Psych 2062 Week 11 Notes on Stressors and Strains PDF

Notes on Stressors and Strains Key Terms: 1. Stressors ○ Definition: Seriously disruptive events, situations, or individuals that push psychological or physical functions beyond their stability range. ○ Characteristics: Act as external or internal...

Notes on Stressors and Strains Key Terms: 1. Stressors ○ Definition: Seriously disruptive events, situations, or individuals that push psychological or physical functions beyond their stability range. ○ Characteristics: Act as external or internal triggers. Examples include tight deadlines, work anxiety, family loss, or fear of being late. ○ Stressors lead to strains. 2. Strains ○ Definition: Undesirable personal outcomes resulting from stressors. ○ Characteristics: Negative consequences for health, performance, or well-being. Examples: Physical: Upset stomach caused by tight deadlines. Behavioral: Poor communication or absenteeism due to work stress. Emotional: Crankiness or frustration from impending layoffs. The Stress Process: Stress occurs when stressors cause strains. Stress = The overall process of experiencing stressors and their resulting strains. Examples of stressors → strains: ○ Stressor: Tight deadlines → Strain: Illness or poor work quality. ○ Stressor: Anxiety over layoffs → Strain: Short temper or emotional exhaustion. Notes on Stressors in the Workplace General Stress Model (Figure 11.1): 1. Stressors (Sources of Stress): ○ Intrinsic Work Factors: Poor working conditions (e.g., low lighting, excessive noise, poorly designed office spaces). Long hours, excessive travel, and lack of control over one’s job. ○ Role Variables: Role Ambiguity: Unclear role expectations (e.g., vague instructions from a supervisor). Role Conflict: Inconsistent or conflicting role expectations from different sources.  ○ Interpersonal Relationships: Workplace conflicts or poor social dynamics. ○ Career Development: Job insecurity, lack of advancement opportunities, or stagnant career growth. 2. Coping Strategies: ○ Problem-Focused: Addressing the stressor directly (e.g., reorganizing work tasks). ○ Emotion-Focused: Managing emotional responses (e.g., practicing mindfulness). 3. Strains (Outcomes of Stress): ○ Job-Related: Low job satisfaction, ineffective performance, lack of motivation, absenteeism. ○ Emotion-Related: Emotional exhaustion, depression, irritability, reduced self-esteem. ○ Physiological: Illnesses and physiological changes (e.g., elevated blood pressure, chest pains). Theoretical Models of Stress: 1. Demand–Control Model (Robert Karasek, 1990): ○ Stress results from the combination of: Psychological demands of work (e.g., workload, time pressure). Decision latitude (control over job tasks). ○ Lack of control amplifies stress levels. ○ Excessive workload and time pressure are linked to major depressive and anxiety disorders. 2. Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007): ○ Job Demands: Elements requiring effort (e.g., physical, psychological, organizational). ○ Resources: Supportive factors that facilitate goal achievement (e.g., autonomy, tools). ○ Stress occurs when demands exceed available resources. ○ Example Study: Heavy demands predict emotional exhaustion. Resources enhance accomplishment and reduce physical symptoms. 3. Conservation of Resources (COR) Model (Hobfoll & Shirom, 2000): ○ Individuals strive to acquire and preserve resources to manage stress. ○ Stress arises when resources are lost or insufficient. ○ Key Findings: Resource loss is critical to the stress process. Limiting resource loss is essential for stress prevention and recovery. ○ Example:  Employees maintaining engagement at work can experience strains at home (e.g., work–family conflict). Applications and Implications: Interventions: ○ Enhance decision latitude and autonomy. ○ Provide clear role expectations and consistent communication. ○ Offer organizational support and resources to mitigate demands. Work-Family Balance: ○ Understand how resource expenditure at work can strain home life. ○ Address work-family conflict proactively through supportive policies. Interpersonal Relationships: Poor interpersonal relationships with supervisors or coworkers increase stress levels. Positive relationships are associated with reduced stress and better job attitudes. Stress from interpersonal conflict is not unique to work but can extend to school, neighborhood, or family contexts. Economic Stressors: Recession-Related Stressors: ○ Increased workload and job reorganization during economic downturns. ○ Linked to strains and lower job satisfaction. Work Ability: ○ Capacity to continue working under stress. ○ JD-R Model Insight: High demands (e.g., time pressure, poor conditions) reduce perceived work ability. Reduced work ability predicts increased absenteeism. Temporal Characteristics of Stressors: Stressors Over Time: ○ Stressors increasing over six months were associated with a rise in counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs). ○ CWBs showed prolonged effects, persisting beyond the stressor period.  Work Breaks and Stress Recovery: ○ Within-day breaks improve recovery from stress and reduce negative reactions. Counterproductive Work Behaviors (CWBs): Behaviors intended to harm the organization or its employees. Stressors can directly contribute to the prevalence of CWBs, particularly when they persist over time. Notes on Strains Definition Strains: The outcomes or consequences of stressful events, categorized into job-related, emotional, and physiological effects. 1. Job-Related Strains Examples: ○ Low satisfaction and motivation leading to: Low effort High absenteeism and turnover Low productivity or ineffective performance Workplace stress costs U.S. companies up to $300 billion annually (American Institute of Stress). Key Findings (Pfeffer et al.): ○ Job insecurity increases poor health by 50%. ○ Long hours raise mortality risk by ~20%. ○ High-demand jobs increase risk of physician-diagnosed illness by 35%. ○ Stress-related deaths surpass those caused by diabetes or influenza. ○ Organizational environments heavily influence employee health and performance. 2. Emotional Strains Burnout: A severe emotional strain characterized by: ○ Emotional exhaustion: Feeling overextended by work. ○ Depersonalization: Cynicism and detachment. ○ Reduced personal accomplishment: Feeling ineffective or unsuccessful.  Causes: Linked to job characteristics (e.g., workload, control, rewards, relationships, fairness, values). Outcomes: Burnout negatively affects job performance, organizational commitment, and turnover. Survey Data: ○ Many employees experience prolonged stress, fatigue, and lack of control. ○ “Showing up” often becomes the focus over performance in high-stress environments. 3. Physiological Strains Stress significantly contributes to physical illnesses, including: ○ Heart disease (causes 1 in 4 U.S. deaths annually). ○ Stroke and other chronic conditions. Costs: Heart disease alone costs U.S. companies ~$200 billion/year in healthcare, medication, and productivity losses. Biomarkers of Stress: ○ Cortisol levels and salivary alpha-amylase (AA) concentrations increase with job strain. ○ Such measures validate the link between workplace stress and physiological outcomes. Types of Stress 1. Challenge-Related Stress: ○ Causes: Time pressures, high responsibility, job overload. ○ Positive outcomes: Increased satisfaction, reduced job searching. ○ Negative outcomes: Physical strain. 2. Hindrance-Related Stress: ○ Causes: Constraints like red tape, organizational politics, job insecurity. ○ Outcomes: Reduced job satisfaction, increased turnover. 3. Dual Appraisal: ○ Some stressors (e.g., workload) can function as both challenge and hindrance stressors. ○ Hindrance stress consistently leads to negative outcomes. Key Insights 1. Definition of Mindfulness:  ○ Focusing on present experiences with nonjudgmental awareness. ○ Reduces stress by helping individuals remain grounded and aware, avoiding overreactions to stressors. 2. Role of Social Support: ○ Workplace Support: Encouragement from senior employees or peers can boost confidence and resilience in stressful situations. ○ Supervisory Support: Specific support, such as accommodating family-related challenges, can mitigate stress and reduce work–family conflict. ○ Family Support: Emotional and instrumental support from family members helps buffer work stress and improves coping capacity. 3. Integration of Coping Strategies: ○ Problem-Focused Coping: Paired with supervisory support, it effectively reduces strain and conflict (e.g., addressing work–family issues). ○ Emotion-Focused Coping: Enhanced through mindfulness and the emotional reassurance provided by social support. 4. Work–Family Interactions: ○ Family dynamics and workplace policies both influence employees' ability to manage stress. ○ Supportive family environments complement workplace efforts to reduce employee strain. Detailed Notes on Work–Family Conflict (WFC) 1. Background and Context Over the last 30-40 years, significant changes in American family structures have profoundly influenced organizational life. Employees now face increasing challenges in balancing work and family responsibilities, leading to work–family conflict (WFC). 2. Key Concepts Work–Family Conflict (WFC): Occurs when work and family demands are incompatible, negatively impacting one domain due to the other. Work–Family Enrichment: Positive spillover where attitudes and behaviors benefit both work and family domains. 3. Theoretical Models Bidirectional Nature of WFC: Work affects family and vice versa. This spillover can be either negative (conflict) or positive (enrichment). Conceptual Model (Figure 11.2): ○ Inputs: Personal and family variables (e.g., family stress, conflict). Work variables (e.g., job stress, involvement). ○ Mediators: Personal coping resources (e.g., goal-setting, resilience). Organizational coping resources (e.g., supportive supervisors). ○ Outcomes: Work-related outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, productivity). Well-being outcomes (e.g., health, family satisfaction). Spillover Effects: ○ Negative Spillover: Commuters experience stress affecting their mood and behavior at work (Hennessy, 2008). ○ Positive Spillover: Positive behaviors carry over between work and family domains, leading to enrichment (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). 4. Work Interference with Family (WIF) and Family Interference with Work (FIW) Definitions: ○ WIF: Work responsibilities disrupt family roles. ○ FIW: Family responsibilities interfere with work roles. Study on Israeli Workers (Somech & Drach-Zahavy, 2007): ○ Nontraditional women and traditional men prioritize work, and delegating family responsibilities. ○ Nontraditional men prioritize family, delegating work responsibilities. Meta-Analysis Findings (Ford et al., 2007): ○ Work Variables: Job stress and involvement increase WIF, reducing family satisfaction. ○ Family Variables: Family stress and conflict increase FIW, reducing job satisfaction. 5. Gender Differences in WFC Women’s career satisfaction is more negatively impacted by WFC than men’s (Martins et al., 2002). ○ Women: Significant negative correlation between WFC and career satisfaction (r = -0.23).  ○ Men: No significant correlation (r = -0.07). Men’s attitudes toward WFC shift with age: ○ Older men (>40): Stronger negative impact of WFC on career satisfaction (r = -0.26). ○ Reflects life reprioritization, with family becoming more central. ○ Men tend to care more about work when younger then more about family when older 6. Coping Strategies for Managing WFC Life Management Theory (Baltes & Heydens-Gahir, 2003): ○ Setting clear goals and refining strategies to achieve them. ○ Flexibility in adapting approaches reduces job stress and WFC. Boundary Management (Kreiner et al., 2009): ○ Balance between segmented (thick boundaries) and integrated (thin boundaries) domains. ○ Four tactics for managing boundaries: 1. Behavioral: Use of technology to manage tasks. 2. Temporal: Time-blocking to separate domains. 3. Physical: Creating distinct workspaces. 4. Communicative: Setting and communicating expectations. Control Over Boundaries (Kossek et al., 2012): ○ Perceived control over work-family boundaries is critical to achieving positive outcomes. ○ Whether an employee integrates or separates roles is less important than the sense of control. 7. Research Insights Cultural Contexts: ○ Peer norms and social support influence the relationship between WFC and coping behaviors (e.g., alcohol use in China, Wang et al., 2010). Commuting Stress (Hennessy, 2008): ○ Stressful morning commutes influence workplace hostility and aggression, particularly for men. 8. Implications for Practice Organizations: ○ Provide supportive policies (e.g., flexible scheduling, childcare resources).  ○ Train supervisors to offer family-related accommodations. Employees: ○ Develop goal-setting and adaptable coping strategies. ○ Seek to align work-family boundaries with personal preferences. Detailed Notes on Organizational Support and Interventions 1. Importance of Organizational and Supervisor Support Organizational Support: ○ Broad concept that includes providing resources and accommodations to help employees manage work–family demands. ○ Builds on the significance of social support, previously discussed (e.g., Chapter 10). Supervisor Support: ○ Particularly relevant in balancing work and family roles. ○ Supervisors play a dual role: Work-focused support: Encouraging and guiding employees in job-related tasks. Family-focused support: Valuing and assisting with employees’ family-related needs. 2. Family Supportive Supervisor Behaviors (FSSB) Definition: ○ A set of supervisor behaviors that demonstrate appreciation for employees’ need for work–family balance. Key Contributions by Hammer et al. (2008): ○ Developed a multidimensional measure of FSSB. ○ Incremental validity: FSSB is more predictive of work–family outcomes than general social support measures. ○ Outcomes linked to FSSB: Enhanced job satisfaction. Reduced turnover intentions. Implications: ○ Supervisors may support employees at work without extending that support to family-related issues. ○ This gap has significant organizational consequences as employees increasingly prioritize work-life balance. 3. The Role of Intervention Studies Argument for Interventions: ○ Simple correlational studies do not fully address causal relationships. ○ Interventions directly test how changes in organizational practices affect employee outcomes. Hammer et al. (2011) FSSB Intervention Study: ○ Goal: Increase employees' perceptions of family-specific supervisor support. ○ Design: Training provided to supervisors to improve their FSSB behaviors. 4. Key Findings from the Intervention Study Positive Outcomes for Employees: ○ Employees who perceived enhanced family-specific support reported: Greater job satisfaction. Lower turnover intentions. ○ Physical Health: No mediational effect was found for improved physical health, indicating complex relationships. Positive Outcomes for Supervisors: ○ Supervisors who underwent training reported: Increased FSSB behaviors. High satisfaction with the training itself. ○ This positive reception suggests that FSSB training could be sustainably implemented. Detailed Notes: Organizational Flexibility, Family-Friendly Policies, and Work-Life Balance Trends 1. Key Findings from the National Study of Employers 2012 Study by Matos & Galinsky: ○ Positive Organizational Outcomes of flexibility and supportive work–family culture: Higher employee engagement. Increased job satisfaction. Reduced intentions to leave the employer. Lower negative spillover between work and home domains. Better employee mental health.  2017 National Study of Employers (SHRM): ○ Increased Trends (2012–2016): Telework availability: Increased from 33% to 40%. Parental flexibility: 81% of employers now offer gradual return-to-work flexibility after childbirth or adoption (up from 73%). ○ Decreased Trends: Fewer companies now offer part-time work and flexible arrangements (e.g., adjustable start/stop times). This is notable because employees actively request part-time or flexible work for improved work-life balance, despite potential downsides. 2. Employee Preferences for Part-Time Work (PR Newswire, 2015) Reasons for Choosing Part-Time Work: ○ Better work-life balance. ○ Associated benefits of a flexible schedule. Acknowledged Drawbacks: ○ Loss of income. ○ Reduced job prestige. ○ Increased job insecurity. ○ Employees perceive the benefits outweigh the risks. 3. Work–Family Issues Post-Childbirth Study on New Mothers Returning to Work (Carlson et al., 2011): ○ Key Findings: Job resources (e.g., schedule control) promote work–family enrichment and mitigate WFC. Job demands (e.g., workload) are linked to increased WFC. Job security: Predicts work–family enrichment, offering stability during transition periods. Implications: ○ Supportive organizational policies are crucial for reducing conflict and improving enrichment during major life transitions (e.g., parenthood). 4. Stress Management and Work-Life Policies O’Driscoll et al. (2003): ○ Found organizational and supervisory support for family life reduces key stressors and strains.  ○ Highlights the importance of family-friendly policies in mitigating stress. Family-Friendly Programs (Sahibzada et al., 2005): ○ Often referred to as work-life supports, these programs aim to alleviate stress for workers juggling work and family demands. 5. Example Work-Life Support Programs (Table 11.1) Programs vary across organizations but may include: Flexible scheduling: Telework, adjustable start/stop times. Parental leave benefits: Extended and gradual return-to-work plans. On-site childcare: Facilities or subsidies for childcare expenses. Employee assistance programs (EAPs): Counseling and family-related resources. Job-sharing or reduced work hours: Opportunities to work part-time while retaining benefits. Health and wellness initiatives: Stress management workshops, fitness programs. Detailed Notes: The Effective Workplace Index and Organizational Benefits 1. SHRM’s Effective Workplace Index Background: The Effective Workplace Index was created by SHRM as part of their 2016 National Study of the Changing Workforce. This index identifies key elements that benefit both employees and employers. The research aligns with previous findings discussed in the book, emphasizing the mutual advantages of positive work environments. Job Satisfaction: ○ Employee Benefit: Job satisfaction leads to greater well-being. ○ Employer Benefit: Satisfied employees tend to be more productive and are less likely to leave the organization. Key Findings from SHRM’s Research (2016): ○ 38% of employees feel overwhelmed by their work. ○ Positive Outcomes in Organizations with Effective Work Environments: More engagement and job satisfaction. Higher likelihood of employee retention. Better overall health among employees. Lower frequency of health and sleep problems. Lower levels of perceived stress. Challenges: ○ 16% of U.S. employees work in organizations that exhibit five or more of the seven components of the Effective Workplace Index. ○ 65% of employees work in organizations that only exhibit two or fewer of these components. 2. The Seven Core Components of the Effective Workplace Index (Figure 11.3) These components are identified as crucial for creating work environments that benefit both employees and employers: 1. Autonomy ○ Providing employees with control over their work and decision-making. 2. Satisfaction with Wages, Benefits, and Opportunities to Advance ○ Competitive compensation packages, career development opportunities, and clear paths for advancement. 3. Job Challenge and Learning Opportunities ○ Opportunities for personal and professional growth through challenging work and skill development. 4. Culture of Respect, Trust, and Belonging ○ A work culture that fosters mutual respect, trust, and inclusiveness, where employees feel valued and part of the organization. 5. Work-Life Fit ○ Flexibility that allows employees to balance work with personal and family responsibilities. 6. Coworker Support for Job Success ○ Supportive relationships among coworkers that enhance collaboration and job performance. 7. Supervisor Support for Job Success ○ Supportive leadership that encourages employee success and provides guidance. 3. Example: Google’s Work Environment (2018–2019) Google’s Previous Position: ○ Google held the top spot on Fortune’s “100 Best Companies to Work For” list for six consecutive years. ○ Perks Offered by Google: Free gourmet food and snacks, free rides to/from campus, pets allowed at work, paid parental leave, generous benefits for employees' spouses, onsite childcare, fitness centers, telecommuting, green technologies, flexibility in project choices, and a nondiscrimination policy, including protections for sexual orientation and same-sex domestic partners. Change in 2018: ○ Google did not appear on the 2018 “100 Best Companies” list. ○ Google's Statement:  The company explained that it no longer needed to participate in the rankings as it had built its brand as an employer and didn’t require external validation. 4. Other Notable Companies on the “100 Best Companies” List (2019) Hilton Hotels (Ranked #1 in 2019): ○ Employee Benefits: Telecommuting, job sharing, subsidized childcare, compressed workweeks, full-paid sabbaticals, onsite fitness facilities, subsidized gym access. Other Long-standing Participants: ○ Salesforce and Wegman’s Food Markets continue to appear in the top rankings for employee satisfaction and engagement. Family-Leave Policies, Child-Care, and Elder-Care Benefits Family-Leave Policies Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) of 1993: ○ This U.S. legislation allows eligible employees to take up to 12 weeks of unpaid, job-protected leave for family-related issues, such as childbirth, serious health conditions, or caring for a family member. ○ Paid Family Leave Debate: While the U.S. lags behind other developed nations with more comprehensive, paid family-leave policies, there are ongoing discussions about expanding FMLA to provide paid leave. The Family and Medical Insurance Leave Act (FAMILY) has been reintroduced in Congress to amend FMLA to provide paid leave. ○ Challenges with Current Family Leave: Over 30% of workers who receive little or no pay during leave cut their leave short, and 40% wish they could extend their leave but can’t afford to do so. International Comparisons: ○ Hungary and Sweden: Early adopters of parental leave, dating back to 1967 and 1974, respectively. ○ Belgium: Offers a career break with unemployment insurance benefits if the employer hires a replacement worker. Child-Care Benefits Impact on Employee Well-being:  ○ Child-care difficulties can lead to absenteeism, tardiness, and lower productivity, and indirectly affect coworkers. ○ Parents, especially working mothers, often experience lower psychological well-being and increased work-family conflict (WFC). Child-Care Support by Companies: ○ Many companies have introduced child-care benefits to alleviate the stress of balancing work and family responsibilities. ○ Onsite Child-Care Centers: 24 of the top 100 best companies to work for in Fortune magazine provide onsite childcare. Employees using onsite centers report better work-life management and believe such facilities are key recruitment and retention tools. Companies with child-care support typically experience higher productivity, better morale, less absenteeism, and lower turnover. Indirect Costs of Child-Care Issues: ○ Employers see higher absenteeism and earlier departures among employees dealing with child-care issues. Companies that provide child-care assistance often save operational costs by reducing the distractions that affect employee focus. Elder-Care Assistance Demographic Trends: ○ Caregiving Responsibilities: A growing number of employees, especially those in the “sandwiched generation” (mid-life adults caring for both children and elderly parents), face the dual burden of child and elder care. ○ Projected Elder-Care Needs: By 2030, over 20% of U.S. residents will be 65 or older, requiring increased care, especially for those over 85, the fastest-growing elderly population. ○ Financial Strain: Nearly 40% of caregivers report moderate to severe financial strain, with 60% working full-time while caring for elderly relatives. Employer Response: ○ In response to these growing needs, some companies are offering elder-care benefits such as: Resource and informational assistance Dependent-care accounts Counseling and seminars on elder care Long-term insurance options ○ Some large companies are reimbursing elder-care expenses to help employees manage these costs. ○ Financial Impact of Caregiving: Caregivers who leave the workforce or reduce their hours can lose nearly $3 trillion in wages, pensions, and Social Security benefits due to caregiving responsibilities. Dual-Earner Couples and Work-Family Conflict (WFC) Definition: A dual-earner couple is one where both partners are employed and maintain family responsibilities. Statistics: ○ 61% of married couples in the U.S. with children under 18 have both parents employed (2016). ○ 70% of mothers with children under 18 were in the labor force in 2017. ○ Over 75% of mothers with children under 18 work full-time. ○ Only 20% of U.S. children experience the traditional family model (dad as sole wage earner, mom stays home). Motivating Factors for Dual-Earner Families: ○ Women earn approximately 80.5% of what men make (up from 63.9% in 1980). ○ Dual-earner couples often cite increased income as the main advantage. ○ Lack of time is a major challenge for 56% of respondents (Catalyst survey). Impact on Women and Families: ○ Women now make up a significant portion of the workforce, with increasing participation in leadership roles. ○ Daughters of working mothers tend to have better education outcomes, higher leadership roles, and higher salaries than those with nonworking mothers. ○ Juggling two jobs: Both partners have jobs outside the home, while also managing home responsibilities. Household Labor Imbalance: ○ Women still perform two-thirds of routine household tasks (cooking, cleaning). ○ On average, women spend 13+ hours per week on household chores, while men spend about 7 hours. ○ This imbalance persists even when both partners work full-time. Crossover Effects: ○ Studies show that work-family enrichment (positive spillover) can improve mental health for both partners. ○ Negative spillover (stress or exhaustion) from one partner’s job can increase WFC for the other partner. ○ Sandwiched generation: Many middle-aged adults are balancing work, raising children, and caring for elderly parents, leading to increased stress and WFC. Attitudes Toward Career and Family: ○ Many college-educated women (1993 study) wanted both a career and a family. ○ By 2009, most of these women had achieved both full-time careers and motherhood. ○ These women were more likely to be married to less-educated spouses and reported less concern about work-family separation. Work-Life Balance and Corporate Responsibility: ○ Work-life balance is a critical issue for top companies.  ○ Companies that support work-life balance see reduced turnover, increased morale, and higher productivity. ○ Companies on Fortune’s "100 Best Companies to Work For" emphasize balancing work and family life as a key criterion. Brian Dyson's Quote: ○ Work is a rubber ball—it will bounce back if dropped. ○ Family, health, friends, and spirit are glass balls—they will suffer permanent damage if neglected. Occupational Health Psychology (OHP) Definition & History: OHP emerged in 1990 through collaboration between the American Psychological Association (APA) and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Focuses on improving work life quality, promoting safety, and enhancing the health and well-being of workers. Early work on stressors and strains predated OHP's development, but OHP integrates various psychology domains, including public health, preventive medicine, and clinical psychology. I/O psychology plays a key role in OHP by providing organizational context to workplace health and safety. Key Concepts in OHP: Total Worker Health (TWH): A holistic approach focusing on both safety and well-being in the workplace. ○ Integrates injury and illness prevention with efforts to enhance worker well-being. ○ Addresses factors like wages, hours worked, workload, stress, and workplace interactions. NIOSH’s Approach to OHP: Organization-level interventions: Focus on reducing worker exposure to hazards. Individual-level interventions: Equip workers with resources to improve health and manage workplace hazards. Total Worker Health (TWH) Initiative Goals: Protect workers from safety and health hazards while promoting well-being. Address social aspects of work like wages, stress levels, and supervisor relationships. Key Areas of Focus in TWH (Table 11.2): 1. Control of Hazards and Exposures: ○ Chemicals, biological, physical agents. ○ Psychosocial factors and human factors. 2. Work Organization: ○ Fatigue and stress prevention. ○ Preventing work intensification and overtime issues. ○ Flexible work arrangements and healthier shift work. 3. Built Environment: ○ Healthy air quality, safe food options, and clean facilities. ○ Accommodating worker diversity and safe workplace access. 4. Leadership: ○ Shared commitment to safety and well-being. ○ Supportive managers and recognition of workers. ○ Meaningful work and employee engagement. 5. Compensation and Benefits: ○ Adequate wages and equitable performance appraisals. ○ Work-life programs, paid time off, disability insurance, workers' compensation. ○ Comprehensive healthcare benefits, retirement planning. 6. Community Supports: ○ Healthy community design and safe housing. ○ Access to healthcare and green spaces. ○ Safe environment (air, water quality, noise). 7. Changing Workforce Demographics: ○ Multigenerational and diverse workforce. ○ Aging workforce, workers with disabilities, and vulnerable populations. ○ Occupational health disparities and small employers. 8. Policy Issues: ○ Health information privacy, reasonable accommodations, equal employment opportunity. ○ Prevention of bullying, violence, and harassment. ○ Worker-centered policies, return-to-work, family leave. 9. New Employment Patterns: ○ Issues with contracting, subcontracting, and precarious employment. ○ Organizational restructuring, downsizing, and job security. Intervention Outcomes Review of TWH Interventions: ○ 16 out of 17 interventions showed improvement in risk factors for injuries and chronic diseases. ○ Some interventions addressed multiple risk factors, leading to substantial improvements in workforce health.  ○ Encourages further research on simultaneous improvements in safety, health, and well-being to establish best practices for other organizations. Psychological Effects of Job Loss Importance of Jobs to Personal Identity: Jobs play a central role in individuals' lives, contributing to identity, self-worth, and social interaction. Loss of a job disrupts financial stability, daily routines, personal development, social connections, sense of purpose, and self-esteem. Impact of Job Loss: Stressful Event: Job loss ranks among the top 10 most stressful life events, linked to significant mental and physical health issues. Health and Mortality: Job loss is associated with increased risk for health problems, mortality, and suicide (Strully, 2009; Eliason & Storrie, 2009). Reasons Jobs Are Important: 1. Financial Stability: Jobs provide income for living. 2. Structure: Jobs create daily routines, influencing time management. 3. Skill Development: Jobs offer opportunities for using and developing skills. 4. Social Interaction: Jobs provide social connections outside family. 5. Purpose: Jobs offer both short-term and long-term goals for personal and career development. 6. Identity and Prestige: Jobs contribute to personal identity and societal value. The Hard Facts Job Loss in the U.S.: Downsizing and Layoffs: U.S. corporations have been reducing workforces since the late 1980s, with significant spikes during recessions (e.g., 2008-2009). Discouraged Workers: Despite a strong economy, many individuals stop seeking employment due to a perceived lack of opportunities, contributing to long-term unemployment. Psychological Effects of Job Loss: Worry About Job Loss: Anxiety about job loss persists, even during periods of low unemployment, indicating job insecurity is a major source of stress (Rudisill & Edwards, 2002). Psychological Distress: Job loss is linked to depression, suicide, antisocial behavior, and substance abuse (Goldman-Mellor, Saxton, & Catalano, 2010).  Layoff Survivors: Employees who survive layoffs experience lower productivity, trust, morale, and job satisfaction (Grunberg, Anderson-Connolly, & Greenberg, 2000). Empirical Studies on Job Loss and Layoffs 1. Coping with Job Loss: ○ Research shows that social support and coping mechanisms (e.g., distancing from the loss, active job search) are crucial in reducing distress and facilitating reemployment (Gowan, Riordan, & Gatewood, 1999). ○ Problem-focused coping (job search) and emotion-focused coping (distancing from loss) are key predictors of distress levels and reemployment success. 2. PTSD from Job Loss: ○ Studies have linked layoffs to PTSD-like symptoms, including depression, anxiety, and fixation on job loss. The severity of these symptoms can impact future employment, with those most negatively affected tending to be underemployed one year later (McKee-Ryan et al., 2009). 3. Layoff Survivors: ○ Survivors of layoffs experience higher stress and reduced morale, often leading to decreased job satisfaction and trust in the organization. Their responses are influenced by perceptions of fairness and self-esteem (Brockner et al., 1995; Wiesenfeld et al., 1999). Managers as Layoff Survivors Procedural Justice and Managerial Behavior: Research highlights that managers who perceive injustice during layoffs exhibit: ○ Low self-esteem, particularly if they have high organizational commitment. ○ Less effective managerial behaviors, negatively impacting their subordinates’ work environment. ○ A less supportive work environment reported by subordinates (Wiesenfeld, Brockner, & Thibault, 2000). Psychological Contract Violation: Employees’ responses to organizational changes, such as layoffs, are strongly influenced by the perception of justice, including the violation of their psychological contract with the employer (Edwards, Rust, McKinley, & Moon, 2003; Kickul, Lester, & Finkl, 2002). Underemployment Definition: Underemployment occurs when individuals are in jobs that: ○ Are below their skill or education level. ○ Often lead to undercompensation. Prevalence: An estimated 10-15% of the workforce is underemployed, with 33% of college graduates in jobs that do not fully use their education (Garcia-Navarro, 2018). Impact on Individuals:  ○ Negative outcomes: Job satisfaction, job involvement, work alienation, and organizational commitment decrease. ○ Withdrawal behaviors: Increased job search, turnover intentions, and actual turnover (McKee-Ryan & Harvey, 2011). Behavioral Implications: Underemployed workers often feel cynical and burned out due to lack of growth, leading to counterproductive work behaviors (Luksyte, Spitzmueller, & Maynard, 2011). Job Uncertainty in Downsizing Study on Australian Hospital Employees (Paulsen et al., 2005): ○ Pre-Downsizing: High job uncertainty and low personal control. ○ Personal Control: Mediated the negative effects of job uncertainty on emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction. ○ Post-Downsizing: The importance of personal control decreased once the environment became stable. Job Insecurity and Strain: Recent studies found that job insecurity: ○ Leads to lower job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and higher psychological distress. ○ Perceptions of control mediate the relationship between job insecurity and these strains (De Cuyper, De Witte, Vander Elst, & Handaja, 2010; Elst, De Cuyper, & De Witte, 2011). Workplace Violence Extreme Job Stress: In extreme cases, intense job stress and insecurity, especially during layoffs and downsizing, can contribute to workplace violence. Workplace Violence: Trends and Impact Workplace Homicides: ○ Homicide is one of the leading causes of death among American workers, alongside falls and transportation accidents (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013). ○ From 2006 to 2010, there were over 551 homicides per year in U.S. workplaces. ○ In 2016, there were 500 workplace homicides; the majority were shootings, with the highest victim rates in retail (31%) and safety services (23%) (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018a). ○ Over half of all mass shootings since 1990 occurred in the workplace (National Center for Victims of Crime, n.d.). Nonfatal Violence: ○ 2 million people report some form of workplace violence annually, with about 25% going unreported (Ricci, 2018).  ○ Between 2007 and 2015, 10.3 million nonfatal violent crimes occurred in U.S. workplaces (CDC, n.d.-c). Risk Factors for Workplace Violence (NIOSH) 1. Contact with the public 2. Exchange of money 3. Delivering goods/services 4. Mobile workplace (e.g., taxis, police cruisers) 5. Working with unstable individuals (e.g., healthcare, criminal justice) 6. Working alone or in small groups A study by LeBlanc and Kelloway (2002) identified 28 job characteristics related to workplace violence, including: ○ Serving alcohol, handling weapons, disciplining others, or making decisions that affect others' lives. ○ 22 of these characteristics correlated with incidents of workplace violence, especially from outside (customers, clients) rather than inside the organization (employees). Types of Workplace Violence Outsider-initiated violence: Most violence at work comes from nonemployees (LeBlanc & Barling, 2004). Insider-initiated violence: Though less common and typically less deadly, violence from employees can still occur and have severe consequences. Historical Context and Awareness The 1986 Edmond Post Office shooting marked a significant turning point in awareness of workplace violence. Patrick Sherrill killed 14 coworkers before committing suicide. This event coined the term “going postal”, now associated with workplace violence. Profile of a Dangerous Employee (U.S. Department of Justice, 1995) Demographics: ○ 97% of perpetrators were male, with over 70% being White. ○ The average age of perpetrators was around 40 (higher than non-workplace murderers). ○ Firearms were used in nearly all cases. ○ Most perpetrators were current or former employees. Behavioral Patterns: ○ Many had a history of psychological or personality disorders and an affinity for weapons.  ○ Warning signs included: Erratic behavior, threats of violence, and irrational thoughts. Hypersensitivity to criticism and preoccupation with violent themes. FBI-Identified Risk Factors for Violence: 1. Mishandled termination or disciplinary action. 2. Bringing weapons to work. 3. Drug or alcohol use at work. 4. Holding a grudge over real or imagined grievances. 5. Emotional disturbance or personal issues. 6. Fascination with weapons or obsession with coworkers/supervisors. Workplace Aggression and Violence: Models and Key Insights Organization-Motivated Aggression (O’Leary-Kelly, Griffin, & Glew, 1996): ○ Refers to attempts by individuals (inside or outside the organization) to cause injury or destruction due to some organizational factor. ○ Organization-Motivated Violence occurs when such aggression results in negative effects on people or property. Model of Organization-Motivated Aggression: ○ Individual Characteristics and Organizational Environment influence Organization-Motivated Aggression, which leads to Organization-Motivated Violence. ○ The Organizational Response moderates whether aggression results in violence and other negative outcomes. ○ The cycle is continuous, where proactive modifications of antecedent factors can influence individual and organizational characteristics. Extended Model by Martinko and Zellars (1998): ○ Focuses on individual characteristics as predictors of aggression: Frustrating events at work increase aggression and violence. Reward history: Employees who have been rewarded for aggression are more likely to engage in it. Locus of control: Employees with an external locus of control are more likely to react aggressively to negative events. Gender differences: Males are more likely to display aggression and violence than females. ○ A study found that perceptions of a controlling supervisor contributed to psychological aggression, such as disparaging remarks (Dupré & Barling, 2006). Frustrations and Triggers for Aggression: ○ A meta-analysis identified interpersonal conflict, trait anger, job dissatisfaction, negative affectivity, and situational constraints as predictors of aggression (Hershcovis et al., 2007).  ○ Workaholism also impacts aggression; workaholics experience negative affect, which mediates aggression (Balducci et al., 2012). Emotional Susceptibility and Attribution in Aggression (Martinko & Zellars, 1998): ○ Aggressive behaviors may be emotional reactions to trigger events, especially for emotionally susceptible individuals. ○ In ambiguous situations, management is often blamed for negative outcomes, especially by individuals who identify with management. Cognitive Processing in Aggression: ○ Newer models highlight the role of cognitive processing in triggering aggression. Key concepts include: Hostile Attribution Bias: The tendency to perceive others' actions as hostile, which increases aggression. Negative Reciprocity Beliefs: The tendency to retaliate with negative behavior when treated negatively. ○ Studies show that individuals high in both biases are more likely to respond to workplace incivility with aggression (Wu et al., 2014). Implications for Organizational Management: Workplace Aggression Prevention: ○ Strategies should include: Surveillance to identify potential threats. Training and coaching to address aggressive behaviors. Developing HR policies for selection, performance management, and reward systems to mitigate aggression.