penetration disorder Male hypoactive sexual disorder (HSDD) Lack of interest in sexual activity Person may avoid situations that will evoke sexual feelings If in a sexual situation, may experience rapid turn off About 16% of men There is a problem with the definition ○ Normal for arousal to be inhibited sometimes ○ Subjective ○ Discrepancy of sexual desire and partners have considerably different levels of sexual desire Erectile disorder Inability to have an erection or maintain one Most common sexual disorder among men seeking therapy About 10% of men in the last 12 months Lifelong: never had an erection sufficient to have intercourse Acquired: previously able to have erections, but now no longer Physical causes ○ About 50% organic factors or combination of organic and other factors such as disease ○ Conditions with circulatory system a lot of the time since it is to do with blood flow ○ Sometimes spinal injuries can cause it Psychological factors ○ Up to 50%  ○ Interplay ○ Severe stress ○ Fatigue Female sexual interest/ arousal disorder Lack of response to sexual stimulation Interplay of physical and psychological factors ○ Subjective sense of not feeling aroused ○ Problems with vaginal lubrication Especially during and after menopause since estrogen levels decline Artificial lubricants Premature ejaculation Man ejaculates too soon and feels he cannot control when he ejaculated Problem with definition since it has negative connotations ○ Also, what is considered too soon, may be different for everyone ○ M and J says inability to delay ejaculation for women to have an orgasm less than 50% of the time Can even occur before penetration Common problem for men ○ Grenier and byers (2001): 24% of men have a problem 59% of men have concerns about PE ○ Few men seek therapy Causes: ○ Psychological rather than physical factors ○ Acquired disorder such as prostatitis ○ Sociobiological explanation Survival of the fastest An adapted mechanism Male orgasmic disorder Male cannot have an orgasm even though he is highly aroused and has a sufficient erection Can range in severity and frequency (like from occasional to never able to orgasm Situational MOD ○ For example, orgasm by hand or mouth stimulation but not during intercourse Less common than premature ejaculation ○ About 8% of men in the last 12 months Causes of MOD: ○ Physical factors such as multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, prostate surgery ○ Psychological factors are more common ○ More common in older men Female orgasmic disorder Inability to have an orgasm ○ Lifelong vs acquired ○ Situational vs generalized Fairly common among women ○ 21% of canadian women ○ More common in younger women ○ 25-35% of cases of women seeking sex therapy When is this considered a disorder? ○ Role of invididvual perception ○ Level of distress ○ High expectations may lead to the perception of having problems Causes of FOD ○ Poor health or extreme fatigue ○ Psychological factors Anxiety Genito-pelvic pain/ penetration disorder Pain experienced during intercourse ○ In the vagina, around the vaginal entrance and the clitoris, and deep in the pelvic ○ Dysparenunia and vaginismus ○ Can lead to avoidance of sex or intimacy since can be extremely painful and uncomfortable About 14% of women and 2% of men Organic factors ○ Disorders of the vaginal entrance ○ Disorders of the vagina Scaring, infection, ○ Pelvic disorders Tumors, cysts, Psychological factors Other causes of sexual disorders Physical causes ○ Drugs ○ Alcohol Effects vary Chronic alcohol abuse (erectile disorder, loss of desire) Can increase arousal (only in small amounts, expectancy effects and loss of inhibition) In large amounts, physiological will override psychological since it's a depressant ○ Marijuana An aphrodisiac  Research evidence vs subjective experience (sexual interactions more pleasurable) Chronic use: lower testosterone levels and lower sperm count ○ Cocaine An aphrodisiac Initial use: increase sexual pleasure, but this is also because it increases dopamine levels in pleasure center Repeated use Dependency on it for sexual pleasure or any type of pleasure Erectile orgasmic difficulties Decreased sexual desire because will dial down dopamine in pleasure center if used too much Psychological causes ○ Anxiety ○ Predisposing factors Traumatic first sexual experience Childhood sexual abuse Negative messages about sex from parents (strict, religious) ○ Maintaining (ongoing) factors Myths and misinformation Negative attitudes (about sex, one’s body) Anxieties such as fear of failure Cognitive interference: thoughts that distract person from focusing on erotic experience (spectatoring) Individual psychological distress such as experiencing depression Failure to engage in effective, sexually stimulating behavior Failure of the partners to communicate Relationship distress Interpersonal factors ○ Relationships Therapies for sexual disorders Behavior therapies ○ Based on learning theory ○ Aims to eliminate goal oriented sexual performance (like the goal being you have to orgasm so if you don’t you view it as a failure) Decreases anxiety, fear of failure Sensate focus exercises Education (learning basic anatomy and physiology and sexual response) ○ Masters and johnson Success rate of 82% Differs across disorders Helpful for improving couples communication Cognitive-behavioral therapies  ○ Most commonly used type of therapy and most effective usually ○ Combines behavior therapy and restructuring of negative thought patterns ○ Cognitive restructuring Challenging negative attitudes Reducing cognitive interference (thoughts that may intrude when engaging in sexual therapy and focus more on erotic thoughts) Couple therapies ○ Poor communication relationship distress ○ The relationship is treated Reduces antagonism and tension between partners ○ Uses a combination of behavioral and cognitive therapy which is tailored to the specific disorder and situation of the couple Before the 1980s, it was mostly psychodynamic treatments like freudian analysis and delving into their childhood Specific treatment for specific problems The stop start technique ○ Treatment for premature ejaculation Masturbation ○ Most effective for Women with lifelong orgasmic disorder so they can learn what it takes to have an orgasm so they can communicate that Kegel exercises ○ Increases women’s sexual pleasure ○ The PC muscle that runs along the vagina Bibliotherapy ○ Self-help books, videos, internet websites Specific treatment for specific problems Sexual disorders are problems with sexual functioning that cause distress There are many physical and psychological factors that can influence sexual dysfunction ○ Predisposing, maintaining (psychological factors, trauma, negative influence from childhood, guilt from religion, current anxiety) ○ Injury, disease, drugs There are many approaches to treatment ○ What works best depends entirely on the person Chapter 16: Sexual Coercion Sexual coercion Child sexual abuse ○ Age of consent ○ Age of protection laws in canada (legal age they can give consent- 16 in Canada, 18 if the person is in an authority role like a teacher)  ○ Is not rare (10-20% of females are victims and 5-15% of males) ○ Primarily abused by men but some females are perpetrators ○ Not great data on it ○ Often not reported (only 20% of cases) ○ Often not believed ○ Often not remembered Recovered memory, false memory, repress memories, forget because they were children, unskilled therapists asking a child if something happened which is like them suggesting it and is not a good way ○ Pedophiles Primary sexual interest is in children not known to them Most are not child abusers Common characteristics Mostly male Conservative, moralistic Narrow, religious views Married, poor social skills ○ Child sexual abusers Typically not pedophiles Typically known to the victim (family, friends) Claims child seduced them, consented, couldn’t resist them Tough to treat as a group Chemical castration (CPA) antianxiety/ antidepressant medications CBT seems to work best ○ Cognitive behavioral therapy Cognitive restructuring “She really wants it” Masturbation reconditioning to adults, not children Role playing Desensitization (aversion therapy)- using unpleasant stimulus to recondition their response Stress management ○ Prevention Usually geared towards strangers, but offenders more commonly relatives/ friends Good touches vs. bad touches, telling about abuse Prevention strategies: sexual education, empowerment, strategies of abusers, how to avoid/ escape an abuser Sexual harassment ○ Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature when submission is made a term or condition of an individual’s employment or academic advanced ○ Unwelcome and coercive  ○ Unwanted remarks ○ Being denied advancement due to gender ○ Keeping a job or position by having sex ○ Sexual intimidation in a work environment ○ Rewards that are based on gender or on sexual performance with a superior ○ It is not rare At school: ⅓ of female students At work: ½ of women in past year, ¾ of women in their lifetime ○ Sociocultural theory Gender inequality and sexism Maintains gender stratification Women are to be submissive ○ Organizational theory Power and status inequalities Not gender specific ○ Sex-role spillover theory Gender based expectations Women in powerful roles ○ Biological theory Expression of sexual attraction Product of evolution ○ Prevention Acknowledge that it happens Do not condone it when you see it happen Take action if you see it happen Establish plan to deal with it before it happens Must be consequences for harassment Sexual assault ○ Criminal code of canada, before 1983 Rape: heterosexual intercourse by a man with a woman who was not his wife without her consent (or with forced/ false consent) Victim’s past was put on trial Rape had to be corroborated If not filed immediately, case was usually dismissed ○ Criminal code amended in 1983: 3 gender neurtal crimes of sexual assault: Simple assauly (98%) Sexual assault with a weapen or threats or causing bodily harm (1.5%) Aggravated sexual assualy (0.5%) In canada in 2001, about 8% of reported cases (40% of court cases) resulte din conviction Purposes: Deemphasize sexual nature of the offences  Stress the violent nature of these assaults Encourage victims to report crimes to police ○ Defined as non consensual oral, anal, or vaginal penetration, obtained by force, by threat of bodily harm, or when victim is incapable of giving consent Gender neutral Does not discriminate against married people Key is consent ○ Partner sexual assault Sexual assault of a person by her or his partner 8% of women in canada Association between nonsexual and sexual violence in long term relationships Anger becomes self blame ○ Date rape Sexual assault by an acquaintance ¼ of female university students experienced sexual coercion in past year Often in a dating situation, often a steady dating partner Misconception- no means yes Inability to read emotions Friendliness vs seductiveness Suspicious schema Ambiguous communication Date rate drugs such as rohypnol ○ Causes Victime precipitated: view that sexual assault is a result of a women asking for it Psychopathology of offender: sexual assault is committed by a psychologically disturbed person Research shows there is no difference between rapists and normal men so mental health is not an excuse Socialization: link between sex and power and teaching us that sex is a normal thing and acceptable to get a form of release for men Social disorganization: community cannot enforce its norms against crime Cultural values: can serve to support sexual assault Sexual scripts: TSS(sexual scripts) Early family influences: early sexual abuse Peer group: development of aggression Characteristics of the situation Secluded places, parties, war Miscommunication: misreading subtle cues Sex and power: men’s dominance over women Masculinity norms ○ Perpetrators Factors that predispose men to engage in sexual assault of women:  Violent home environment Delinquency Sexual predatory consent orientation Hostile masculine personality ○ Prevention Education (teach about consent) Changing attitudes that contribute to sexual assault Judiciary system Avoid high risk situations Self-defense techniques (eyes, throat, balls) Chapter 17: Sex for sale Commercial sex work Sex for money Prostitution Pornography Female sex workers Streetwalkers ○ More likely to be engaged in prostitution to fund a drug habit ○ More likelt to have a pimp ○ Charge less, more clients ○ Alomsot all money goes to someone else Independent call girls ○ More selective about clients ○ Fewer clients ○ Charges more ○ Doens’t advertise on street ○ Does not have a pimp ○ Works for herself Brothels ○ Inside location ○ More safe ○ More secure ○ Illegal in most places in north america except for nevada in-call / out-call services ○ Services provided at the sex worker’s location like her home or hotel room ○ In call is client going to her location ○ Out call is her going to client’s home Massage parlours ○ Variation on the standard prostitution ○ Not full prostituion service, more manual stimulation like a hand job Male sex workers Gigolo ○ Provides companionship and sexual gratification to women ○ Mostly older women Hustler ○ Sells sexual services to men ○ May or may not be gay themselves ○ Full time street and bar hustlers ○ Full time call boys ○ Part time hustlers ○ Sometimes doing it just for extra money, sometimes needs more money Customers Mostly female worker and male client Johns (client) ○ 50% are occasional johns ○ 50% are repeat johns (call it a hobby) ○ 50% have a spouse or regular partner Variety of motivations Dramatic decline in the past 50 years Third parties Pimp: companion master of the prostitute ○ Can be abusive Madam: a woman who manages a brothel or escort service ○ Not generally abusive Sex trafficking: recruiting, controlling, exploiting sex workers by threat/ force ○ Very violent and abusice ○ Recruiting by a guy trying to act like a boyfriend saying he can provide and over time become more controlling them exploit her for sex ○ Young women get tricked into taking a job or entering a relationship Prostitution and law Bill C-36 was introduced in 2013 making prostitution illegal for everyone except prostitutes ○ Legal for sex workers (prostitutes) ○ Illegal for customers (johns) ○ Illegal for third parties (brothel owner, personal security, pimp) Fantasy world escorts (2008-2015) ○ In 2015, OPP charged Hamad Anwar and tiffancy harvery for violating several laws Pimping Running a brothel Sex trafficking  ○ In 2020, an ontario judge ruled bill c36 unconstitutional and dropped all charges Is bill C-36 constitutional Prostitution is male violence against women, which is a serious barrier to gender equality and is incompatible with the internationally accepted principles of human rights ○ Megan walker I believe the application of these laws makes things worse for the most vulnerable people on the street but also for others in the sex industry ○ Chris atchinson Defining Pornography “ i cant define it but i know it when i see it ○ US supreme court justice potter stewart, on the distinction between erotica and pornography Pornography Erotica ○ Sexually explicit material that most people will find enjoyable and acceptable Obscenity ○ People believe it violates community standards ○ What society determines to be obscene so it will change from community to community Religious conservatives People have an inherent human desire to sin Undermines family, traditional authority, and the moral fabric of society Antipornography feminists Pornography: ○ Degrades women ○ Associates sex with violence ○ Portrays unequal power relationships Mistreatment of women in the pornography industry Anti Censorship feminists Feminist anti censorship taskforce (FACT) ○ Anti- antiporn feminists Censorship of sexual materials will lead to censorship of other things Would therefore endanger women’s rights and freedom of expression Pornography research Does it produce sexual arousal ○ Accepting = arousal ○ Offensive = negative reactions ○ Men vs women  Does it affect sexual behaviour ○ Short term increase in non novel sexual activity ○ It increases their likelihood of having sex Does it affect user’s attitudes ○ Zillman and bryant ○ More permissive attitudes about sex ○ Decreases empathy for victims of rape ○ Decreases satisfaction with partners physical appearance, sexual performance Does it affect aggression toward women ○ Donnerstein and berkowitz Violent porn Antiwoman aggression ○ Fisher and grenier Criticisms of laboratory research ○ For most of american men, porn exposure is not associated with high levels of sexual aggression Censorship Should all porn be illegal? ○ It still exists even if it is illegal like child porn Should some kinds be illegal, but not other kinds? Are there alternatives to censorship? What are other issues we need to consider? Education Linz et al, donnerstein et al ○ Effectiveness of debriefing ○ Less acceptance of myths about sexual violence, more sensitivity to victims of sexual assault ○ Prebriefinig also effective? Yes Inons-peterson et al ○ Viewed educational video or nothing ○ Then viewed porn, erotica, or neutral film ○ Main DV: rape myth acceptance scale ○ Participans viewing violent porn more accepting of rape myths (more negatively impacted), except those who viewed educational video first (not negatively impacted) Malamuth Exposure to violent porn Mediating perceptual and emotional processes ○ Euphemistic labeling: sex not violence ○ Normal perceptions- sexual agression normative ○ Consequences - minimize seriousness to victim, aggressor  ○ Responsibility attribution- increase victim blame ○ Valuation- increased positive reactions to violence ○ Emotionality- reduced negative emotional reactions to violence Resulting attitude change Isaacs and fisher Mediating perceptual and emotional processes ○ Euphemistic labeling: violence not sex ○ Normal perceptions- sexual aggression NOT normative ○ Consequences - maximize seriousness to victim, aggressor ○ Responsibility attribution- decrease victim blame ○ Valuation- decrease positive reactions to violence ○ Emotionality- increase negative emotional reactions to violence Dependent measures Rape myth acceptance (RMA) Attraction to sexual aggression (ASA) Evaluations of adult internet sites Sign up for future experiment ○ TV violence, sex on TV, violent porn 1 month follow up, made it look like a spam email, there was a counter any time someone clicked on the link ○ No one fell for it and no one clicked the link Results ○ Effects of violent porn No negative effects of viewing violent porn (very brief, only 2 minutes) ○ Effects of intervention Decreased attraction to sexual aggression Heightened sensitivity to and rejection of violent porn