Psychology 104 PDF

EARLY HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: CHAPTER 1 THEORY OF HUMORISM: Created by Hippocrates Humour meaning temperament, believed the psychology of a person depended upon the balance of 4 liquids in the human body: - Black Bile (Melancholic, Independent, Pragmatic) - Blood (Cheerful, Charismatic, Opti...

EARLY HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: CHAPTER 1 THEORY OF HUMORISM: Created by Hippocrates Humour meaning temperament, believed the psychology of a person depended upon the balance of 4 liquids in the human body: - Black Bile (Melancholic, Independent, Pragmatic) - Blood (Cheerful, Charismatic, Optimistic) - Yellow Bile (Angry, Aggressive, Jealous) - Phlegm (Sluggish, Lethargic, Sentimental) RENE DESCARTES: Argued for substance dualism: The belief that the mind and body are distinct entities that interact, with the body being material and the mind being immaterial. WILHEM WUNDT: Established psychology as a distinct discipline from Physiology and Philosophy, opened the first psychology laboratory. - Believed psychology should be studied like physics/chemistry (more scientific approach) - Psychology is the study of the consciousness, so focused on Introspection STRUCTURALISM VS. FUNCTIONALISM: STRUCTURALISM: Belief that the goal of psychology is to analyze basic elements of consciousness/ analyze how they are related. Pioneered by Wilhem Wundt FUNCTIONALISM: Belief that the goal of psychology is to analyze the function of the consciousness, not its structure. Pioneered by William James. Inspired by Darwin's Natural selection PSYCHOANALYTICAL: Pioneered by Sigmund Frued, Who developed treatment called PSYCHOANALYSIS - Trying to explain personality/motivation/disorders through focusing on unconscious behaviors(thoughts/memories below the surface of awareness that exert influence on one's actions) THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE Pioneered by John B Watson, who got his start studying non-human animals. - Watson believed good science relied on the ability to verify shit scientifically - Argued if psychology wants to be a real science, it needs to abandon study of consciousness and become the study of behavior(BEHAVIORISM), because that is something directly observable and measurable. - Big advocate for the thought that environment influences people's behaviors  - Different at the time, many people believed genetics were what primarily influenced the behaviors of people. - Watson believed behavior was a combination of both genes and environment What if all the things u think and feel are just byproducts of u being a living organism, and not the reason for your behavior BEHAVIORISM: - Scientific psychology should study observable behavior - Enhanced by BF SKINNER,discovered Operant Conditioning - Not that he's denying the existence of minds, just didn't think it was useful to study because it was kinda up in the air. THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE - Believed humans are greater than the sum of their parts, and that they have the freedom and potential for personal growth. - Man can never live as an objective, they can only live subjectively - Kinda have a distaste for scientific research, because things like human drive/growth are not exactly quantifiable subjects. THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE: For PEOPLE WHO AGREE WITH THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF BEHAVIORISM, BUT WHO USE IT TO INFER THINGS ABOUT THE MIND AND CONSCIOUSNESS (Cognition) - THE DOMINANT PERSPECTIVE IN MODERN DAY PSYCHOLOGY THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: Focuses on how brain processes and other bodily functions regulate behavior. PRESENT DAY PSYCHOLOGY: SOCIOCULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY: Focuses on how social/cultural aspects of environment influence behavior(had not been studied in the past, was usually an american homogeneous demographic) DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: Focuses on human development across the lifespan, primarily concerned with childhood development. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY(CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY): Branch of psychology concerned with diagnosis/treatment of psychological problems/disorders CHAPTER 2 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: procedure of using empirical evidence to establish facts 1) Identify the question of interest 2) Gather relevant information and formulate testable hypothesis 3) Design study that can test the hypothesis 4) Analyze the data/draw tentative conclusions 5) Report the finding and ask further questions Ignaz Semmelweis: Hungarian physician who worked in a hospital, so big it had 2 maternity wards. One staffed by midwives, one staffed by physicians. All other factors (diet, care, etc) was constant between the two. However, the clinic staffed by the physicians had a much higher fatality rate than the other ward. Tested many theories, however came to the hypothesis that the doctors working in the morning doing autopsies(which the midwives did not do) were carrying little pathogens to the women who they were later helping give birth to, and were transferring them to and killing the women. Dogmatism: A person's tendency to cling to their beliefs Empiricism: Belief that accurate knowledge can be gathered by observing the world People are COMPLEX, REACTIVE, and VARIABLE Everyday observations are INCONSISTENT and INCOMPLETE NAIVE REALISM: The belief we see the world precisely as it is INDUCTIVE STATEMENT: Argument where its improbable that the conclusion is false, given the premises are true(ex: swans are usually seen to be white = all swans are white)(false) Falsifiability: A hypothesis is falsifiable if its able to be disproved Deductive argument (deducing): Argument where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premise (ex: all men are mortal, socrates is a man, THEREFORE socrates is mortal) FACTS: observations seen in the everyday world HYPOTHESIS: something you test instead of proving THEORY: Something that we KNOW is true based off substantiated evidence/proved hypothesis LAW: detailed description (usually using math) of how/why something happens MEASUREMENTS: Dependent variable: The variable that is “caused” or “effected” Independent variable: Variable intended to affect the dependent variable Operational Definition: Description of the operation used to establish/measure a variable in an experiment (EX: if counting books, need to establish what constitutes as a book and stick with that definition throughout)(should have good construct validity; the operational definition is a good indicator of whats being measured, ie: using SMILES to test HAPPINESS) Construct validity usually in eye of the beholder, but a good detector should have POWER (ability to detect presence/magnitude of change) and RELIABILITY (detect the absence of change when there isn't one) (don't allow FALSE NEGATIVES/FALSE POSITIVES) Probability Distribution: A math equation that describes the probability of obtaining certain values of a variable. EQUATION: THE CENTRAL TENDENCY MODE: The value that occurs with the greatest frequency MEDIAN: Middle number in set of data ordered small to large MEAN: the average of all the variables, add all together then divide by number of variables To measure SPREAD or VARIABILITY(standard deviation/σ), calculate the deviation: subtract the mean of the variables from each variable. RESEARCH METHODS EX1: The Prefrontal Lobotomy. Believed to help with depression and epilepsy and shit. So popular the creator of the procedure was given the nobel prize. However the only barometer of success for this procedure was the objective testimonies of the doctors who were performing the procedure, who all said it worked. Actual subsequent studies on the procedure found it was completely unaffected. Didn't treat the part of the brain of the actual problem the lobotomy was being operated on for, just put the person in a vegetative state. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH: Data collection tries not to interfere with how data arises in the real world (describes characteristics ) (EX: NATURAL OBSERVATION) CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH: Looks for the relationship between variables, uses descriptive research to obtain data on the variables (EX: between X and Y)(EX: correlation between father son height) POSITIVE CORRELATION: Taller father would have taller sons CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION (Could have a correlation between 2 things that are not actually related) These two together are called OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: Manipulates variables in a closed environment to isolate causes of a phenomena. Establishes the causal relationship between variables by eliminating factors other then the independent factor (Manipulate, Measure, Compare) NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION(goes under descriptive research): Recording behavior in real world setting without manipulating the situation (Jane Goodall)(Has high External Validity: the findings are applicable to real world settings) BEWARE OF ANECDOTES(short personal experience), ANECDOTES are NOT evidence. EVALUATING THE DATA: Reliability(consistency of measurements) Test retest reliability(test is readministered to ensure it produces consistent results) Interobserver reliability(two or more people using same test arrive at the same conclusion) Validity(extent to which a measure actually assess what it purports to measure) - EX: POLYGRAPH TESTS: does not actually test if someone is lying or not, tests heart rate WHY DOES DATA FLUCTUATE? - All possible variables cant be controlled(ex learning experience, genetics, nutrition) (this generates unsystematic variation (error)) (ERROR BARS: Displays confidence intervals, deviation, range of experiment) HAZARDS IN EXPERIMENT DESIGN: - Not using Random Assignment (randomly sorting subjects into experiment groups)(don't confuse with random sampling) - Confounding Variable (difference in experimental and control group that is not the independent variable, basically THIRD VARIABLE) present - Subjects not blinded to the condition they're in (subject is unaware of what group (experimental or control) they are in) - Subjects are using demand characteristics (cues participants pick up from a study that allows them to generate guesses that purposefully fulfill the hypothesis TYPE 1 ERROR: False Positive (thinks there is relationship, there is NOT) TYPE 2 ERROR: False Negative (thinks there is no relationship, there IS) RESEARCH ETHICS UNETHICAL RESEARCH CASES: - Little Albert: Study performed by watson, baby was conditioned to be afraid of an animal through the use of loud scary noise (noise played whenever was near animal) (Albert was never reconditioned to not be afraid, mother didn’t consent to experiment) - Monster Study: tested whether positive/negative feedback would affect language learning in children. 5 children with early signs of stutters given positive feedback, 5 others ridiculed and given negative feedback (didn't affect speech pathology but DID affect self esteem of children) - Milgram Experiment: Wanted to test the level of obedience to authority figures, subjects were told by scientist(actor) to give fake shocks to a subject (actor) without knowing they were actually painless. (negatively impacted psychological health of people who thought they hurt the subject) - Bystander Effect: Measured how long it would take students to act if they thought someone was having a crisis, found they were quicker to react when less people were around who they thought could do something (same problem as with last experiment, negatively impacted mental health) - Stanford Prison Experiment: split 10 college students into police and 10 into prisoners. Study had to be ended early because students began to internalize their roles, police ones were abusing their power and administering actual physical punishments and prisoners began to revolt (unethical because some permanent harm was caused due to the acts of violence) RESEARCH ETHICS BOARD; Committee of researchers at an institution that upholds the protection of human research participants by ensuring researchers abide by the TRI COUNCIL POLICY STATEMENT. They weigh the risks/benefits of an experiment as well as ensure volunteers give informed consent. - Methods may have to be revised to minimize risks (such as psychological/physical harm, mishandling of personal information) - Informed consent: volunteers need to consent to the experiment while knowing what they're participating in and the possible risks. Could be a problem because it could alter the results. - Deception: purposely misleading experiment participants to maintain integrity of experiment. Need to inform after experiment about the deception (EX: placebo experiments) - Anonymity and Confidentiality is crucial to maintain for subjects. WHY TO USE NON HUMAN ANIMALS IN EXPERIMENTS? - Humans are animals and share an evolutionary history with other species. - Control influence of learning/hereditary - More practical - Able to apply procedures that would be unethical with humans Ethical use of animal research governed by CCAC, enforce 3 R’s:  - REPLACEMENT: Methods that would replace vertebrates with less sentient/pain perceiving animals like insects - REDUCTION: Lowering subject size (using less animals) - REFINEMENT: Modification to reduce pain and stress in animal subjects CUTOFF FOR FIRST MIDTERM CHAPTER 3: BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR Nervous system divided to 2 PARTS CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS): Contains brain, spinal cord, optic nerve, retina PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM(PNS): sympathetic/parasympathetic, EVERYTHING ELSE BRAIN Contains 2 NERVE CELLS: - NEURONS: Unit of nervous system, requires glucose for function - GLIAL CELLS: Provides structural/nutritional help to brain NEURON composed of DENDRITES, CELL BODY, AXON, AXON TERMINAL CELL BODY(SOMA): Integrates electrical signals DENDRITE: Extension of cell body, collects information from other neurons AXON: Conducts information to other neurons, could be myelinated or unmyelinated AXON TERMINALS: Contact dendrites of other neurons AXON TERMINAL AND COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NEURONS - Inside axon terminal are synaptic vesicles(neurotransmitters) - When action potential travels down axon, synaptic vesicles bind to wall of terminal and release neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft between the 2 neurons - They then bind to receptors on the dendrites of other neuron NEURAL IMPULSE (ACTION POTENTIAL) Within neurons are POTASSIUM IONS Outside of neurons are SODIUM IONS - Potassium inside are positively charged but proteins within make the overall charge INSIDE the neuron NEGATIVE - OUTSIDE of neuron is POSITIVELY CHARGED This negative/positive charged create a POTENTIAL for an electrical charge to occur, so neuron membrane separates them until needed PRESYNAPTIC NEURON: neuron releasing neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft POSTSYNAPTIC NEURON: neuron that receives the neurotransmitters NEUROTRANSMITTERS: 1) ACETYLCHOLINE(ACh)  - Released by motor neurons for skeletal movement (found in poisons also) - Contributes to regulation of attention, arousal, memory, sleep - Nicotine stimulates, alzheimers associated with low levels of ACh 2) MOANIMINES (DOPAMINE)(DA) - Contributes to control of voluntary movement - Cocaine/Amphetamines elevate dopamine activity - Schizophrenia implicated as OVERACTIVITY of dopamine - Reward pathway (SEROTONIN)(5-HT) - Involved in regulation of sleep/wakefulness, eating, aggression - Prozac and other antidepressants affect serotonin circuits (increase serotonin) (NOREPINEPHRINE)(NE) - Brain arousal and functions like mood, hunger, sleep, sexual behavior - Functions as hormone and neurotransmitter - Adrenaline basically 3) AMINO ACIDS (GABA) - Brain's main INHIBITORY transmitter - Contributes regulation of anxiety, sleep, arousal - Anti anxiety drugs work at Gaba synapses (GLUTAMATE) - Main EXCITATORY neurotransmitter in nervous system - Relay of sensory information and learning (too much = schizophrenia) 4) ANANDAMIDE (unconventional neurotransmitter) - Binds to same receptors as THC(Cannabis) - Plays role in eating, memory, motivation, sleep (Cannabis symptoms) 5) NEUROPEPTIDES (ENDORPHINS) - Regulated by PNS, synthesized in pituitary. - Function as HORMONE and neurotransmitter - Naturally occurring painkiller - Inhibit communication of pain signals to spinal cord NERVOUS SYSTEM (neurotransmitters) is FAST COMMUNICATION SYSTEM, ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (hormones) is SLOWER COMMUNICATION (released into blood) NEURAL PLASTICITY: Nervous system has the ability to adapt/change NEURAL PLASTICITY IN EARLY DEVELOPMENT:  1) Growth of dendrites/axons 2) Synaptogenesis (formation of new synapse)(neurons exchanged through synapse) 3) Pruning (removal of extra synapses to increase efficiency)(occurs until 10, 70% of neurons destroyed 4) Myelination (growth of myelin sheaths) NEURAL PLASTICITY AND LEARNING: - Could occur through STRUCTURAL CHANGES Axonal growth Dendrite branching/growth Enriched environments lead to axonal growth/dendrite branching more POTENTIATION: When a specific presynaptic neuron has a greater say in the postsynaptic neurons ability to fire (EX: unfair democracy, where ONE person has more power)(“neurons that fire together wire together”) NEURAL PLASTICITY FOLLOWING INJURY - Brain can take over functions previously performed by other parts - Searching for treatments to promote healing/prevent damage in brain (stem cells) - Neurogenesis (creation of new neurons in adult brain)(very few) THE MENINGES: 3 LAYERED PROTECTIVE MEMBRANE that covers brain & spinal cord - Dura Mater - Arachnoid Mater - Pia Mater FURTHER PROTECTION: CEREBRAL VENTRICLES containing cerebrospinal fluid FRONTAL LOBE: Has the Central Sulcus, divides frontal & parietal lobe - Primary Motor Cortex: part of frontal lobe responsible for body movement - Prefrontal Cortex: responsible for thinking, planning, language PARIETAL LOBE: Processes touch information, integrates vision and touch TEMPORAL LOBE: Processes auditory information, language, autobiography memory - Wernicke's Area: part of temporal lobe involved in understanding speech OCCIPITAL LOBE: Back part of cerebral cortex, specialized for vision SUBCORTICAL STRUCTURES (beneath the cerebral cortex) THE BASAL GANGLIA - Group of nuclei (clusters of neurons) located beneath the cerebral cortex - Involved in goal motivated motor control - Contains dopamine neurons and associated with reward and motivation LIMBIC SYSTEM: includes THALAMUS, HYPOTHALAMUS, HIPPOCAMPUS, AMYGDALA - THALAMUS: Gateway from sense organs to primary sensory cortex All sensory information, except smell, relayed through thalamus - HYPOTHALAMUS: Bridge between CNS and Endocrine system Regulates the pituitary gland Responsible for: FLEEING, FIGHTING, FEEDING, FORNICATION - HIPPOCAMPUS: Regulates spatial memory, humans have 2 hippocampi May be necessary for formation of new memories - AMYGDALA: Plays key role in fear, excitement, and arousal CEREBELLUM: Hindbrain structure responsible for smoothing fine motor control initiated by other brain regions RETICULAR FORMATION: Responsible for arousal and consciousness THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: Lies outside CNS. DIVIDED INTO 2 PARTS: - Somatic Nervous System: conveys information between CNS and body (voluntary) - Autonomic Nervous System: controls involuntary actions of internal organs/glands SYMPATHETIC NS: During crisis; Fight or Flight PARASYMPATHETIC NS: Controls rest and digestion MEASURING THE BRAIN PHRENOLOGY: measuring bumps of skull to measure personality/intellect (??) BRAIN DAMAGE: Brain function can be assessed by examining brain damage and seeing what behavioral issues arise from it EEG: Records brain's electrical activity at the surface of the skull CT/CAT SCAN: scanning technique using multiple X-rays to construct 3D images MRI: uses strong magnetic fields to indirectly visualize brain structure (better than CT) PET SCAN: invasive imaging technique that measures consumption of injected glucose molecules, indicating neural activity in specific regions of the brain fMRI: technique that uses magnetic fields to visualize brain activity using BOLD response: BOLD = Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent TMS: technique that applies strong magnetic fields to surface of skull that can either enhance or interrupt brain function (non invasive)(allows for temporary lesions on brain for studies) GOLGI STAIN : Neural stain that darkens a few of the neurons in slices of tissue, revealing their silhouettes FRANZ JOSEPH GALL - All mental functions arise from the brain - Mind and body are NOT separate entities - Brain divided into functional regions - Phrenologist SENSATION AND PERCEPTION: - SENSATION: Process by which (objective) stimuli are detected, transduced into nerve impulses, and sent to brain - TRANSDUCTION: Process of converting an external energy into electrical activity within neurons (turning external stimuli into a language your brain can understand) - SENSE RECEPTOR: Specialized cell responsible for converting external stimuli into neural activity for a specific sensory system (EX: cones and rods) - SENSORY ADAPTATION: Activation is greatest when a stimulus is FIRST detected, then declines in responsiveness over time (get used to shit)(called neural adaptation) PERCEPTION: Brain's interpretation of raw sensory information. PSYCHOPHYSICS: study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based on physical characteristics ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD: Lowest level of stimulus needed for nervous system to detect a change 50% of the time JUST NOTICEABLE DIFFERENCE (JND): The smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that we can detect (how much do u have to turn volume down to notice its been turned down?)(WILL NEED TO KNOW HOW TO APPLY WEBER'S LAW ON MIDTERM) WEBER'S LAW: There is a constant proportional relationship between JND and original stimulus intensity JND = K x I I = intensity of stimulus K = constant (the louder the starting volume, the greater change in volume needed to detect difference) SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY: INCREASED SENSITIVITY to the signal causes hits and correct rejection to occur more often DECREASED SENSITIVITY to the signal causes misses and false alarms to occur more often ROC CURVES PERCEPTION: Determined by 3 elements: - What is currently in sensory field - What was in the sensory field moments ago - What we have experienced in the past PARALLEL PROCESSING: Ability to handle different sources of information simultaneously BOTTOM UP PROCESSING: Brain constructs a stimulus based on parts TOP DOWN PROCESSING: Process influenced by beliefs and prior learning PERCEPTUAL SET: A set formed when expectation influence perception PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY: We perceive stimuli consistently across varied conditions (Not explanations, just labels for the effects) EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION(ESP): Perceptions of events outside the known channels of sensation(mob psycho idk) - PRECOGNITION: able to predict events before they occur through paranormal means - TELEPATHY: Communicating to another person through your mind - CLAIRVOYANCE: Ability to detect someone with ur mind THE VISUAL SYSTEM VISIBLE LIGHT: Electromagnetic radiation between 400-700 nanometers HUE: The color of light VISUAL PERCEPTION SHAPE AND CONTOUR: - Hubel and Wiesel's experiment with cats - Studied electrical activity of V1 area in the visual cortex of cats viewing light slits on a screen (see what made the cells fire)(line had to be at a specific orientation for the cells to fire) - Called FEATURE DETECTION CELLS GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY emphasized the perception of the whole, rather than focusing on individual parts. HAD 6 PRINCIPLES: PROXIMITY: objects close to each other seen as unified wholes SIMILARITY: similar objects seen as being grouped/related SYMMETRY: Symmetrical arranged objects seen as wholes CONTINUITY: Perceive lines as continuous movement despite abrupt changes (ex: being intercepted by another line) CLOSURE: Incomplete figures will be seen as complete objects FIGURE GROUND SEGREGATION: Tendency to separate elements of image into a foreground and background COLOUR (TRICHROMATIC THEORY) Idea color vision is based on our sensitivity to 3 primary colors Belief there are 3 cones in your eye that are triggered to an extent when looking at different colors (EX: looking at something blue will trigger blue cones the most, other cones the least)(if all equally activated, perceiving WHITE) PROBLEM: AFTERIMAGES (why does staring at one color produce an afterimage of another color?) COLOUR (OPPONENT PROCESS THEORY) Perceive colors in terms of 3 pairs of opponent colors (Red or Green)(Blue or Yellow)(Black or White) Occurs in the retinal ganglion cells COLOUR BLINDNESS Inability to see some or all colors Genetic abnormality that cause the absence/reduction in specific cone type DEPTH PERCEPTION  - Ability to judge distance and 3D relations - TWO TYPES: - MONOCULAR CUES: Stimuli that enable us to judge depth using 1 eye Relative size: farther objects look smaller Texture gradient: father objects less detailed Interposition: close objects block view of far objects Linear Perspective: Height in Plain: distance objects look higher, closer objects look lower Light and Shadow: casting of shadows gives objects 3D forms - BINOCULAR CUES: Stimuli that enable us to judge depth using both eyes Binocular Disparity: Binocular Convergence: Degree to which your eyes converge inwards provides information on abject distance (eyes cross when looking at something close) BLINDNESS - The inability to see due to to problems with eye/eye structures - Rely more on other senses (touching, hearing, etc) - Visual cortex function changes due to neural plasticity MOTION BLINDNESS - The inability of a person to perceive motion - Often caused by brain damage/alzheimers VISUAL AGNOSIA - A failure to recognize visually presented objects, not due to impairments of memory or intelligence (man who mistook his wife for a hat) BLINDSIGHT - The ability of individuals with blindness to detect/respond to visual stimuli despite lacking awareness of seeing anything (cant see but if you throw a ball at them they'll catch it) - Often result of damage to V1 area of visual cortex AUDITORY SYSTEM: - Sense of hearing depends on soundwaves - 3 DIMENSIONS OF SOUND: Frequency, Amplitude, Complexity FREQUENCY perceived as PITCH AMPLITUDE perceived as LOUDNESS COMPLEXITY perceived as TIMBRE - COCHLEA transduces sound vibration into neural impulses - BASILAR MEMBRANE: has to do with frequency - CONDUCTIVE HEARING LOSS: damage to ossicles; CUREABLE - SENSORINEURAL HEARING LOSS: damage to cochlea; INCURABLE BODY SENSES: - TOUCH is transduction of skin sensations into neural impulses  - Receptors located under skin detect pain, pressure, texture, etc - LEFT HALF OF BODY CONTROLLED BY RIGHT SIDE OF BRAIN; VICE VERSA - DIFFERENT LOCATIONS IN BODY SEND SENSORY INFO TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF BRAIN, AND SOME PARTS HAVE GREATER ACUITY THAN OTHERS (ex, lips and fingertips) - WHAT AND WHERE PATHWAYS - Sudden Pain = A Delta Fibers - Throbbing Pain = C Fibers - REFERRED PAIN : When pain originates internally, in a body organ, for instance, we can feel it on the surface of the body. - GATE CONTROL THEORY: Signals arriving from pain receptors in the body can be stopped by interneurons in the spinal cord via feedback from the skin or from the brain TASTE AND SMELL: - Rely on CHEMICALS that enter our mouth/noses - OLFACTORY RECEPTOR NEURONS; What transduce odorant molecules into neural impulses proprioception is your sense of bodily position. GENES, EVOLUTION, AND BEHAVIOR GENETIC EXPRESSION EPIGENETICS: Changes in gene function that does not involve change in DNA sequence (EX: Environmental aspects + Genes) DARWIN: NATURAL SELECTION/GENE MUTATION FOR ADAPTATION GENETIC ENGINEERING(Gene Knockout Studies): Specific gene within an organism is knocked out, so that it doesn't perform its usual function; then compared behavior to normal individual) (not usually effective because behavior is not determined by single gene) BEHAVIORAL GENETICS: Focuses on how heredity and environmental factors combine to cause/control psychological factors (behavior) HERITABILITY: Extent to which variation of a particular trait across individuals within a specific population is due to genes (EX: For Height heritability coefficient is 0.8, meaning 80% of people within a population's height is due to genetics) (population dependent) HEREDITY: Passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes CONCORDANCE: Likelihood that 2 people share the same characteristics DESIGNS IN BEHAVIORAL GENETICS: Family studies, Twin studies, Adoption studies FAMILY STUDIES: Degree to which a trait runs in intact families PROBLEM: Can't separate genes from environmental factors, family live in same home) TWIN STUDIES: Two types of twins: - Identical Twins Come from single zygote that split, share 100% of genes - Fraternal Twins Come from 2 separate zygotes, share 50% of genes LOGIC: identical twins are more similar genetically then fraternal twins, so if identical twins are more similar on a psychological trait then fraternal twins, we can infer that trait is GENETICALLY INFLUENCED (because they both have the same environment, so it must be genes affecting) (Still can't adequately separate genetic/environmental factors, because the difference may be caused BECAUSE of the fact they are identical twins, so treated differently) ADOPTION STUDY: a person who was adopted in early life is compared to their biological parents, and their adoptive parents (will share genes but not environmental factors with biological parents) (will share environmental factors but not genes with adoptive parents) If adopted child is more similar to biological parent then adopted parent on specific trait, that trait is deemed to be GENETIC, and VICE VERSA PROBLEM: SELECTIVE PLACEMENT; Adoption agency likely to place adopted children in environment similar to their original home environment, fucks experiment up REACTION RANGE: How heredity/environment interact to influence behavior. Reaction range shows the range (highs and low limits) that a genetic code allows for. (genetics set boundaries for what's possible, and then environmental opportunities influence)(ex: IQ) EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY: Darwin's theory of natural selection in regards to human/animal BEHAVIOR rather then just evolutionary structures CUTOFF FOR MIDTERM CONSCIOUSNESS AND ALTERED STATES CONSCIOUSNESS: the moment to moment subjective experience of the world, bodies, and mental sensations (Subjective, Dynamic, Self-Reflective) INTERDISCIPLINARY: Physics, philosophy, psychology, neuroscience, computer science, etc HOW IS CONSCIOUSNESS (supposedly) MEASURED: - Self reports - Physiological measures (ex: eeg) - Behavioral measures COGNITIVE VIEW OF CONSCIOUSNESS COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (Analogy): Humans are “information processors”. The “mind” is the computers software and the brain is the computers hardware (This is an oversimplification and not all cognitive psychologists agree with thus)(vary greatly) - Controlled (effortful) Processing: Mental processing that requires some degree of volitional control/attentiveness - Automatic Processing: Mental activities that occur automatically and require no/minimal conscious control/awareness (things done just automatically) Divided Attention: The ability to perform more then one activity at the same time Difficult if tasks require similar cognitive resources (Ex: texting while driving) THE SCIENCE OF SLEEP CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: Cyclical changes that occur on a roughly 24 hour period in many biological processes - Regulated by suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) Located in hypothalamus Brains “biological clock” Pineal gland releases hormone melatonin JET LAG(EX: pineal gland gets used to releasing melatonin at certain times) How much sleep do we need? Between 7-10 dependent on: - Age - Health - Quality of sleep - Genetics - Species STAGES OF SLEEP  1) Awake and Alert (Beta Waves: approx greater than 13 waves per second)(‘just resting my eyes’)(hypnagogic imagery; dreamlike hallucinations you see) Calm Wakefulness (Alpha Waves: approx 8-12 waves per second) 2) Sleep Spindles (short bursts of neural activity) K-Complexes (large waveform that occurs intermittently) 3) Delta waves LESS than 50% of the time (delta waves crucial for good sleep) 4) Delta waves MORE than 50% of the time (hardest stage to wake people up from) 5) REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement)(period where brain is most active, and when most dreaming occurs) SLEEP DISORDERS - INSOMNIA: Difficulty falling and staying asleep Treatment(Behavioral): consistent wake schedule, only go to bed when tired Treatment(Pharmacological): addictive, adverse side effects, rebound insomnia - NARCOLEPSY: Irregular control of sleep/wake cycles Symptoms: “sleep attack” (sudden sleep), Cataplexy(losing voluntary control of muscles), Sleep Paralysis Causes: insufficient hypocretin producing neurons in hypothalamus Treatment: Stimulants - SLEEP APNEA: Blockage of airway during sleep, resulting in daytime fatigue Symptoms: night sweats, weight gain, hearing loss, irregular heartbeat, death Treatment: weight loss, CPAP air mask - NIGHT TERRORS: Sudden waking episodes of screaming, sweating, and confusion; followed by a return to deep sleep Lasts few minutes, during stages 3 and 4 of sleep (not REM) - SLEEP WALKING: Walking while fully asleep, occurs during deep sleep Usually harmless, occurs more in children; safe to wake up sleepwalker DREAMS: Most people dream, but a large number of people typically cant recall their dreams - Only 0.38% of people have been found to never experience dreams - CROSS CULTURAL SIMILARITIES: Dreams are typically more negative then positive - Men dream of other men more often than women - Freud's Dream Protection Theory: while dreaming, primitive sexual urges are expressed symbolically, called “wish fulfillment”(what you dream are your true desires) PROBLEMS: Some people can't dream, not wish fulfilling because most dreams are negative, most dreams not sexual in nature ACTIVATION SYNTHESIS THEORY: Dreams simply reflect brain activation while sleeping ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS:  - HALLUCINATIONS - OUT OF BODY EXPERIENCES(OBE) Sensation of our consciousness leaving our body occurs in approx 10% of population Usually occur in conjunction with near death experiences Can be simulated by centrifuge (what they put astronauts in) and the GOD HELMET (not real though, did not yield results in double blind experiments) - DEJA VU Feeling of reliving an experience that's new May be due to excess levels of dopamine in temporal lobe Resemblance of past events poorly remembered - HYPNOSIS Set of techniques that provides people with suggestions for alterations in their perceptions/thoughts/feelings and behaviors People are chosen to be hypnotized on the basis of their suggestibility REGRESSION THERAPY: people are hypnotized to remember events from childhood to find where psych problems originated (WRONG however, individuals present at time of age regression cannot corroborate) DRUGS PSYCHOACTIVE DRUG: Substance that contains chemicals similar to those found naturally in the brain, that alter consciousness by changing chemical processes in neurons - Alter how we think/act/feel - Effects of drug depend on: Type and Dose - Categorized into 4 groups: Depressants Stimulants Opiates Psychedelics Different routes of administration for drugs, however to reach brain all drugs must go through bloodstream BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER: protective lining of cells around brain capillaries that prevent certain substances from leaving bloodstream and entering nervous system SUBSTANCE USE DISORDER: User has significant recurring impairments in their life as a result of the drug TOLERANCE: Reduction in the effect of a drug as a result of repeated use, requiring greater quantities of consumption for same effects WITHDRAWAL: Unpleasant effects of reducing/stopping consumption of a drug that has been consumed habitually Depressants: Drugs that decrease nervous system activity - ALCOHOL: Increases GABA, Decreases Glutamate Alcohol myopia: ‘short sightedness’ in thinking caused by inability to pay attention to as much information as sober person - BARBITURATES & TRANQUILIZERS: Aka sleeping pills and anti anxiety pills Usually overly prescribed, extremely addictive Stimulants: Drugs that increase nervous system activity - EX: Nicotine and Caffeine; increase heart rate - AMPHETAMINES: Used to reduce sleep, fatigue, appetite, depression. Increases dopamine and norepinephrine When injected, can lead to high blood pressure/strokes - METHAMPHETAMINES: Inhaled via smoking, more potent than amphetamines - MDMA (ECSTASY) - COCAINE: Was a common curative in the 1800s Inhaled or injected, causes extremely excitement and euphoria Blocks reuptake of dopamine/norepinephrine Surprisingly withdrawals not that bad comparatively Opiates: Derived from poppy, bind to endorphin receptors and produce euphoric effects - EX: Morphine, Heroine, Fentanyl Hallucinogens: Drugs that cause dramatic alterations of perception, mood, and thought - EX: Cannabis LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR Watson believed study of ‘consciousness’ is futile, and makes more sense to study behavior in a verifiable way. BEHAVIORISM: Assumes behavior can be studied for its own sake - Assumes causes of behavior only include natural phenomena (behavior is a function of evolved genetics and environmental forces; can't explain behavior with things that cannot be quantified or measured) - Behavior = f(Organism, Environment) PHYLOGENETIC (EVOLVED) BEHAVIOR: - Reflexes (PRIMARY LAWS OF THE REFLEX) Law of Threshold: point which below no response is elicited, and above response always occurs Law of Intensity Magnitude: increase in stimulus intensity increases intensity of response Law of Latency: more intense a stimulus is, the faster the response is elicited HABITUATION: Decrease in intensity of probability of a reflex response resulting from repeated exposure - Fixed Action Patterns Series of related acts found in (nearly) all members of a species ‘Instinctual behaviors’ Occurs when appropriate releaser stimulus is present - Phylogenetic (evolved) Behavior General Behavior Traits: any general behavioral tendency that is strongly influenced by genes EX: introversion, general anxiety, activity level, aggressiveness MORE VARIABLE then fixed action patterns; differs person by person LIMITS OF NATURAL SELECTION: Too slow, adaptations can become useless as the environment changes. Thats why theres LEARNING LEARNING: A change in behavior due to environment - Behavior has numerous measurable dimensions which could change Frequency Intensity Speed Form/Topography TYPES OF LEARNING: Habituation Respondent Conditioning (pavlovian/classical conditioning) Operant Conditioning RESPONDENT CONDITIONING  - UNCONDITIONAL STIMULUS (US): An antecedent that elicits the behavior called the unconditioned response without the need of any prior history of learning (EX: Food) - UNCONDITIONAL RESPONSE (UR): The behavior elicited by the antecedent stimulus called the unconditioned stimulus without the need of any prior learning (EX: Drooling) (NOT LEARNING) - CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to elicit a conditioned response when it is contingently paired with unconditioned stimulus. CS function is ‘conditional’ on its relationship with US (EX: The bell) - CONDITIONAL RESPONSE (CR): The behavior elicited by the antecedent stimulus called the conditioned stimulus (EX: Drooling) PROBE TRIAL: Present the CS alone (with no US); called the test trial - In general, more exposure = greater conditional responding - Early exposure produces more learning then later exposure - Conditional responding is ‘Asymptotic’ - Conditioning/Learning can occur at different rates: Taste aversion can occur after only 1 exposure Salivation requires numerous exposures VARIABLES IMPACTING RESPONDENT CONDITIONING - TEMPORAL RELATIONSHIPS CS and US overlap partially CS begins first Most effective method when CS-US interval is short (0.4-1 sec) - TRACE CONDITIONING CS begins and end before US Generally, longer intervals between CS and US produces weaker responses - SIMULTANEOUS CONDITIONING CS and US begin and end at the same time - BACKWARDS CONDITIONING US occurs first followed by CS Not as effective RESPONDENT EXTINCTION: Presenting the conditioned stimulus in absence of the unconditional stimulus SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY: An increase in the magnitude of the conditional response after respondent extinction has occurred and time has passed RESPONDENT/STIMULUS GENERALIZATION: When an organism shows a conditioned response to values of the CS that were not trained during acquisition (but similar) RESPONDENT/STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION: When values of the CS, other than what was originally trained, elicit little to no conditioned response (ONLY react to exact learnt stimuli) Aversion Therapy: A therapy in which a stimulus is contingently paired with a noxious (aversive) stimulus. (EX: clockwork orange; Disulfiram makes you sick to stop alcoholism) OPERANT CONDITIONING - Operant Conditioning: Study of how environmental consequences affect behavior Consequences could either REINFORCE behavior (Increased behavior) PUNISH behavior (Decreased behavior) EFFECT OF REINFORCING CONSEQUENCES - Increase frequency - Increase duration - Increase intensity - Increase in quickness (decrease in latency) - Increase in variability TWO WAYS OF REINFORCING: - Add a stimulus(ex: food) + Positive Reinforcement - Remove a stimulus(ex: electric shock) - Negative Reinforcement REWARD =/= REINFORCEMENT (only reinforcement if the behavior is later repeated) TWO WAYS OF PUNISHING - Add a stimulus(ex: getting beat up) + Positive Punishment - Remove a stimulus (ex: taking away phone) - Negative Punishment Punishment: - Punishers defined by their effect on behavior(punishment must decrease the behavior) - Can be highly effective and work over long term when used properly - DRAWBACKS OF PUNISHMENT: Only decreases behavior, does not teach new acceptable behavior Usually fosters undesirable emotional responses (aggression, fear, apathy) Can foster subversive practices to escape punishment (lying, cheating, etc) Imitation of the punisher DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS: Stimulus that signals that a behavior will be reinforced OPERANT/STIMULUS GENERALIZATION: When an organism responds to values of the discriminative stimulus that are different than the originally trained values (produces generalization gradient) OPERANT EXTINCTION: Process of withholding reinforcers that maintain a behavior (stop rewarding behavior, and behavior will stop) EXTINCTION BURST: Short lived rapid burst in responding following initial exposure to extinction (ex: ur computer doesent work when you click, so you start clicking rapidly) SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT: When a behavior isn't rewarded EVERY TIME its done (can sometimes work better than rewarding each time) (discrimination is precise control, generalization is less precise control) Shaping: Differential reinforcement of successive approximations of a target behavior (ex: training a rat to level press) - Reinforce approaches to lever - Reinforce sniffing te lever - Reinforce touching with paw - Reinforce full depression of lever NOTE: extinction of earlier steps can help shaping because of the increased variability in behavior extinction produces MEMORY MEMORY ILLUSION: False but subjectively compelling memory FORGETTING: Deterioration in learning behavior following a Retention Interval - Retention Interval: A period during which the learning or practice of a behavior does not occur SENSORY MEMORY: Brief storage (1s) of perceptual information from sensory receptors before it's passed to short term memory - Iconic Store: Visual sensory information that lasts for a second - Echoic Store: Auditory sensory memory that lasts for 5 - 10 seconds SHORT TERM MEMORY: Memory system that retains information for limited duration (15s) Encompasses information currently being attended to/thought about. Short term memory is short because: - DECAY: Fading information from memory over time - INTERFERENCE: Loss of information from memory due to competition from additional incoming information (bigger player) Retroactive Interference: Interference with retention of old information due to acquisition of new information (ex: forgetting old language after learning new one) Proactive interference: Interference with acquisition of new information due to previous learning information Short term memory has a limited capacity of give or take 7 Chunking: Organizing information into meaningful groups to make them easier to remember Rehearsal: Repeating information to extend the duration of retention in short term memory - Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short term memory - Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking stimuli in a meaningful way to improve retention of information in short term memory LONG TERM MEMORY: Relatively enduring (minutes to years) retention of information stored regarding our facts, experiences and skills - Has large capacity (unlike STM)  -Lasts for hours to years (PERMASTORE: Long term memory that appears to be permanent PRIMACY AND RECENCY EFFECTS: - PRIMACY EFFECT: Tendency to remember words at beginning of a list especially well Traditionally thought to reflect LTM - RECENCY EFFECT: Tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well Traditionally thought to reflect STM REPEATED RETRIEVAL: Repeatedly trying to recall/use the material over time (ex: quizzing) TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY: - Semantic Memory: knowledge of facts about the world, referred to as declarative memory - Episodic Memory: recollection of events in our lives - Explicit Memory: memories we recall intentionally and of which we have conscious awareness - Implicit Memory: memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously - Procedural Memory: memory of how to do things like motor skills/habits (ride a bike) - Priming: semantically related words will result in faster reaction times (ex: first words ‘doctor’, will react faster to word understanding if next word is ‘nurse’) THE NEURAL BASIS OF MEMORY STORAGE ENGRAM: A, hypothesized, physical trace of a memory within the brain - Karl Lashly: trained rats in maze, lesioned brain areas to try to find ‘engram’ (never did) - Donald Hebb: memory is an assembly of firing neurons; when one neuron is near another neuron and excites the second (neurons that fire together wire together) LONG TERM POTENTIATION: Long lasting relationship in signal transmission between 2 neurons that results in one neuron having increased efficiency in making the other neuron fire (unfair democracy) AMNESIA: - Retrograde Amnesia: loss of memories from our past - Anterograde Amnesia: inability to form new memories from our experiences Consolidation: A hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long term memory ALZHEIMERS: A degenerative brain disease that results in dementia - Language ability deteriorates along with other bodily processes, risk increase with age INFANTILE AMNESIA: Inability of adults to remember experiences that took place before 3 FALSE MEMORIES (CRYPTOMNESIA): Failure to recognize that our ideas originated with someone else (could be result of source monitoring confusion; lack of clarity about origin of memory) MISINFORMATION EFFECT: Creation of fictitious memories by providing misleading information(FALSE MEMORIES) MOTIVATION: A process that influences the type of behavior that gets expressed and its persistence (there has to be a reason FOR motivation (no cyclical logic)) DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY: Theory proposing that certain drives (hunger, thirst, sexual frustration) motivates us to act in ways that minimize aversize states - DRIVE: A hypothetical internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension - HOMEOSTASIS: Tendency of a biological system to maintain relatively constant conditions in internal environment while continuously interacting with/adjusting to changes originating within outside the system PROBLEM: Does not explain the presence of behaviors when drives are satisfied (why are people motivated to do things that don't satisfy drive?? Ex: hobbies) INCENTIVE AND EXPECTANCY THEORIES: - Theory proposing that were often motivated by positive goals - INCENTIVE: External goal that has capacity to motivate behavior - Incentive x Expectancy = Motivation INTRINSIC MOTIVATION: Motivation by internal goals (ex: reading) EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION: Motivation by external goals (ex: money) (MYTH: Extrinsic motivation undermines intrinsic motivation; not supported by research) MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: Model developed proposing we must satisfy physiological needs (need for safety and security) before progressing to more complex needs - Humanistic Perspective - Alot of contradictions (starving artist, prisoners enduring torture, anorexic) - Penultimate goal is SELF ACTUALIZATION: Desire for self fulfillment SELF DETERMINATION THEORY: Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness THE PHYSIOLOGY OF HUNGER METABOLISM: The bodies rate of caloric utilization - Basal Metabolism: metabolic rate when body at rest - Set Point: Value that establishes range of body and muscle mass we tend to maintain Short Term Signals for Hunger: Hunger pangs = muscular contractions of the stomach - Corresponds to feelings of hunger/satiety, however correlation =/= causation - Glucose: simple sugar used for energy in the body - Glucostatic Theory: when our blood glucose levels drop, hunger creates drive to eat to restore proper levels of glucose Short Term Signals for Satiety: distention of stomach/intestines Long Term Signals Regulating Appetite and Weight: Leptin: Hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brainstem to reduce appetite/increase energy used PHYSIOLOGY OF HUNGER: - Lateral Hypothalamus: stimulation leads to increased eating - Ventromedial Hypothalamus: stimulation leads to decreased eating PSYCHOLOGY OF HUNGER: BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE: Respondent Conditioning - Food related stimuli function as CS eliciting food related CRs (hormone release, digestive processes)(ex: gold arches increase ghrelin secretion) COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE: Expectation that eating will be pleasurable/reduce hunger PALATABILITY: Better tasting food consumed in larger quantities QUANTITY AVAILABILITY: Greater amounts of food/portions lead to more consumption VARIETY: Different types of food lead to greater overall consumption of food Eating Disorders: Obesity = BMI over 30; 40%-70% contribution of genetic variation of BMI - Bulimia Nervosa: eating disorder associated with binging/purging to lose weight - Anorexia Nervosa: 1% of population, high body dissatisfaction and lack of eating EMOTION: 1) Cognitive Component: Subjective conscious experience (feeling scared, love) 2) Physiological Component: Autonomic responses (sweaty palms, goosebumps) 3) Behavioral Component: Overt behavioral expressions (screaming, blushing) - Primary Emotions: Small number of emotions believed by some to be cross culturally universal (happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, disgust, fear, contempt) - Display Rules: Cross cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions (ex: women in japan covering mouth when laughing) - Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Facial expressions are capable of influencing emotions - Non-Verbal Leakage: Unconscious spillover of emotions into verbal behavior - Personal Space: Emotional distance often positively correlated with physical distance THEORIES OF EMOTION: Common Sense ‘I tremble because I feel afraid’ James Lange Theory: ‘I feel afraid because I tremble’ (your afraid because your heart is racing) Cannon Bard Theory: ‘Something makes me feel afraid and tremble’ (stimulus) Two Factor Theory: ‘I label my trembling as fear because I judge the situation as dangerous’ THE MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT: Phenomenon in which repeated exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favourably towards it TEXTBOOK: - People judge minds on Agency and Experience - 4 principles of consciousness: Intentionality, Unity, Selectivity, Transience - Disorders of consciousness: Comas/Vegetative states; Locked in syndrome (not a consciousness disorder) - Thought Suppression (does NOT work, makes u think of thing more)(Rebound Effect) - FRUED: Dynamic Unconscious and Repression - DUAL PROCESS THEORY: System 1 for Daily Life, System 2 for Effortful Tasks - Depriving REM sleep: Psychological Effects; Depriving Stage 3&4 sleep: Physical effects - Drug tolerance, Physical Dependence, Psychological Dependence - hypnotic analgesia: the reduction of pain through hypnosis in people susceptible to hypnosis. - 3 FUNCTIONS OF MEMORY: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval - SEMANTIC Encoding, VISUAL IMAGERY Encoding, ORGANIZATIONAL Encoding - Semantic encoding: Process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge already stored in memory (ACTIVITY IN LEFT FRONTAL LOBE) - Visual imagery encoding: Process of storing new information by converting into mental pictures. (ACTIVITY IN OCCIPITAL LOBE) - organizational encoding: Process of categorizing information according to relationships among a series of items. (ACTIVITY IN LEFT FRONTAL LOBE) - LONG TERM MEMORY STORAGE requires HIPPOCAMPUS - Reconsolidation: When consolidated memories become prone to disruption when they are recalled - MEMORIES STORED IN SPACES BETWEEN NEURONS - Retrieval induced forgetting - Learning based on experience, Causes changes in organism, Changes are relatively permanent - sensitization: When presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus. - Classical/Respondent Conditioning: Type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response. - Law of Effect: behaviors that reap good results will be repeated, and those who reap bad ones wont - variable-ratio (VR) schedule: Delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses, although the ratio of responses to reinforcements is variable. (MOST EFFECTIVE) - intermittent reinforcement: Only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement (MOST RESISTANT TO EXTINCTION) - 3 ELEMENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING: Cognitive, Neural, Evolutionary - Implicit learning unrelated to IQ, and changes little across lifetime -