PSYC1450 Notes on Psychology

24/09/24 **THE EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY** *Psychology is the scientific study of people, the mind and behaviour (British Psychological Society, 2014)* **Domains of Psychological Inquiry:** **NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY** **Social Constructivism** Constructivism is an approach in psychology in spirit of illustrating merits of different perspectives/learning via experience or interaction w existing knowledge. Social construct refers to a collection of characteristics and traits we are presented in society that has lost origins and became a concept we no longer question. To question it we can deconstruct it into its basic building blocks considering a different perspective. Constructs can change between time and culture dependent on the prevalent attitudes of the society. **Levels-of-analysis framework** refers to how behaviour and its causes can be broken down and studied at different perspectives/levels: biological, psychological, and environmental. Typically, all levels must be considered to gain the fullest understanding rather than choosing sides e.g., in nature vs nurture. **The Goals of Psychology:** 1. To *describe* how people/animals behave 2. To *understand* cause of behaviours 3. To *predict* how people/animals will behave under certain conditions 4. To *influence* behaviour via control of its causes 5. To *apply* psychological knowledge to enhance human welfare **Basic** **Research** -- reflects the quest for knowledge purely for own sake (deliver basic principles that can be built upon/further investigated in future) **Applied** **Research** -- research designed to solve specific practical problems **(Basis) STUDY**: Robbers Cave (Sherif et al., 1961) *Hostility and prejudice within groups.* Researchers divided 11-year-old boys into 2 groups 'Eagles' and 'Rattlers' living in separate cabins but doing activities together initially getting along well. To test hypothesis that competition would induce intergroup hostility, researchers pit groups against each other via athletic contests (*influence*). This caused hostility. Conflict was not reduced when shared activities after e.g., watching movie. When created 'emergency' activities requiring co-operation to attain common goal, intergroup conflict reduced, and friendships developed. This study represented basic research discovering general principles of intergroup conflict concluding competition bred hostility but was reduced when groups were dependent on one another to achieve a common goal. **(Applied) STUDY**: Jigsaw Program (Aronson et al., 1978) *Desegregation of schools.* Ethnic groups mixed in classrooms and 5-6 groups of children assigned to prepare for test each having to share their piece of information. As Robbers Cave, students must work together to succeed (co-dependence). Jigsaw technique and other *co-operating learning programmes* decrease prejudice, increase friendliness and school achievements (*application*). **PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOUR:** **Interaction** is the way in which one factor influences behaviour depends on presence of another factor. **Philosophical Roots** **Early Schools** **Psychodynamic Perspective** **Behavioural Perspective** Focus on external environment that govern observable behaviour which we learn from experience/stimuli in the immediate surrounding. Leading psychologists included Watson, Skinner, and Pavlov. **Cognitive behaviourism** proposes learning experiences/environment influences expectations/thoughts which in turn influence out behaviour. **Humanistic Perspective** Places emphasis on free will, personal growth, and attempts to find meaning in one's existence. *Maslow* (1908-1970) proposed inborn forces towards **self-actualisation** (reaching to achieve one's fullest potential). Rogers (1902-1987) developed **person-centred care** allowing clients to take responsibility as a 'free agent' whilst providing positive regard (a basic need as well as self-worth) **Cognitive Perspective** Examines nature of mind and how mental processes influence behaviour. **Gestalt** **psychology** examined how elements of experience are organised into wholes 'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts'. This studies the processes in which people reason/make decisions, form perceptions/mental images, and produce/understand language. Cognitive neuroscience uses sophisticated electrical recording and brain-imaging techniques to examine brain activity while people engage in cognitive tasks. **Sociocultural Perspective** Focuses on how social environment and cultural learning influence our behaviour, thoughts and feelings. **Culture** refers to the enduring values, beliefs, behaviours and traditions that are shared by a large group of people and passed from one generation to the next. Cultural groups develop their own **norms** -- rules that specify what behaviours are acceptable/expected by members of a group. **Socialisation** is the process by which culture is transmitted to new members and internalised by them. **Behaviour Genetics** Genetic factors '**behaviour genetics'** pose a long-standing interest in study of behavioural tendencies. MZ twins sharing 100% of DNA are significantly more likely share traits even when reared in different homes/environments. This highlighted how cultures must be acknowledged, promoting **cross-cultural psychology** research which explore how culture is transmitted to its members, and examines psychological similarities and differences among diverse cultures. Culture can be divided into 2: **individualistic** -- emphasis on personal goals and self-identity based primarily on own attributes and achievements, or **collectivist** -- own goals are subordinate to those of group and personal identity is defined by ties to social groups. These customs are built via learning experiences in childhood. **Biological Perspective: The Brain, Genes, and Evolution** This approach examines how brain processes and other bodily functions regulate behaviour. **Behavioural neuroscience** studies processes and physiological functions that underlie behaviour, sensory experiences, emotions, and thoughts. *Hebb* (1949) proposed changes in connections between nerve cells in brain = biological basis of learning, memory, and perception. These cells communicate via releasing chemicals - **neurotransmitters**. Darwin published his theory of evolution including **natural selection** -- if an inherited trait gives advantage, then individual is more likely to survive and therefore pass on characteristics to offspring/future generations which overtime become more prevalent. These characteristics adaptiveness may increase/decrease as environment and time changes. These ideas gave rise to **evolutionary psychology** - a discipline that seeks to explain how evolution shaped modern human behaviour. **Modern Psychology** Is much more geographically, ethnically, and gender diverted. Psychologists can help influence national policies by helping politicians develop legislation dealing w social issues e.g., Covid-19, where behaviour change, and communication were critical. Current issue includes some topics being in vogue, attracting more research/funding than others. Psychology now has separated into many subfields which overlap and can be applied to various work settings around the globe. **RESEARCH STUDY: DO OWNERS LOOK LIKE THEIR DOGS?** Method: 90 photographs of (45) dog and (45) owners were mixed and then given to ppts to match Results: 16/25 of purebred dogs successfully matched, others and mixed bred poorly matched. Also found no correlation between likeliness and amount of time owning dog. Conclusion: dogs didn't match owners in categories if hairiness, size, attractiveness etc, except purebred dogs being rated similarly to owners in 'friendliness'. Discussion: lack of correlation between time and likeliness suggests owners chose dogs resembling selves, not growing alike. **\ ** 27/09/24 **IS PSYCHOLOGY A SCIENCE?** **Science** is the systematic study of structure/behaviour of physical and natural world via observations, experimentation, and testing of theory against evidence. Its structure includes facts, principles, concepts, and laws. **Paradigm** -- typical pattern or system of beliefs, ideas and values **Ontology** -- concepts in a subject or domain that show properties/relations between them **Epistemology** -- study knowledge limits and how obtain it regarding validity/investigation distinguishing belief from opinion **Scientific Method** Procedure that has characterized natural science 1. Initial observation 2. Gather information and form hypotheses 3. Test hypotheses (conduct research) 4. Analyse data and draw conclusions 5. Report findings 6. Furter research and theory building **Features of Science:** **APPROACHES TO GENERATING KNOWLEDGE** Experimental Approach (quantified/numerical data analysed) Case Study Approach (recordings and observations reviewed) Inductive Reasoning -- generalising from specific to broad (bottom-up) drawing conclusions from several observations Deductive Reasoning -- generalising from broad to specific (top-down) using premises to draw conclusions Objective -- unaffected by feelings or opinions Subjective -- acknowledges feelings, opinions, and individual experiences Holt, N. (2023). Chapter 2: Studying Behaviour Scientifically. In N. Holt, A. Bremner, E. Sutherland, M. Vliek, M. Passer, & R. Smith (Eds.), Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour (pp. 39-80). McGraw Hill. [Chapter 2: Studying Behaviour Scientifically :: Psychology; the science of mind and behaviour (talisaspire.com)](https://content.talisaspire.com/worc/bundles/650d690d43053d2b1f516db4) 04/10/24 **INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES** Individual differences (ID) are the ways in which people differ and the factors/processes that underpin why. This includes behaviours, thoughts, and feelings, as well as the structure and determinants of psychological characteristics as perceived by others and self. In psychology is also referred to as 'differential psychology' or 'whole person psychology'. Examples psychologists focus on include personality, intelligence, interests, attitudes. **Types of Individual Differences** Intra-Individual Variability -- differing across situations and contexts Inter-Individual Variability -- differing from one another Nomothetic Approach -- attempts to find what is similar between people to develop laws of behaviour/generalise trends in behaviour to everyone (favours large samples and quantitative methods) Idiographic Approach -- investigates things which make people different/unique by focusing on subjective experiences on an individual/small group (favours qualitive data) **Measuring Individual Differences** Psychometric Tools: S-Data -- self report e.g., personality, interests, and values T-Data -- test data e.g., ability, intelligence, and performance O-Data -- other's behaviours e.g., judgements/evaluations of others L-Data -- life data e.g., social, economic, and demographic characteristics of individuals **Evaluation**: \+ high in reliability/validity, enables comparisons between individuals and application to other settings (can infer causality) \- potential bias (observer or social desirability) forced-choice responses, lengthy measures = fatigue/dislike tests, qualitative input) Ethical considerations must be taken e.g., informed consent and awareness, purpose, how data used, and confidentiality. **Emotional Intelligence (EI)** EI refers to a set of adaptive traits and skills involving perception (identifying emotions in self and others), understanding (knowing cause, consequences and how emotions link together), use (to facilitate thinking), and regulation of emotions. It can be divided into trait and ability. EI can predict better academic achievement suggested by Perera & DiGiacombo, 2013, to be due to enhanced regulation during stress, emotional engagement w learning, and good social skills. This is effect is stronger for individuals w low cognitive ability. EI can also be linked w better sport/psychical performance associated w a more positive attitude towards it. EI has been implicated in other clinical conditions such as anxiety, depression, self-harming, personality disorders, and eating disorders. **Emotional Intelligence and Autism** Autism is a dyad of impairments w different levels of severity. Defined by DSM 5 diagnostic criteria as 'persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts, restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests, or activities. People w autism are not a homogenous group. Research suggests people w ASD/C have lower EI e.g., autistic adolescents show lower levels of TEI **and** AEI than non-autistic adolescents. Gokcen et al. (2014) found negative relationship between AQ (autistic) score and TEI scores in adults. **Sex differences in levels of EI** Females show higher levels of objective emotion skills e.g., greater ability to decipher emotion expressions in other people however males tend to show higher levels on aspects of self-reported EI e.g., males often report themselves as being more competent at regulating their emotions and impulses than females do (self-control factor of TEI) **STUDY**: Lyons & Schneider (2005) To test how EI relates to task performance **Method**: 126 undergrads completed AEI measure (MSCEIT) then performed mental arithmetic task and a speech (were rated on performance) **Findings**: both male and female high scores on emotion understanding indicate better performance, males' emotion perception predicted worse speech performance and females' perception predicted better in speech. 07/10/24 **PERSONALITY** A combination of underlying characteristics, relatively stable across different times and situations (how someone typically behaves). This includes people's preferences rather than specific strengths or abilities. 'Reflect a person's style of behaviour, ae broad generalisations, since how we behave is also influenced by situations, these traits may be useful in helping us to predict how individuals will probably behave.' -- Cooper (2002) on personality traits **PERSONALITY THEORIES:** **Nature vs Nurture** Combination of both needed to understand how personality develop. We inherit pre-dispositions which influence how we behave as well as environmental factors max/minimising this potential. Research into this topic typically use non/identical twins because of the shared genes (nature). **Psychoanalytic Theory** Personality develops from childhood experiences and unconscious processes. According to Freud, personality is made up of a triad: ID, superego, and ego. Develop through 5 stages to become adult including oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Assessments were conducted through clinical techniques such as deep discussion 'psychoanalysis' and other measures include projective tests e.g., Rorschach Inkblot Test. **Humanistic Theory** Based on the concept that 'self' is very important involving a person's subjective experience, and personal meaning. We develop through life aiming to reach 'self-actualisation' where have learnt most about self/reached human potential (Maslow, 1970). Personality differences between individuals arise form various ways environment helps or hinders attempts to satisfy psychological needs. Healthy personality development requires unconditional positive regard (Rogers, 1951). Methods associated are therapy and counselling. **Social Learning Theory** Personality developed via learning form social environment (Bandura, 1986) by modelling and observational learning. Two functions are reinforcement and observation. Self-Efficacy -- individual's belief about whether they have capacity to do something involving 4 determinants: - Performance Experiences (previous) - Verbal Persuasion (e.g., encouraging messages) - Observational Learning (on similar others' successes/failures) - Emotional Arousal (controlling anxiety/fatigue) **Psychometric Theory** Empirical principles: attributes (idea developed scientifically through factor analysis) can be quantified and measured. This assumes that attributes are stable and consistent over time and situations. Questionnaires used to identify how people perceive self and typically behave. There is no agreed number of personality factor, but popular models include Cattell's 16 factor model (16PF) and the 'Big Five' model. **Trait or Type Theories** Trait -- personality is bets understood as a combination of behavioural tendencies or preferences. Type -- individuals have a personality type each associated w different characteristics, types are viewed as dichotomies - clearly categorised as belonging to one of two options (not both). E.g., Myers-Briggs (1962) MBTI. Type theories suggest an individual is either introverted or extraverted whereas introversion and extraversion are on a continuum/scale between the two. **The 'Big Five': OCEAN** **O**penness - relate to curiosity, new ideas, attentiveness to feelings. Excitable with wide interests. On the other hand, conventionality is associated with a preference for the familiar **C**onscientiousness - Preferences such as being determined, purposeful, organised and hard working. Low C is related to being less exacting and less rigid in working -- having a lack of direction **E**xtraversion - Preferences associated with impulsiveness, sociability, assertiveness, being active and talkative. On the other hand, introverts may be more reserved, quiet and more likely to need time alone **A**greeableness - Preferences that relate to altruism, associated with interpersonal tendencies. Trusting, warm and sympathetic. Other extreme: tough mindedness/antagonism- sceptical of others' intentions, competitive **N**euroticism - Preferences that relate to experience of experience of negative affect & reactions to stress. High N is associated with anxiety, depression and irritability, insecurity and self-consciousness; Emotional\ Stability relates **Personality and Emotional Intelligence** Personality traits can be predictors of EI; extraversion, openness, and agreeableness. Strong negative correlation between trait EI and neuroticism suggests they may be the inverse of each other. EI and neuroticism proposed to be factors contributing to depression, anxiety, and stress. 11/10/24 **INTELLIGENCE** It is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills based on own judgement and reasoning to explain it. Although it is problematic to identify clear and universally accepted definition of intelligence as it means somewhat different thing to individuals. Common themes include learning, recognition of patterns, problem solving, understanding ideas, reason, plan, communication, and adapting to the environment. **Historical Figures in Measuring Intelligence** **Hereditary Genius - Sir Francis Galton (1869)** Influenced by Darwin, proposed mental constitutes are inherited. Holds a biological basis unrelated to social measures (e.g., occupational success) such as brain size and reaction time. Typically tested on own acquaintances = similar demographic/social measure. **Alfred Binet** Developed test to identify children that would benefit from special education. Based this on assumptions that mental abilities develop w age, and rate which mental competence are gained stays relatively stable throughout lifetime. **Stern's Intelligence Quotient (IQ) - William Stern** Used a relative score w comparison across ages. (Mental Age/Chronological Age) X 100 **Measurements Developments** Lewis Terman revised Stern's work for the USA (Stanford-Binet) -- 'gold standard' of intelligence testing. Arthur Otis -- Army Alpha (verbal test) and Army Beta (non-verbal) David Wechsler -- measurements of both verbal and non-verbal skills: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and children's (WISC) **PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH** Approach involves structure of intellect and mental competencies underlying test performance. **Spearman (1923) -- g factor (general intelligence)** Scores various intelligence test items correlate w general mental capacity. Special abilities are required for tasks. It is universal and stable throughout lifetime. At age of 11, g factor can predict GCSE outcomes. The heritability of g factor increases w age 40% - childhood, 55% - adolescence, and 65% - young adulthood. **Thurstone (1938) -- Primary Mental Abilities** Abilities for intelligence testing include space, verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, perceptual speed, rate memory, and reasoning. **Cattell and Horn -- Crystallised and Fluid Intelligence** Crystallised intelligence focuses on ability to apply previous knowledge to new problems (improves w age). This requires LTM and tests vocabulary/information. Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve new problems without existing knowledge using the WM and STM (deteriorated w age). Its test is the Tower of Hanol. **Carroll -- Three Stratum Model** Theory of cognitive ability based on factor-analytic study of correlation of individual-differences. It arranges abilities within a hierarchy. Uses factor analysis on data from 1935-1980. **COGNITIVE PROCESSES** Approach focussing on specific thought processes underlying mental capacities. **Sternberg -- Triarchic Theory of Intelligence** Intellectual competence consists of 3 types: analytic (academically oriented problem-solving skills) practical (reaction and adaptation to environment) and creative (deal adaptively w novel problems). Underlying cognitive processes are comprised of metacomponents (plan/regulate task behaviour), performance (execution of metacomponent strategies) and knowledge-acquisition (encode/store information). Sternberg also identified tactic knowledge as acquired through life and practical intelligence as developing expertise. It focuses on abilities developed from attaining daily goals e.g., riding a bike and measured via situation judgement test (candidate's perception of best/worst actions in work situations. **BEYOND MENTAL COMPETENCIES** Traditional intelligence tests measure knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, and fluid reasoning. Gardner's Multiple Intelligences suggests individuals possess various types of intelligence such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, visuo-spatial, musical, bodily kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. Emotional Intelligence includes the ability to empathise and evaluate others' emotions (Schacter et al, 2012) w skills in social situations, getting on with and sensitivity to other's feelings (Goleman, 1995). **Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)** - Perceiving emotion (accuracy in judging expressions) - Using emotions (identifying emotions that would enhance thinking) - Understanding emotions (identify which emotions blend) - Managing emotions (changing emotion to facilitate success) **Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence on Academic Achievement (Pishghadam et al., 2022)** Studied relationship between students' levels of I/EI and their academic achievement as well as which type of intelligence can better predict university students' academic achievements. Methods used were Raven's progress matrice for I and Bar-On emotional quotient inventory for EI. They found higher I and EI correlated w higher academic achievement (I better predictor than EI) concluding traditional educational settings focus on cognitive ability. **Artificial Intelligence** Study of mental processes in artificial intelligence systems (Curtis, 1963). This refers to intelligence exhibited by machines or software. The goal of AI is creating intelligence. Multi-disciplinary field bring together computer science, psychology, philosophy, neuroscience, mathematics, and linguistics. **INFLUENTIAL FACTOR ON INTELLIGENCE** Turkheimer & Horn (2013) studies nature vs nurture specifically the interaction between heritability of intelligence and socioeconomic status (SES). High SES = high influence of genetic contribution onto intelligence however low SES = low genetic influence. **Sex Differences** Men on avg are better at spatial tasks, mathematical reasoning, and target directed skills e.g., throwing and catching whereas women on avg are better at perceptual speed, verbal fluency, fine motor coordination, and mathematical calculations. Spencer et al., 1977 investigated the role of stereotype threat by sorting ppt into 2 conditions: one told gender differences are in previous results and other condition told no gender differences. It was found sex differences only observed when ppt were told there were differences previously observed. **READ**: Chapter 10/14: Intelligence -- Holt et al. (2023) Psychology: The science of mind and behaviour.\ McGraw Hill Szczygieł, D., & Mikolajczak, M. (2017). Why are people high in emotional intelligence\ happier? They make the most of their positive emotions. Personality and Individual\ Differences, 117, 177-181 14/10/24 **INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY** Scientific study of how the mind processes information (cognitions). Key areas include thinking, reasoning, learning, memory, language, perception, attention, and consciousness. However, it ignores emotions and other human aspects. As well as low validity in studying -- cognitive processes are unobservable (must make inferences). **HISTORY** **Origins of Cognitive Psychology** Wundt governed a change of focus of the mind from philosophy to science (empirical and objective). Titchener developed on this, introducing concept of structuralism -- breaking down experiences into basic elements for analysis. **Cognitive Revolution** began in 50's and 60's as result of criticisms of behaviourism. Chomsky argued language is more innate than learning = can't be explained by behaviourism alone. **Information Processing Approach** perspective of mind as a computer (in 60's and 70's) The mind (software centre) has inputs (via senses), hardware and memory (the brain) and outputs (behaviour). W development of brain imaging techniques, cognitive neuroscience developed and allowed researchers to investigate brain/cognitive processes. **Approaches to Human Cognition** **Cognitive Psychology** Is based on analogy between mind and computer generally involving behavioural experiments on healthy individuals under tightly controlled lab conditions. Experiments often designed to disrupt cognitive processes and reveal workings e.g. distracting ppts attention via background noise during memory tests. **STUDY**: Lost in Mall (Loftus, Coan, Pickerell., 1990) Implantation of False Memories Interviewed ppts about events from childhood w suggestive cues/leading questions e.g., 'can you remember being lost in a mall?'. Follow up interviews asked to recall events discussed in 1^st^ interview including when lost in mall e.g., how felt, who was there. Findings included 25% reporting to have been lost in mall (false memory implemented) posing implications in EWT. EVALUATION: lab fundamentally different from real life = low ecological validity and bias/act to please the experimenter. **Cognitive Neuropsychology** Concerned w cognitive performance in patients w brain lesions to study how cognitive processes influenced by brain functioning. Unethical to cause brain damage = limited control. In case studies difficult to compare before and after or intervening injuries. **Cognitive Neuroscience** Interested in neural mechanisms underlying cognition, involved studying brain and behaviour. Using brain imaging and brain anatomy allows 'live' cognition functioning of healthy individuals. Typically, small samples = not consider individual differences, low ecological validity, and common false positives. It also assumes 1:1 links between cognitive processes and brain areas. Methods: - Electroencephalography (EEG) - Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) - Positron Emission Tomography (PET) - (Functional) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI; fMRI) - Magnetoencephalography (MEG **Computational Cognitive Science** Involves programming computers to model or mimic aspects of human cognitive functioning. It oftens combines w other approaches e.g., cognitive psychology. However difficult to interpret and may overly generalise factors into models. 18/10/24 **REMEBERING AND FORGETTING** Memory concerns the psychological processes of acquiring, storing, and retrieving information. LTM in comprised on procedural and declarative memory (episodic and sematic). In which episodic is built up of autobiographical, experimental, and flashbulb memory. **ENCODING:** Process of information being input/translated into the system/memory stored in brain. More effective encoding into LTM increases likelihood of retrieval. Automatic Processing: encoding that occurs w/o intentional and requires minimal attention. Effortful Processing: encoding that is initiated intentionally and requires conscious attention. **Levels of Processing** (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) more deeply processed = better at remembering Structural Encoding -- remembering how stimulus looks (shallow) Phonological Encoding -- how stimulus sound (intermediate) Semantic Encoding -- what stimulus means (deep) Self-Referential Encoding -- how stimulus related to you (deeper) Features of elaborative rehearsal: organising, understanding, applying, and relating. **STORAGE/MEMORY:** The retaining of information over time. Types of memory: short-term, long-term, explicit/implicit, working, and sensory. Sensory memory briefly holds incoming sensory information. Memory is reconstructive -- not direct record of witness but dependent on info already stored, how understood, organised, and structured. **Types of Memory** Short-Term Memory - Holds about 7 ± 2 meaningful items (Miller, 1956) digit-span test used to assess STM capacity and chunking involves combining individual items into larger units of meaning. Its duration is about 18 seconds maximum (15%), 70% at 3 seconds, and 50% at 6 seconds (Peterson & Peterson, 1959). There is rapid forgetting w/o rehearsal. Long-Term Memory - A vast library of more durable stored memories w unlimited capacity and duration for potential lifetime. Implicit Memory - Memories that influence behaviour w/o conscious awareness/is unintentional also referred to as unconscious or automatic memory. Explicit Memory - Conscious/intentional memory retrieval, recognition is the deciding of whether stimulus is familiar, recall is the spontaneous memory recall and cued recall is the hints given to stimulate memory. Procedural Memory (Gupta & Cogen, 2002) also an implicit memory is a type of LTM involved in performance of actions and skills e.g., walking Declarative Memory involves factual knowledge e.g., episodic -- knowledge of personal experiences e.g., birthday, and semantic-- general facts about world and language e.g., capital of France. Flashbulb Memories -- recollections so vivid that can picture as snapshots of memories in time (most likely occur for distinction events evoking strong emotional reactions) may be overconfident in reports and inaccurate details ![](media/image2.png)**Memory Models** Three-Stage Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) sensory memory briefly holds incoming sensory info which if attention played to is encoded into working STM (processes info from SM and LTM) the LTM stores info that is encoded for longer periods of time. Working Memory Model (Baddeley, 2002) is a limited capacity system that temporarily stores and processes info. It has 4 components: central executive, episodic buffer, visuospatial sketchpad, and phonological loop. Strengths of this is that can explain problems in specific areas of memory e.g., KF, sub-systems supported by PET scans, concurrent verbalisation tasks = evidence, and application for children learning to read. It places emphasis on processing rather than storage Levels of Processing (Craik & Tulving) storage of info varies along continuous dimensions depending on depth to which it has been encoded. (STM) shallow processing, medium processing, and deep processing (LTM) **RETRIEVAL:** Processes that allow access to stored information. **Memory and The Brain** **Cerebral Cortex:** **Hippocampus** - **Amygdala -** Connects emotional reactions, social behaviour, and sense of smell to parts of memory system **Cerebellum -** Structure in back of skull important for control of movement (coordinates memories tied to motor skills) **Forgetting** Accessibility -- info available cannot be accessed at specific time/place Availability -- info is not represented in memory Encoding Failure -- info sensed not processed deeply or played attention to enough to commit to memory Theories of Forgetting: - Decay - Displacement - Interference - Retrieval Failure - Lack of Consolidation - Motivated Forgetting Amnesia Memory loss due to special conditions e.g., brain injury, illness, or psychological trauma. Retrograde Amnesia -- memory loss of events before onset of amnesia Anterograde Amnesia -- memory loss of events after initial onset of amnesia Stimuli which trigger emotional responses are typically remembered better due to release of stress hormone increasing activation of amygdala = helps encode emotional aspects of experiences into LTM. Autobiographical memories -- recollection of personally experience events which make up stories of life (enhanced by emotional arousal, its intensity fade w time) **Dementia** Umbrella term for wide brain of progressive conditions/symptoms affecting brain (BPS, 2016) is life-limited and progressive neurocognitive disorder. Progressive -- individual's needs become more complex over time as do psychological symptoms. Symptoms include memory loss, difficulties w perception and communication, and reduced ability to conduct daily routine tasks e.g., cooking and personal care. Progression: - Mild Stages -- small amounts of damage in brain region = subtle changes to behaviour (small difficulty in memory and ability to live independently) - Mid Stages -- brain damage spreads to areas of brain involving thinking, planning, speaking, and perception - End Stages -- substantial damage to brain = will shrink due to brain cell death Childhood Demetia Sanfilippo typically inherited mostly affects brain, brain cells fill up w waste and body unable to process. As becomes progressively damaged, children experience severe hyperactivity, disordered sleep, loss of speech, cognitive decline, loss of mobility, and death. Alzheimer\'s Disease Most common cause of dementia (general term for memory/cognitive ability loss). Greatest risk factor is increasing age. Younger-onset Alzheimer's if affects ppt under 65yrs old. **Forgetting in STM** Trace Decay -- unless info refreshed/rehearsed, it will spontaneously fade/decay over time (assumes memories leave trace in the brain). Evidence: The Brown Peterson Task Displacement -- only fixed no. of slots in memory capacity = new info will displace old info. Evidence: Murdock Primacy/Recency Effect **Forgetting in LTM** Interference -- more info stored become confused together (memory traces are disrupted/obscured by other info) proactive -- previous knowledge interferes w new learning, retroactive -- new info interferes w earlier learning/memories Retrieval Failure -- info may be available but temporarily inaccessible Tip-of-the-Tongue State -- when feel know the word but temporarily unable to retrieve it Freud suggested forgetting due to repression (consciously burying memories to protect ego) 21/10/24 **LEARNING: THE ROLE OF EXPERIENCE** The gain of knowledge/skill by study, experience, or being taught. Can be either explicit (conscious and deliberate) e.g., learning definitions given to, or implicit (unconscious and indirect) e.g., learning definitions via exposure during reading. **The Adaptive Brain** Neuroplasticity -- brains ability to adapt/modify its structure and functioning based on experience = allowing learning e.g., taxi drivers greater grey matter in hippocampus (responsible for spatial recognition and navigation) than London bus drivers (Maguire et al., 2006) **BASIC LEARNING PROCESSES** **1. Habituation** general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus = gradual reduction in response **2. Sensitisation** increase in strength of response to repeated stimulus e.g., loud foot tapping **3. Classical Conditioning** associating one stimulus w another (produces an elicit response that was originally only elicited by other stimulus) e.g., Pavlov's Dogs. There is a gradual elimination of learned response when CS no longer followed by UCS, final stages include the tendency of learned behaviour to recover from extinction after a rest period. Higher-order conditioning occurs where UCS is a CS from a previous learning experience. This takes form as 1^st^ and 2^nd^ order conditioning. Generalisation -- ability to respond to stimulus because of similarity to CS that was paired w UCS Discrimination - capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli. This can be applied to aversion therapy, educational settings, and advertising. **4. Operant Conditioning** Thorndike (1898) studied how animals learn to solve problems using puzzle boxes = importance of insight and trial and error. Law of effect: in a given situation, a response followed by a satisfying consequence will become more likely to occur and a response followed by an annoying consequence will become less likely to occur. Skinner used operant/skinner boxes to study OC experimentally identifying environment factors (operants) increased behaviour (reinforcers) and some decreased (punishers). Reinforced can be primary (food) or secondary (money, and appreciation). Can generalise to different situations and also discriminate between them if necessary, e.g., dog begging only successful w certain family members. **5. Observational Learning** Occurs when learn through observing behaviour of a 'model', hugely adaptive: can learn which events are important, stimuli which signal event, and which responses likely to produce negative/positive consequences. It helps bypass time-consuming and sometimes dangerous learning process of trial and error. Bandura's social learning theory (1977) people learn via observing others and acquiring the belief that they can produce behaviours to influence events in their lives. Modelling processes include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Self-efficacy -- an individual's belief in their capability to perform behaviours necessary to achieve a desired outcome. Bobo doll experiment (1961) 25/10/24 **INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY** Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why humans grow, change, and adapt across the course of their lives. Originally concerned with infants and children. Continuous development -- changes that occur at a steady pace, perhaps constant and consistent improvement/growth Discontinuous development - changes that occur in what appear to be bursts of achievement following period of steady consolidation of knowledge or skill **History** Until 16^th^/17^th^ century, children seen as little adults = children working in factories during industrialisation. Compulsory education and schooling were introduced during 17^th^C w changes to criminal justice system too: youthful offenders act 1854, and children act 1908. Developments in standardisation and neuroscience/cognitive field. **Theories** **Key Theorists**: - Sigmund Freud (stage theories, drives, and influences in child-rearing practices) - Erik Erikson (8 Stages) - John Bowlby (attachment as an evolutionary survival mechanism, internal working model, monotropy, and retrospective theory) - Jean Piaget (stage theory -- age related, cognitive ability focus, samples biased, child as scientist) - Lev Vygotsky (development not linear, zone of proximal development, and social/cultural influence) - Urie Bronfenbrenner (ecological systems theory, and multiple context in which child develops) **Issues and Debates** Nature vs Nurture - Development and genes - Epigenetics -- Dutch Hunger Study - Free Will vs Determinism - Symbolic Relationships Stability vs Change - Changes over lifespan - Personality development - Intellectual and cognitive development - Emotional changes (considering gender differences) Continuity vs Discontinuity - Ages and stages e.g., cognitive, moral, and personality developments - Linear and nonlinear (cultural/individual differences in development) - Critical periods for language and attachment **Application** - Legal System - Education - Medicine - Family Support - Supporting children who don't have neurotypical development 28/10/24 **PHYSICAL AND COGNITVE DEVELOPMENT** Developmental psychology -- scientific study of changes occurring over human life span (originally concerned w infants/children then expanded to aging). Biological development relates to bio changes e.g., in brain and motor development. Cognitive development is the neurological and psychological development of mental processes (and way in which are organised). **PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT** Changes occur during early childhood e.g., increased fine motor coordination, increased gross motor coordination, and increased balance. Fine motor skills involve small muscles working w brain/nervous system to control movements in hands, eyes, tongue, etc. These skills help w eating, writing, and moving objects. Gross motor skills use the whole body. It is usually visible from a baby's effort to move/travel e.g., crawling to coordinate body movements like walking independently. Children become increasingly confident, agile, flexible, and strong by using whole body. Cephalocaudal trajectory -- gradient of growth pattern from head to toe (e.g., oversized heads as infants) Proximodistal trajectory -- development/growth develops from centre to outwards (fingers/toes) **Brain development** Begins in 3^rd^ gestational week, affected by gene expression and environment. It involves a complex series of dynamic and adaptive processes which produce new neural structures and functions. Disruptions alter neural outcomes. Neural networks involve that throughout development, neural networks develop and become more efficient through synaptogenesis and 'pruning'. Hebb (1949) suggested neurons that are simultaneously or successively active become associated over time 'Hebb's Rule'. Cells that fire together, wire together -- Hebb. At birth, brain is 25% of its adult volume, 50% at 6 months, and 80% by 2 years, 90% by 5 years. Some evidence suggests that brain is still developing especially frontal lobe until 20/30s. Brain growth sloes from early childhood to adolescence (neural re-structuring and upsurge in dopamine) Puberty is associated with hormonal changes. In older adulthood, typically loss of brain tissue over time (5.4% per year, Resnick et al.., 2003) Atypical development includes senile dementia (after age 65). **ACE's** Adverse childhood experiences: divorce, mental illness, homelessness, neglect, abuse, violence Adverse community experiences: poverty, discrimination, lack of opportunity, poor housing, violence **Walsh et al. (2014)** Brain imaging technology is used to scan adolescents aged 17-19, exposure to adversity during childhood affect development of brain negatively. Cerebellum associated w skill learning, stress regulation, sensory-motor control. Although cerebellum is only 10% of brain volume, its volumes 50% of brain's total neurones. Psychiatric illness associated w smaller cerebellum. **Psychoneuroimmunology** ![](media/image4.png)The immune system (body defence network) is compromised on cells and organs which are specifically aimed at defending the body against attacks from bacteria, viruses and other illnesses. Diagram represents reciprocal ways factors affect each other. Relationship between the 3 can be mediated by other factors in individuals' life e.g., protective factors of stress, health behaviours, and other pressures. Toxic stress involves the prolonged activation of stress response system which can disrupt brain architecture, organs, increase risk of stress related disease and cognitive impairments. Children are at a heightened risk of stress related health disorders due to new world. Nervous system development reflexes begin during gestation and disappear in expected order during infancy. They are important sign that NS is functioning. **COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT** Schemas are mental frameworks or structures building blocks of knowledge gained via experiences and interacting w environment (gradually replaces reflexes). This includes self, social, person, and event schemas. Assimilation -- applying new info to existing schemas Disequilibrium -- conflict between existing schema and new experiences Accommodation -- adjusting schema when new experiences do not fit into existing schema **Piaget's Stage Theory of Cognitive Development** Sensorimotor (0-2yrs) coordination of senses w motor responses, sensory curiosity about world, language used for demands and cataloguing. Object permanence is developed. Preoperational (2-7yrs) symbolic thinking use of proper syntax and grammar to express concepts. Imagination and intuition are strong but complex abstract thoughts are still difficult. Conservation is developed. Concrete operational (7-11yrs) concepts attached to concrete situations. Time, space and quality are understood and can be applied, but not as independent concepts. Formal operational (11+yrs) theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual thinking. Abstract logic and reasoning. Strategy and planning become possible. Concepts learned in one context can be applied to another. **Criticisms**: lack of operational definitions (terminology), may underestimate children's abilities, linear stage theory, individual differences and social context/culture ignored. **Vgotsky (1896-1934)** Sociocultural theory of cognitive development (social context matters). Consists of 3 zones: things learner can do on own, things learner can do with help/the zone of proximal development, and things learner cannot do. Cognitive psychology suggests mind similar to computer such as inputs (external senses) to the processor (brain) to create outputs (behaviour/reactions). Information processing approaches contrasts to stage-like models via viewing cognitive development as continuous gradual processes where the same set of info processing abilities become more efficient over time. This involves processing speed, attention, memory, metacognition, response inhibition, and info search strategies. A positive association was found between exposure to green spaces and cognitive development (potentially from less exposure to air pollution) Chapter 12 from Holt et al. (2019) 01/11/24 **SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT** Emotions are dependent on prevailing theoretical perspectives, it is assumed emotions require perception, awareness (conscious and unconscious), activation of NS, cognition appraisal, and physical/behavioural responses. **Early Basic Emotions** Age Emotional Expression -------------- ----------------------------------------------------- 0-3 months Startle, Disgust, Distress 3-6 months Smile, Laughter, Anger, Interest, Sadness, Surprise 7 months Fear 7-9 months Stranger Distress 18-24 months Shame/Pride 2-3 years Envy, Guilt, Embarrassment **EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION** Include physical responses, behavioural displays of emotion, feelings children recognise and learn to name, thoughts/judgements associated w feelings, and action signals e.g., fight and escape. Ekman & Friesan (1975) proposed idea of recognising basic facial expression emotions. **Influences on Emotional Expression** - Values and beliefs about in/appropriate ways of expressing emotions e.g., from family and peers - How effectively the child's emotional needs are met - Temperament - Cultural norms - Learned emotional behaviours - Stress **Relationship between Social and Emotional Development** Social Development: - Recognition of self and others - Imitation of others - Joint attention and social referencing - Understanding social contexts - Development of social and personal relationships Emotional Development: - Emotional expression - Responding to emotions of self and others - Recognising emotions - Regulation of emotions **Social and Emotional Development During Childhood** Is Important for children to start understanding who they are, what they are feeling, and what to expect when interact w others. It focuses on developing to form/sustain positive relationships, experiences/manage/express emotions, and to explore/engage w environment. It is vital to have positive social/emotional development during childhood as it influences self-confidence, empathy, ability to build lasting/meaningful relationships. Caregivers play the biggest role during this depending on their consistency in the child's life as well as other relationships such as teachers and extended family. Examples to be applied to is in play, language development, and emotional intelligence. **Emotional Development** A milestone reached at around 18 months -- child responds appropriately to themselves in the mirror. This sets the stage for empathy, embarrassment, and envy (more complex emotions). Mirroring refers to unconsciously imitating physical expressions/posture. Key developments are social referencing (when infants look at other's expressions to figure how should proceed in given situation e.g.., eye contact, tone, and expressions) and emotional regulation. **Emotional regulation: Gross (1998) Process Model** A screenshot of a computer screen Description automatically generated 01/11/24 **ATTACHEMENT** Emotional bond developed between child and primary caregivers which can evident via proximity-seeking behaviours. This typically forms during a sensitive period of development effecting later life. Key studies include Harlow (1958) Rhesus monkeys' Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1978); and Bowlby's theories of attachment (1969, 1982). **Stages of Attachment: Prior & Glaser (2006)** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Antenatal any bonds formed can have a positive effect once child is born -------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Birth-6 weeks positive responsive care giving lays foundations for secure attachments to form 6 weeks -- 8 months child may begin to show a preference toward the\ primary/secondary caregivers 6-8 months -- 18 months-2years begins to show strong attachments; develop\ separation anxiety when caregiver leaves even for short periods 2+ years become less dependent on primary caregiver particularly if a secure\ attachment. If the caregiver leaves, they are confident they will return ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Types of Attachments: Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1978)** ![A screenshot of a computer Description automatically generated](media/image6.png) **Signs of NOT having a secure attachment (Howe, 2011)** In infants: - Avoidant of caregivers - Distressed when caregiver leaves - Rejecting caregiver attempts to soothe/connect - Not noticing caregiver leave/enter - Passive response to caregiver - Not exploring environment In older children: - Difficulties asking for help - Struggling to form positive relationships - Struggling to concentrate/calm self - Simultaneously demanding/rejecting attention or support - Quickly angry/upset w no clear triggers - Withdraw/disengage or hyperactive Internal working models of self and other people arise from early experiences in relationships Attachment as a Life-Span Construct - Continuity hypothesis - Security as important element - Emergence of autonomy - Attachment styles and internal working models **Attachment in Adulthood** Child/parent attachment associated w attachment in romantic relationships (Baptist et al., 2012) Situational/contextual (Waeger, 2007; Staik, 2013) & Broader attachments (Fraley & Davis, 1997) **Emotional Development (ED): Adolescence** Healthy development is marked by a gradual increasing ability to perceive, assess, and manage emotions. Biological processes driven by physical and cognitive changes are influenced by environment. Factors affecting ED: - Hormones - self-esteem - stress - gender differences - parenting styles. **Stages of Psychosocial Development (Erikson)** Erikson defines identity as a fundamental organising principle which develops throughout lifespan. It involves experiences, relationships, beliefs/values, and memories which make up person's subjective sense of self. This creates a continuous self-image that remains constant even as new aspects of self-develop/strengthen. Benefits for forming an identity in adolescence can be commitment, self-confidence, sense of independence, and fidelity. Identity provides: - self-sameness (sense of continuity within self and in interactions w others) - uniqueness (frame to differentiate between self and others) - psychological development (mental and physical health for adolescents) **Social and Emotional Development: Adults** Includes defining values and sense of purpose as well as having a clear thought pattern. Begin developing a well-grounded understanding of strengths and weaknesses, managing life's challenges, handling social relations become to develop, understanding/coping w managing emotions, confidence than doesn't boarder on arrogance, building/reinforcing self-control, nurturing healthy relationships, and showing empathy. **Social and Emotional Development: Older Adults** Retirement and 'Golden Years' introduced. Relationships become enhanced and Erikson highlights integrity vs despair stage. Ideally experience low-activating emotions e.g., calm, relax rather than excitement however value positive emotions equally to young adults. Younger adults may set goals more difficult, in older ages this changes. **SUMMARY** Various aspects of emotional and social development. As we get older, we recognise different emotions and regulate our emotions. Various elements are important for social development,\ including attachment. Attachment styles can impact our relationships later in life. Identifying our emotional regulation, attachment styles etc. can help us to adapt, cope, and identify emotions. Older people's emotional goals more closely match those they experience in life. 11/11/24 **SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY** The scientific investigation of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others Allport., (1954, p5). Social psychology (SP) is a branch of psychology focusing on how people think, influence, an relate to each other. This examines connections/interplay between individuals and groups (inter and intra-group behaviour). It also tackles issues that significantly affect people's health and wellbeing e.g., stereotyping and self-identity. Topics included are emotions, perception, prejudice, obedience, and conformity. It is also between collective and individual fields of psychology (more collective than individual). SP tends to be an academic field, but research has powerful influence on understanding of mental health/wellbeing and how we are attracted/behave to each other e.g., research on conformity helps explain peer pressure/belongingness which can develop health programmes, or info on harmful behaviours. Hawthorne effect occurs when people behave differently because they know they are being watched **HISTORY/RISE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY** Norman Triplett (1898) concluded that bodily presence of another contestant participating simultaneously in the race serves to liberate latent energy not ordinarily available. **Allport (1920) Social Facilitation** often people show an increased level of effort because of the presence of other (whether real, imagined, or implied) 2 types: co-action effects and audience effect. Co-Action effect is a phenomena whereby increased task performance comes about by mere presence of others doing same task e.g., if someone else more productive at library you attend too and be productive. Audience effect is where the individual's performance is influenced by the presence of others (audience) which causes individual's dominate response e.g., playing piano at stage vs at home. Cognitive mechanisms of this effect and how varies across cultures is unclear however mixed levels of support within psychology research imply may depend on interaction between task and performer. **Lewin (1936) Field Psychology** Adopted the language of mid-century physics to develop field psychology viewing social behaviours as product of 'internal forces' e.g., personality, and goals, as well as 'external forces' e.g., social pressure, and culture. Lewin recognised that behaviour is result of individual and environment as well as researching group dynamics. They suggested person's psychological state influences their social field. Raised importance of individual personalities, interpersonal conflict, and situational variables. Lewin then became interested in Gestalt theory -- behaviour is the sum of its parts. This theory has a major impact on social psychology supporting the notion that individual traits and environment interact to cause behaviour. **Asch (1946) Conformity** Conformity is the adjusting of one's behaviour/thinking to match those of others/group standard. Asch conducted the Line Study w aim to investigate how pressure from group could lead individuals to conform even why unambiguously wrong. Revealed degree person's own opinions are influential -- willing to conform to incorrect answer to avoid standing out. **Festinger (1950) Cognitive Dissonance** We hold beliefs, attitudes, and cognitions which are different and experience discomfort/dissonance as result of inconsistency. When behaving against own values, learn info going against long-standing opinion. We are motivated to reduce dissonances either by changing own attitudes or selectively attending to info which support own belief while ignoring others (selective exposure hypothesis). **Bandura (1963) Social Learning Theory** Conducted the Bobo Doll Experiment finding that behaviour in social world can be modelled. This is common in everyday life e.g., as children imitating family, friends, and famous figures. **Tajfel (1971) Social Identity Theory** Proposed that stereotyping (putting people into categories) is based on a normal cognitive process: the tendency to group things together. We tend to exaggerate the differences between groups and similarities on things within same group. Members of an ingroup tend to favour ingroup over outgroup, highlight differences while favouring own group (lowering perception of differences of ingroup to increase cohesion) and remembering positive info about ingroup/negative about outgroup. Social behaviour falls on continuum (interpersonal -- intergroup behaviour). Most social situations need compromise. Examples are how this shapes our politics or adopting role of student/staff to conform to the set norms. Self-esteem and identification can be bound to group membership potentially about self-concept. **Weiner (1986) Attribution Theory** Assumes people try to determine why people behave the way they do (interpreting causes of events). A 3-stage process underlies an attribution: 1. Behaviour must be observed/perceived 2. Behaviours must be determined to be intentional 3. Behaviour attributed to internal/external causes Casual dimensions of behaviour: locus of control, stability, and controllability. **RESEARCH WITHIN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY** Methods used can include experiments, observations, case studies, interviews, surveys, and focus groups. Basic Research -- fundamental questions (for knowledge) about thoughts, feelings, and behaviour/causes. Applied Research -- applies basic research to problems/issues w aim to often enhance quality of everyday life **Evaluation on Social Psychology Methodology** \- difficult to conduct \- underestimates individual differences \- ignores biological explanations \- captures superficial snapshots of social processes \+ provides clear predictions which are testable w evidence \+ emphasises objective measures \+ many experiments used to support theories Cultural concerns are that although many 'universals' in SP, are a lot of key aspects which differ between cultures e.g., gender roles. Culture exerts significant influence on how people see the world/interact w each other e.g., individualist and collectivistic. Ethical considerations can include consent, deception, personal safety, and confidentiality. **Critical Social Psychology** Looks not just at behaviour but the social structures/constructs that are associated and influence behaviours. - Encompasses a range of themes that distinguish it from trad social psychological approaches - Recognises importance of context - Themes of power dynamics, language, social structures/factors - Important in challenging social norms e.g., sexuality, social class, as well as applied to legislation and education policy - Tends to be more critical approach 18/11/24 **SOCIAL INFLUENCE** Social psychology is the scientific investigation of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others (Allport, 1935). **Social Thinking:** Social cognition concerns the social side of our mental processes (e.g., attributions, impressions, and attitudes) and how people make sense of selves as well as other around them. Attributions - judgements about causes of our own and other people's behaviour and outcomes. Personal attributions infer that people's characteristics cause their behaviour whereas situational attribution infers those aspects of situation/environment. **Attribution Error** Fundamental attribution error refers to impacts of situations being underestimated and role of personal factors when explaining behaviour being overestimated. The tendency to make situational attributions to explain our own behaviour but personal attributions to explain others is an actor-observer bias. Self-serving bias is the tendency to make personal attributions for one's own successes but situational for failures. Cultures can influence these biases as individualisms characterizes people to look as self while collectivism views self as integrated into cohesive in-groups. An example in Asian cultures less likely to display self-serving attributional bias than westerns. **Impressions** Impression formation is the process of how, with what info and to what effect people make judgements of others. Forming rapid impressions can be necessary/adaptive for survival from evolutionary viewpoint however stable and accurate impressions may be more valuable. First impressions can have real life implications such as during job interviews. When in negative moods, primary effect may decrease, and regency effect becomes more prevalent; not considering evidence to feel accountable for judgements made. Stereotype is a shared belief about person attributes e.g., personality traits, opinions, and behaviours of a group/category of people. This can contribute to a self-fulfilling prophecy in which expectations lead individuals to interpret situations/behaviours w a bias to fit initial impression. **Self-Concept/Identity:** Self-concept is the representation of ourselves. It is built up of components, also called self-schemas; a mental template, derived from memory of experience, which represents person's beliefs about self in particular domain. Self-perception theory implies that we make inferences about our own attitudes by observing how we behave. On the other hand, social comparison theory is where we compare our beliefs, feelings, and behaviours w other people. A third source of self-knowledge comes from examining what others think of us 'reflected appraisals principle' in which we incorporate other's views into our own self-concept. The self-discrepancy theory distinguishes among representations of our actual self, ideal self, and ought self (what we believe is our obligations). This motivates a person to work towards obtaining goals -- cognitive representation of a desired state, specifying a concrete event individual strives for. Goals can be divided into promotional goals (pursuit of ideals) or prevention goals (pursuit of obligations/what not to do). Regulatory focus theory (Higgins., 1997) proposed that 2 self-guides are for pursuit of different types of goals. **Conformity** Changing own behaviour to match behaviour of others. Some individuals don't follow orders (obey) but instead comply w what others say/do for social norms. Social norms are shared expectations about how people should behave/think in certain situations (deviations from this can be uncomfortable). People may conform for social approval/fear rejection (normative), to behave correctly (informational) or to manage self-image. **Stanford Prison Experiment, Zimbardo (1971)** **Referent Informational Influence** **Obedience** Compliance based on a request from an authority figure. **Milgram Experiment (1974)** **Factors Influencing Obedience** **Compliance** Superficial change in behaviour in response to a request. Social norms are powerful in determining how people should behave in society. The norm of reciprocity is exceptionally powerful since once individual completes favour = pressure to return it. Gratitude is the primary mechanism driving reciprocity. Various techniques can be adopted by others to promote individual compliance w goals. **Compliance Techniques** 1. Door-In-The-Face Persuader makes large request expecting to be declined so that smaller request more difficult to decline. The persuader is seen to compromises = individual feels need to reciprocate as well as first refusal causing guilt. Wang et al., 1989 reported individuals declining \$25 donation more likely to then donate \$2 after. 2. Foot-In-The-Door Individuals more likely to comply w large request once already complied w smaller one (common sales technique) it is hard to refuse once already communicated and reciprocated. Gueguen (2002) found 76% individuals complied w email request (20-min task) after already following an initial email request (1-min task) compared to only 44% on control. 3. Lowballing Involves moving from small to larger request once there is an initial 'contract' or relationship between parties. Stakes are raised after individual committed to make perchance but before purchase is complete. Individuals feel more difficult to decline additional costs -- obliged to person who made initial commitment to. This only works if norm of reciprocity is invoked for sense of requirement to 'return the favour'. **Social Facilitation (Zajonc 1923-2008)** SF is the increased tendency to perform a dominant response in presence of others. Presence of others increases level of arousal = perform more dominant behaviour which increases performance when task easy/well learnt. When learning, dominant responses are likely incorrect/make errors and therefore presence of others could decrease performance when task is complex. **Social Influence Factors: Audience** Home advantage is a phenomenon in sports in which home side more likely to be victorious due to effects not only by players skill. Courneya & Carron (1992) developed framework for HA w 5 factors playing a role in developing psychology and actions of athletes, coach, and official. Factors include crowd, familiarity, travels, rules, and territoriality. **Crowd** **Territoriality** **Issues w Home Advantage** Is not the same for each country. Advantage can also be attributed to by different stadium seating (standing/seated) as well as rules such as ban on flares or control segments of crowd. Uncontrollable factors such as player's personal issues and environmental conditions differ game to game. Additionally, research methodology inconsistent w HA as factors overlap and work together. **Social Influence and The Pandemic** Individuals follow pandemic guidelines most when close circle does so too (creating and validating positive norms are also influential to this). Collectivist societies are more likely to comply to norms which benefit entire society compared to individualist cultures. People more prone to change their behaviour when request comes from member of same social group. **Social Desirability** reflects people\'s need to gain approval by appearing in a culturally appropriate and acceptable manner (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960) and is the tendency for people to present themselves in a generally favourable fashion (Holden & Passey, 2009) Social desirability can be seen as a trait akin to personality traits and hence can be measured as a trait.\ Impression Management -- a conscious or subconscious process in which people attempt to influence\ the perceptions of other people about themselves by regulating and controlling information (Goffman, 1959) **Types**: - Impression Management (other-deception, behaviour intended to control/manipulate impressions other form) - Self-Deceptive Positivity (self-deception, individual genuinely believe and internalise socially desirable responses/behaviour) **Accounting For Bias** The Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSDS, 1960) has been used to detect socially desirable responses to other scales, correct scale scores for socially desirable responding, and provide validity evidence for scale scores (Leite & Nazari, 2017) A 33-item measure of individual-level social desirability bias\ Short forms (e.g. 13 items) also available and have proven psychometrically sound (Loo & Thorpe, 2010) DIRECTED READING: Holt et al., textbook (Psychology: the science of mind and behaviour) 684-701 in Chapter 15 22/11/24 **REFLECTIONS** The evaluation of an event or experience to gain a deeper understanding or incident/contextual influences. It is a generic term for intellectual and affective activities in which individuals engage to explore their experiences to lead to a new understanding and appreciation (Boud, Keogh, & Walker, 1985, p.3) **Why Reflect?** - Gain control over thoughts/emotions - Deeper insights - Make informed judgements - Monitor performance and pace - Understand true motivations - Establish how we learn and think **Models of Reflection:** **Rolfe's Model of Reflection** Asking what, so what, and now what. What? (descriptive) is problem/reason for problem, is role, actions taken, trying to achieve So What? (theory and knowledge building) does this teach, could have done, new understanding, issues Now What? (action orientated reflexive) how fix/improve, broader issues, consequences of action **Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle** Learning is the process creating knowledge via experience (Kolb, 1984) Experience - think about the situation and feelings at the time = provide a solid platform on which you can build your reflection\ Reflect - ask self what worked well or didn't, as well as how account for the successes or failures of this experience? What shaped the contribution to the experience?\ Conceptualise - deeper reflection trying to understand why the experience went as it did (might use some theoretical ideas to gain some insight into the experience)\ Apply - plan how you might do things differently (chance to test your new approach in a relevant context) **Gibb's Reflective Cycle** Description (what happened) Feelings (what thought/felt) Evaluation (gain/loss) Analysis (what can make of situation) Conclusion (what could change) Action Plan (if again, what do) Other models include Fook & Gardener's Critical Reflection Mode and Relational Models of Reflection 22/11/24 **PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR** Acts that are valued positively by society which contribute to the physical or psychological well-being of another person. They are voluntary and has intention of helping. Helping and altruism are 'branches' of this. Altruism - showing a selfless concern for the well-being of others, without care for one\'s own interests; unselfish. Donating to charity for no other reason than to appear generous is helpful but not altruistic. It is due to norms of reciprocity and costly signalling. Corporations may make charitable donations to drive product image in turn for profit. Prejudice -- negative attitude towards people based on their membership in a group Discrimination -- overt behaviour that involves treating people unfairly based on the group they belong to Out-Group Homogeneity Bias -- tendency to view out-group members more similar to one another **Early Explanations:** Evolutionary origin of altruism is suggested to be due to a genetic predisposition to be altruistic, social norms for altruistic behaviours, and developmental plasticity. However, insufficient explanation alone as ignores environmental, cultural, and social inputs. Group selection -- individuals within a group help one another indiscriminately for the good of the group e.g., if individual rapidly diminish food supply = group members starve. Kin Selection (Hamilton, 1964) 'Blood is thicker than water' typically share most genes w relatives = aid survival of close relatives (own gene pool) by being pro-social. Based theory on inclusive fitness. The amount of help given to relatives positively correlated w degree of relatedness e.g., sibling \> cousin. The bigger value of 'r' = greater the difference between cost and benefits. **Hamilton's Rule -- rB\>C** r -- relatedness between individuals B -- benefits of recipient of act C -- cost for performing act **Arousal and Empathy** Empathy -- an emotional response to someone else's distress which follows an initial state of arousal When individuals view someone as in need of help = emotional response elicits empathy = helping may reduce the unpleasant feelings associated w empathy. ![](media/image8.png)**Niko Tinbergen's Four Whys** founded field of Ethology/study of behaviour from evolutionary perspective Levels of causality: 1. Proximate or mechanistic cause 2. Developmental or ontogenetic cause 3. Phylogenetic or historical cause 4. Functional or ultimate cause STUDY: Empathy = Pro-Sociality (Farrelly & Bennett, 2018) Ppts presented videos evoking empathy (Norton the rescue dog) or neutral (dog grooming) and then played a free rice game ([www.freerice.org](http://www.freerice.org)). Ppts who watched empathy video spent more time collecting rice. **Bystander-Calculus Model** (Piliavin et al., 1981) - Physiological Arousal -- the greater level of PA = more likely bystander will help (heart rate correlate w speed of individuals response) - Arousal Labelling -- arousal needs to be labelled, and importantly personal distress needs to arise when someone else requires help (empathy) to reduce own arousal/distress - Consequence Evaluation -- action chosen at lowest 'cost' to individual that will also reduce anxiety (primary cost are time and effort) the greater the cost = less likely to help **Normative Influences** Helping is normative w social rewards for behaving in accordance w the norm and sanctions for disobeying. Near all cultures have norm that concern for others is good and selfishness is bad, as well as that when cost to individual is low, they should help someone in need. 2 norms proposed in relation to altruistic behaviour: reciprocity norm and social responsibility norm. Reciprocity norm -- implicit pressure to return favour when individual helps (deeply indebted when someone freely makes a big sacrifice but less if smaller/expected **Reciprocal Altruism** How cooperation could have evolved between non-relatives. Individuals will help another if recipient can/will return favour in future. Conditions for RA to occur: - Cost of incurring the act must be less that benefit received later - Species it occurs in must be highly social (guaranteeing continued interaction) - Species which occurs must have appropriate cognitive capacities (particularly memory) **Motivational Approaches** Batson (1994) identified 4 ultimate goals for helping people: - Egoism (self-belief) -- prosocial acts benefit the individual who is helping - Altruism -- prosocial acts contribute to overall welfare of other people (does not require reciprocation) - Collectivism - prosocial acts benefit/contribute to welfare of other people e.g., family or country - Principlism- prosocial acts follow a moral principle, only moral if help individuals in need Bystander Intervention (Latane & Darley, 1968) Apathy as well as more witnesses/people available to help decreases likelihood of intervention. Ppts in series on studies more likely to help if alone than in pairs (75% vs 38%). They proposed a cognitive model of helping behaviours. Factors preventing intervention include diffusion of responsibility, audience inhibition, and social influence. Images of eyes encourage people to be more honest as well as more charitable, reduce crime. Images of 3 dots also has the same effect. This suggestion that we are being observed (effecting reputation) promotes pro-socialness. **Personal Characteristics** Individuals more like self, increases willingness to help such as to a signal of relatedness like names or appearances. Perceived fairness and responsibility as play a role as individuals are more likely to help another if they appraise their situation as not due to own making. Gender -- male bystanders more likely to help female whereas women help both equally. DIRECTED READING: Holt et al., textbook (Psychology: the science of mind and behaviour) Chapter 15 25/11/24 **INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY** Biological explanations for behaviours. **History of Biopsychology:** Early philosophers (Aristotle, Hippocrates and Plato) debated relationship between mental world and physical world 'mind/body problem'. Stated mental processes occurred in brain (brain hypothesis) whilst other suggested in heart (cardiac hypothesis). Phrenology (Gall, 1758-1828) Pseudoscience linking bumps on head to aspects of personality/character. Practice based on idea that certain functions located in specific areas of the brain. Phrenologists suggested brain composed of muscles that grow when used more. Structuralism -- attempted to discover structure of mind by observing conscious experience Functionalism -- attempted to identify functions of behaviour and experience as well as how mental states interact w environment **Anatomy of The Brain:** **Frontal Lobe** **Function**: thinking, memory, behaviour, and movement. Largest lobe for cognitive functioning and communication. Luria (1966) suggests primary role is to program/regulate behaviour. Baddeley (1986) suggests functioning associated w coordination, monitoring, and organisational functions in working memory. Damage to this affects processes associated w problem-solving, social functioning, attention, goal-directed behaviour, and self-regulation. Eslinger & Damasio (1985) report on patient w frontal lobe lesion (an abnormity in brain tissues from disease, injury, or surgery) who despite high IQ 130, had poor decision making, twice divorced, and unable to hold down job. Schindler et al (1995) suggest frontal lobe damage demonstrates personality changes, and although memory and perceptual skills intact, decision making is poor. Consists of: - Pre-Frontal Cortex (PFC) control and inhibition 'personality centre' - Motor Cortex control and inhibition - Broca's Area speech production control (left hemisphere) Broca's aphasia results from damage to frontal lobe = difficulties w production of speech **Temporal Lobe** **Function**: hearing/sensory processing, learning, memory, and emotion processing, and language. Consists of: - Primary Auditory Cortex processing auditory info - Hippocampus formation of new autobiographical memories (experiences/events) damage = anterograde amnesia, and occasionally retrograde (old memories frequently remain) - Wernicke's Area associated w memory for language and understanding speech (Wernicke's aphasia results from damage in temporal lobe = difficulties w speech comprehension) ![](media/image10.png)**Parietal Lobe** **Function**: language, and touch, pain perception, aspects of short-term memory, proprioception, and manages sensory input (especially tactile). It includes the Somatosensory cortex which is associated w tactile perception especially from skin. **Occipital Lobe** **Function**: vision processing centre e.g., depth, distance, colour, and object/face recognition. It is the smallest lobe and contains the primary visual cortex (most studied part of brain). Cerebellum -- balance, and coordination Brain Stem -- breathing, heart rate, and temperature **Branches of Biopsychology:** **Behavioural Genetics** Study of causal links between genes and animal behavioural traits and neural mechanisms. Methods used in study: twin studies, qualitative trait mapping by linkage to allelic variants, transgenic animals, and targeted gene disruption/silencing. **Physiological Psychology/Behavioural Neuroscience** Study of human neurological functions as they relate to behaviour and perception. Methods used in study: studies on animals/human subjects, modern techniques e.g., magnetic and functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). **Psychopharmacology** Study of the use of medications in treating mental disorders. Psychopharacologists must understand all clinically relevant principles of pharmacokinetics (what body does to medicine) as well as pharmacodynamics (what medicine does to body) **Neuropsychology** Study of relationships between brain and human behaviour. It aims to understand psychological consequences of neurological and neurosurgical conditions w use of this info to help improve understanding and QoL for patients w illnesses. If individual sustains injury to brain, may experience corresponding changes in cognition e.g., to memory, mood, or behaviour. **Psychophysiology** Study of relations between chemical and physical functions of organisms (physiology) and cognitive processes, emotions, and behaviour (psychology). **Cognitive Neuroscience** Study of how brain enables mind. Brain science explores how individual neurons operate and communicate to form complex neuronal architectures that comprise the human brain. It aims to discover biological foundations of human mind. **Comparative Psychology** Study of animals to understand humans. It is based on the underlying assumption that to some degree, the laws of behaviours are same for all species therefor knowledge via studying rats can be generalised to humans. Studying other species often avoids some of the complex ethical problems involved in studying humans. **Biopsychological Approaches:** 1. **Comparative** Allows for brain-behaviour problems to be measures in animals and compared in humans. It is possible to conduct studies on animals which are not ethical on humans e.g., lesions. 2. **Neuropsychological** Study effects of brain damage on mental functioning to determine brain role in behaviour. Involves systematically testing behaviour to see how behaviour and/or cognitive process are affected following lesions e.g., Phineas Gage and Alexander Laing. Case studies allow for detailed exploration of individual's abilities to be chartered over time. 3. **Psychophysiological** Measurements include heart/pulse signals, electrical signal from muscle contractions (EMG), electric voltage of the brain via measuring activity of neurones through large electrodes placed on scalp (EEG), change in relative oxygenated blood in brain (fMRI). 4. **Cognitive Neuroscience** Include scanning techniques such as CT (x-ray computer tomography), MRI (magnetic resonance imaging -- images based on how atoms in living tissue respond to magnetic pulse delivered via device), fMRI (functional MRI), MEG (magnetoencephalography/detects activity vias magnetic fields generated by brain activity), PET (positron emission tomography -- measure brain activity, metabolism, blood flow, and neurotransmitter activity), X-Ray, and TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation). A recent method using MRI is diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in which water molecule diffusion in tissue is measured. Because water molecules are not free to move due to shape of cells/structure they inhabit, we can gain info about how structures and pathways/tracts in brain aligned/how brain are is structurally connected. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) shines near-infrared light into brain and measures ways in which reflects = which parts of brain using most oxygen). Brain stimulation methods provide direct way of determining how brain regions are involved in behaviours/psychological processes. **Causes of Brain Injury** Vascular Disruption to blood flow to brain e.g., via blockage (stroke), partial blockage (ischaemia) or an enlarged artery (aneurysm). The loss of function depends on severity of event and place of damage ---------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Tumour 'neoplasm' mass of tissue w no physiological function that grows disrupting normal functioning. May cause vascular problems or destroy neurons. Severity depends on size, growth rate, and position. Gliomas begin w abnormal glial cells; meningioma originate in meninges surrounding brain, and metastatic originate elsewhere but invade bloodstream = travel to brain. Degenerative Disease Breakdown of neurological material which may be genetic e.g., Huntington's, or influence by environment. May be cortical (in cortex) or subcortical (beneath cortex). Each disorder has different behavioural/neurological symptoms. Infectious Disease Virus may cause neurological symptoms e.g., HIV and AIDS = subcortical damage; herpes attacks cortical structures Trauma Violent assault which may be closed or open depending on if skull intact. Resulting damage may or may not be at point of damage. May cause vascular problems. Epilepsy A loss of consciousness = excessive/focused electrical activity in brain. Investigated by EEG. Often triggered by trauma = disrupt activity across brain = hard to investigate cognitively. A computer screen shot of a diagram Description automatically generated DIRECTED READING: Psychology: the science of mind and behaviour, Holt et al., (2019) Chapter 4 **THE BRAIN AND BEHAVIOURS** ![](media/image12.png)**Composition of The Brain** Grey matter is at the surface and white matter inside (this is reversed from the spinal cord) grey matter -- cell bodies and dendrites white matter -- axons (bundles of myelinated nerve fibres) medial -- centre lateral -- edge **Hindbrain** Coordinates info going in/out of spinal cord as well as control vital life functions e.g., respiration, heart rate, alertness, and motor skills. Damage to this region can be fatal. Consists of: - Cerebellum - Medulla - Pons ![](media/image14.png) **Midbrain** Contains important relay centres for visual and auditory systems. This is the top-most part of brain stem connecting the forebrain and hindbrain. Key structures: - Reticular formation -- consciousness, sleep, attention - Tectum -- orientates us to environment - Tegmentum -- involves in movement and arousal - Substantia -- reward and movement (implicated in Parkinson's Disease) **Forebrain** Highest level of the brain w main structures being the cerebral cortex (frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes), and subcortical structures. Limbic system includes: - Amygdala (emotional responses) - Hippocampus (memories) - Thalamus (coordinates sensory inputs) - Hypothalamus (supports homeostasis, connected to endocrine system) - Cingulate gyrus - Basal ganglia (controlling movement) The basal ganglia interacts w the frontal lobe to help regulate behaviour and emotion. It is also useful for action selection -- helping us decide which of several behaviours to execute. Neurological evidence suggests that basal ganglia dysfunction underlies OCD. **Hemispheric Lateralization** Lateralization refers to the relatively greater localization of a function in one hemisphere or another. The **left** typically associates w verbal abilities and speech (particularly in men) and spatial relations/recognising faces in the **right**. The corpus callosum is a bundle of nerves connecting the hemispheres (helping communication). Epilepsy patients sometimes have this cut as treatment = split-brain ppts. **STUDY**: Split-Brain Patients (Sperry, 1968) **Aim**: To assess hemispheric lateralisation in split-brain patients\ **Method**: A word or image was projected to the patient's right visual field (processed by LH) or left visual field (processed by RH).\ **Results**: - When image/word flashed up on the right (projected to LH), patient could describe it with ease - When image/word flashed up on the left (projected to RH), they could not describe it, but they could identify the object from touch using left hand **Conclusion**: LH is dominant for speech and language, but RH is dominant for visual-motor and object recognition tasks. Unilateral neglect -- ppts fair to notice/attend to stimuli on opposite side of where brain damage occurred. **Consciousness** Awareness of ourselves and out environments. It is subjective, dynamic, central to sense of self, and intertwined w selective attention. The psychodynamic approach includes conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. Whereas the cognitive approach considers conscious processing (controlled) vs unconscious processing (automatic). Consciousness serves a summarising function to help plan, reflect, and make decisions. It facilitates the distribution of info as well as reflections meaning we can override automatic processing that could lead to impulsive/risky behaviour. Self-awareness allows us to express our needs to other people. **Conscious Processing Hypothesis (CPH)** Skills usually conducted automatically are subject to performance decline when stressed (Masters, 1992). Attempts to ensure conscious control of skills (e.g., breaking down skill) typically used by earlier stages of learning = disruption/conscious processing 'deautomatization' leads to being more error prone. 29/11/24 **NEURONS AND NEUROTRANSMISSION** **Structure of The Nervous System:** The nervous system is the body's control centre made up of 2 types of cells: neurons and glial cells. Its two major divisions are central NS and the peripheral NS. Together the parasympathetic and sympathetic maintain homeostasis/internal balance. The brain and spinal cord contain white and grey matter. Grey is where cells connect and comprises cell bodies and synapses of neurones. White matter is where signals are transmitted between different parts of the NS within axons of neurons. **Central Nervous System** **Peripheral Nervous System** **Response to Stress:** **Immediate Shock Response** Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary (SAM) Pathway -- hypothalamus stimulates sympathetic nerves = stimulates adrenal medulla (adrenaline gland above kidney) = secretes high adrenaline and noradrenaline into blood stream = fight or flight mechanism. **Countershock Response** Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis -- hypothalamus released corticotrophin releasing factors (CRF) which travels to pituitary gland = pituitary gland released adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) into bloodstream = travels to adrenal cortex = stimulates release of corticosteroids into bloodstream. Corticosteroids A steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex or made synthetically Positives: - Maintain steady supply of fuel - Help conserve glucose for neural tissues - Elevation/stabilisation of blood glucose - Mobilisation of protein reserves - Conservations of salts & water - Restoring body back to balance state Negatives: - State of alert maintained = resources used at faster rate - Slower wound healing - Suppression of immune system **Neurons:** - Neurons -- functioning building blocks of NS, they transmit the electrical activity that underlies psychological process - Sensory neuron -- carry input messages from sense organs to spinal cord/brain - Motor neuron -- transmit output impulses from brain/spinal cord to muscles/organs - Interneurons -- perform connective or associative functions within NS - Synapse -- connection between neurons - Glial Cells -- 'glue' surround neurones to hold them in place, provide nutrients, and isolating toxins that would harm them Interconnecting neurones -- receive messages from sensory neurones and pass message to others (found in visual system, brain, and spinal cord) Dendrites -- extension from neuron, is branching projections relay message by bringing electrochemical signal to cell body = to axon = sends info away from cell body = message sent from axon terminal to dendrites of next neuron (as a form of neurotransmitter) Axon -- long tube-like body of neuron which sends info to next neuron Synapse/Synaptic Gap -- fluid filled space between end of one neurone and dendrites of another (post-synaptic neuron) Myelin Sheath -- insulating fatty layer surround axon which speeds up transmission = faster communication Glial Cells -- special types of connective tissue cells that help support and protect neurons **Neurotransmission** Neurons send info electrochemically -- the electrical signal (action potential -- an electrical impulse travelling down neurone) is caused by a chemical reaction. Neurons have positively and negatively charged ions. At rest, neuron contains more negatively\ charged ions in relation to the outside. To fire, the neuron needs to become more positively charged. When a neuron has enough positive charge it will fire = release electrical current down neuron/action\ potential. When action potential reaches end of neuron (synaptic bouton) = vesicles containing\ neurotransmitters open and release the neurotransmitters across the synaptic gap. Post-synaptic neurone has receptor sites where specific neurotransmitter will bind. SUMMARY: The action potential is a brief reversal in the electrical potential of the cell membrane from negative to positive as sodium ions from the surrounding fluid flow **into** the cell through sodium ion channels. The action potential obeys the all-or-none law, firing completely or not at all. The myelin sheath insulates/increases the speed of neural transmission Neurotransmission w overall excitatory effect = neurones will fire, inhibitory = will not fire (dependent on receptors on post-synaptic neuron). **Neurotransmitters** chemical substance released from synaptic gap that affects transfer of an impulse to another nerve, muscle, or organ e.g., dopamine, acetylcholine, and serotonin. They can be antagonist, agonist, neuromodulators, excitatory, or inhibitory. Stages of Life: - Synthesis (production e.g., in neuron) - Storage in vesicle - Release into synapse - Binding to receptor site - De-activation -- reuptake/breakdown Examples: Acetylcholine found in CNS and PNS plays role in learning, memory, and sending msgs from motor neuron nerves to muscles e.g., heart, bladder, and stomach. Alzheimer's disease ppts may have a deficiency. Serotonin is naturally produced in Pineal gland and has a role to control appetite, sleep, memory/learning, temperature regulation, and mood as well as, cardiovascular function, muscle contraction, endocrine regulation, and depression. Dopamine is an excitatory involved in movement, sleep, memory/learning and reward/motivation through anticipation. 06/12/24 **EVOLUTION, GENES, AND BEHAVIOUR** Evolution is studied to understand what something does/its purpose. The brain is shaped by our evolution to help us solve problems that impacted on ancestor's survival and chances of offspring. **Natural Selection** The mechanism behind evolution: 1. Variation -- a population of organisms must have variety of traits (raw tool of evolution) 2. Inheritance -- traits must be reliably transmitted down to offspring 3. Selection -- some of traits must aid survival = increasing likelihood individual reaches maturity & have own offspring who will inherit the trait Evidence for human evolution comes from fossil records. Humans differentiate from other species due to intelligence, language, theory of mind, high scalability, bipedalism, carnivorous. Universal traits shared by all groups of humans suggest due to evolution not individual culture/society. **Importance of Evolution to Understanding Psychology** **Levels of Causality (Niko Tinbergen's Four Why's):** 1. Proximate of Mechanistic 2. Developmental or Ontogenetic 3. Phylogenetic or Historical 4. Functional or Ultimate **Importance of Genetics** Natural selection affects frequencies of genes in a population in response to environmental pressures. The modern synthesis suggested from Darwinian evolution and mendelian genetics, it considers how traits are passed down e.g., eye colours (not blending of genes) = inheritance. Each individual carry 2 'particles of heredity' (genes) which either can be inherited. Genes are assembled in pairs of chromosomes within the nucleus. Humans have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. or inhibitory depending on receptions on post-synaptic neuron. 13/12/24 EMOTIONS Emotions and moods pose a paradigm as they are both states but distinguished by intentionality, duration, and discreteness (Beedie et al, 2005; Parkinson et al, 1996, Watson, 2000 & Watson & Clark, 1994 in Meyers& Tamir, 2024). Emotions are intentional (object focused/stimulus-elicited responses) as compared to mood which is directed towards multiple objects. Emotions can be short lived and can bias actions towards specific objects. They are discrete and specific. Moods can last hours or days biasing cognition as well as generalised, varying positive/negative. History of

PSYC1450 Notes on Psychology

Document Details

Tags

Related

Summary

Full Transcript

Upgrade to continue