Introduction To Psychology PDF

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY - How the mind allows the people to adapt, live, work, and play. CHAPTER 1: THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychoa...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY - How the mind allows the people to adapt, live, work, and play. CHAPTER 1: THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychoanalytic/Psychoanalysis (Sigismund/Sigmund Psychology Freud – father of modern psych) - Is a scientific study of behavior and mental - Focused on unconscious thought conflict processes. between instincts. (Intrapsychic Conflict) - Something you’re not aware of Psychology is a Science - Early/childhood experiences - Prevent possible biases from leading to faulty - The present you are the product of you in the observations past - Precise and careful measurement Behaviorism (Ivan Pavlov, Albert Bandura, John Watson) Psychology’s Four Goals: - Observing one’s behavior 1. DESCRIBE - tell what occurred or answers the - Focused on the stimulus-response question, “what is happening?” - Experimentation 2. EXPLAIN - tells the why or answers the question, - Directly seen and measured “why it is happening?” Theory – general explanation of a set of John Watson believed that phobias were learned. observations or facts. As we explain phenomena, Case of “Little Albert” - taught to fear a white rat we create theory. Mary Jones Cover – mother of behavioral therapy who 3. PREDICT- under what conditions is the works with kids behavior/event likely to occur/happen. Answers the question, “will it happen again?” Gestalt (Max Wertheimer) 4. CONTROL- what change in condition is necessary - The whole is greater than the sum of its part to prevent unwanted occurrence or to bring - Overall image about a desired outcome. Answers the question, - Contradiction of structuralism “how can it be changed?” - “good figure” psychology Behavior - Conditions needed in order for the phenomena MODERN APPROCHES/PERSPECTIVES to be called as behavior (Cooper, Heron and Heward) Cognitive (Late 1950’s – Early 1960’s) 1. There must be a part of the organism which is - Everything is on the mind moving - Individuals mental processes are in control of our 2. There must be a change in the environment as a behavior. result of this movement. - Focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving, and learning CLASSIFICATION OF BEHAVIOR Overt Behavior (Observable actions and Humanistic (Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow) 1960 reactions) - The ability to self-actualize Covert Behavior (Covered, hidden behavior, - All people have the freedom and ability to choose activity in our mind) their own destiny - Emphasized human potential SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS IN PSYCHOLOGY Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt & Edward Titchener) Bio-psychosocial (George Engel) - Structure or basic elements of the mind - Human and animal behavior is seen as a direct (breaking down the pieces) result of events in the body. - Wundt established first psychology in Germany in 1879 Psychodynamic (Sigmund Freud & Alfred Adler) - Introspection (self-examination/analysis) - Modern version of psychoanalysis - Development of a sense of self Wundt is the father of psychology Titchener was Wundt’s student who brought structuralism - Discovery of other motivations to America Margaret Washburn was Titchener’s student and the first Behavioral (Burrhus Frederic Skinner) woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology - Operant Functionalism (William James) conditioning of - It helps us to find our function/use in the voluntary behavior environment (Worth) - Concept of - Ability to function reinforcement - Skinner’s box 1 Sociocultural participant in the group being observed) & Blind - Relationship between social behavior and culture observers (people don’t know what the research question is) Evolutionary - Biological bases of universal mental Laboratory Observation characteristic that all human share - Watching animals or human behave in a - Look at the way the mind works and why it works laboratory setting as it does - Advantages: Control over environment & Use of specialized equipment AREAS IN PSYCHOLOGY - Disadvantage: Artificial situation that may result Abnormal Psychology (Causes of disorders) in artificial behavior Developmental Psychology (From pre-natal to death) TYPES OF RESEARCH Social Psychology (Influence of the society) 1. Descriptive Research – describe the data and Industrial Organization Psychology (workplace) characteristics (observation, surveys and interviews, standardized test, case studies) TYPES OF PROFESSIONALS: 2. Correlational Research – refers to studies that Psychiatrist (Medical Doctor) are concerned with identifying the relationships between 2 or more variable. Psychoanalyst (Has special training in the 3. Experimental Research – allows to determine theories of Sigmund Freud, Psychoanalysis) whether A causes B. (Dependent and Psychiatric Social Worker (Environmental independent variable) Conditions) 4. Indigenous Research – Pakapa-kapa, Psychologist (With an academic degree and pagtatanung-tanong, pagmamasid, pakikinayam, specialized training in one or more areas of pagdadalaw-dalaw. psychology) CASE STUDY The Scientific Method - Study of one individual in great detail - Defined by how it investigates not what it - Advantage: Tremendous amount of detail investigates. - Disadvantage: Cannot apply to others - System of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement are reduced SURVEYS - Series of questions about the topic under study FOUR ATTITUDES THAT IS ESSENTIAL TO THE SCIENTIFIC - Population: Entire group of people or animals in APPROACH: which the researcher is interested Curiosity - Advantages: Data from large numbers of Skepticism (Doubt) participants & Study covert behaviors Objectivity (Free from bias) - Disadvantages: Results not meaningful & People Willingness to think critically (Think outside the are not always accurate box) FINDING RELATIONSHIP FIVE STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Correlation 1. OBSERVING SOME PHENOMENA - Measure of the relationship between two 2. FORMULATING HYPOTHESES AND PREDICTIONS variables 3. TESTING THROUGH EMPIRICAL RESEARCH - Variable (anything that can change) 4. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS - Positive Correlation (As one increases, the other 5. EVALUATING CONCLUSIONS increases; as one decreases, the other decreases.) DESCRIPTIVE METHODS - Negative Correlation (As one increases, the other - Describe the certain phenomena decreases) Naturalistic Observation THE EXPEPIMENT - Watching animals or humans in their normal Experiment - manipulation of a variable environment Independent Variable (IV) – manipulated - Advantage: Realistic picture of behavior Dependent Variable (DV) – measurable response or - Disadvantages: Observer effect (people or behavior animals behave differently) & Observer bias Experimental Group - – subjects are subjected to IV (observer’s expectation) Control Group - subjects are not subjected to IV - To reduce the effect of disadvantages: Random Assignment - process of assigning subjects to Participant observation (observer becomes a the experimental or control groups randomly 2 PLACEBO AND THE EXPERIMENTER EFFECTS Cell Membrane – protects the cell body Placebo Effect – expectations of the participants can Cell Body/Soma – contains the nucleus which influence their behavior provides nourishment and insulation Experimenter Effect – experimenter’s expectations for a Dendrites - receive signals from neighboring study to unintentionally influence the results of the study neurons and carry them back to the cell Single-blind Study – subjects don’t know if they are in the Axons - relatively longer than the other neurons experimental or control group which carries messages to the other neuron Double-blind Study – neither the experimenter nor the Terminal Buttons – axons terminate in small subjects know if the subjects are in the experimental or bulges control group Myelin Sheath - these are fatty tissues and Quasi-experimental Designs – Unable to randomly assign proteins surrounding the axons. participants to the experimental or control groups KINDS OF NEURON ACCORDING TO ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH BASIC FUNCTION Ethics Committee - look over each proposed research 1. Sensory (Afferent Neurons) - conveys information study and judge it according to its safety and from the body’s sense organs to the brain and consideration for the participants in the study spinal cord Common Ethical Guidelines 2. Motor (Efferent Neurons) - carry impulses away Rights and well-being of participants must be from the brain and the spinal cord to the reacting weighted against the study’s value to science organs, the muscles and glands. Participants must be allowed to make and SPEED informed decision about participation 1. Association/Inter-neurons - connect the neurons Deception must be justified together and combine activities of the sensory Participants may withdraw from the study at any and motor neurons time Duty to Warn/Duty to Protect Glial Cell (Glia – glue) - the non-neural cells that surround Participants must be protected from risks or told the neurons and ensure that can perform its functions explicitly of risks while holding them in the place. Debrief participants about the true nature of the study and expectations of results HOW THE NEURONS FIRE: Data must remain confidential All or none (refractory period) law – full strength If for any reason a study results in undesirable or not at all. consequences for the participant, the researcher Resting State is responsible for detecting and removing, or Action Potential correcting, these consequences Animal Research THE NEUROTRANSMITTER Answers questions we could never do with human Acetylcholine (brain, spinal cord, selected research organs) – releases at neuromuscular junctions: Focus is to avoid exposing them to unnecessary memory pain Animals are used in approximately 7% of Norepinephrine (brain, spinal cord, selected psychological research organs) – regulates physical arousal; learning, memory and emotion. CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL Dopamine (brain) – linked in the muscle activity, emotional arousal, learning, memory. BASES OF BEHAVIOR Gamma Amino (brain, spinal cord) – involved in motor behavior and arousal, butyric acid (Gaba) Nervous Tissue (The basic hardware) Serotonin – feel good chemical, profound effect - Composed of two cells: Glia and Neurons (nerve on mood and anxiety, high levels of it or cell) sensitivity to it, are associated with serenity and Neuron optimism. - Trillions which involved in the control of body Endorphins – opioids that, like the drugs heroine activities and functions and morphine. It modulates pain, reduce stress and promote sensation of floaty, oceanic calm. PARTS OF THE NEURON They also depress physical functions like breathing and produce physical dependence. ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain and the spinal cord. 3 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – somatic and LIMBIC SYSTEM (Emotional Brain) autonomic system (concerned with parts of the body that - Found buried within the cerebrum keep us alive-the heart, blood vessels, glands and other - Contains thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, organs.) and hippocampus. Sympathetic System – fight and flight response (emergency) Parasympathetic System – eat-drink-and rest system (calm) MODERN BRAIN SCANNING TECHNIQUES: PROVIDING SNAPSHOTS OF ITS INTERNAL WORKS EEG PET fMRI CT TMS Hypothalamus - functions including homeostasis, Brain (1350 grams or 3 pounds) – true core of nervous emotion, thirst, hunger, circadian rhythms, and system control of the autonomic nervous system. MAJOR PARTS OF THE BRAIN (Forebrain, Midbrain, Thalamus Hindbrain) - Acts like a filter, sorting out the flood sensory Hindrain information coming from the brain Medulla Oblongata - Weak signals are filter out - Controls sensitive body functions - Strong signals are allowed to pass up to the - Vasomotor Center - blood pressure consciousness - Cardiac center - heart rate Hippocampus – for learning and memory, - Respiratory center - breathing converting short term memory to more permanent memory, and for recalling Pons - Regulates sleep, head movements and facial Amygdala - control human aggression muscles ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (Ductless) Cerebellum – proper posture and balance - Group of glands that work together and secrete many types of different hormones that regulate CEREBRAL CORTEX the body - Exocrine (ducts) – sweat glands - Endocrine (ductless) - hormones Frontal Lobe – associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving (intelligence and personality) 1. Pineal Body (melatonin) – wake/sleep patterns Parietal Lobe – associated with movement, 2. Pituitary Gland - the master gland orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli Anterior Pituitary – regulates growth hormone, (attention and memory) adrenal cortex, pancreas, thyroids and gonads Occipital Lobe – associated with visual Posterior Pituitary – regulates salt and processing (vision) metabolism Temporal Lobe – associated with perception and 3. Thyroid Gland (largest endocrine gland) – recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and Thyroxine T4 and Triiodothyronine T4 (rate of speech (hearing, language processing, memory) metabolism & affects growth) 4  4. Adrenal Gland (Adrenal Cortex) - class of steroid A. Cornea – the clear, dome-shaped tissue covering hormones that are produced in the adrenal the front of the eye. cortex. B. Aqueous Humor – clear/watery fluid. Supplies Corticoids - involved in a wide range of nourishment to the eye. physiologic systems such as stress response, C. Pupil – the opening in the center of the iris, it immune response and regulation of salt intake. changes size as the amount of light changes (the Adrenal Medulla – two hormones secreted by the more the light, the smaller the hole) adrenal medulla: adrenaline (epinephrine), D. Iris – the colored part of the eye, it controls the norepinephrine (non-adrenaline) amount of light that enters the eye by changing ▪ Epinephrine – increases heart rate, the size of the pupil contracts blood vessels and dilates air E. Lens – a crystalline structure located just behind passages and participate in the “fight or the iris, focuses light onto the retina. flight” response F. Optic Nerve – the nerve that transmits electrical ▪ Norepinephrine – stress hormone, impulses from the retina to the brain. The retina attention and responding actions are is covered with two types of light sensitive cells: controlled 1. Rods – enable the eye to function under reduced 5. Gonands – sex glands (ovaries, testes) illumination (allows us to see better at night) 2. Cones – enable the eye to function during day CHAPTER 3: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION light (allows us to see colors) PERCEPTION OF COLOR Sensory – process by which our senses gather information and send it to the brain. Trichromatic Theory- there are kinds of cones in the retina, each of which responds primarily to a EYES– sense of sight specific range of wavelengths. There are red, blue and green. (Afterimages) THE SCIENCE OF SEEING Opponent-Process Theory – the receptor cells THREE ASPECTS OF PERCEPTION OF LIGHT: are linked in pairs, working in opposition with 1. Brightness – determined by the amplitude of the each other. Blue-yellow pairing; red-green wave. pairing; black-white pairing. 2. Color or Hue – determined by the length of the wave. VISUAL DEFECTS 3. Saturation – refers to the purity of the color 1. Myopia or Nearsightedness people receive. 2. Hyperopia or Farsightedness 3. Presbyopia (old age) THE INTERNAL PART OF THE EYE 4. Astigmatism (distorted vision) 5. Diplopia (double vision) 6. Scotoma (blind spot, temporary blindness) COLOR BLINDNESS – caused by defective cones in the retina of the eye. 1. Monochrome Color Blindness – people either have no cones or have cones that are not working at all. (black and white) 2. Red-Green Color Blindness – they would see the world in blues, yellow and shades of gray. EARS – sense-organ for sounds. The stimulus consists in vibrations of the air. THE HEARING SENSE: PERCEPTION OF SOUND Loudness – sound intensity Pitch – sound being high or low Decibel – unit to measure loudness Volume – how soft or loud a sound is Timbre – richness in the tone of the sound STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE EAR 1. Outer Ear - serves to collect sound waves and transmits them to the middle ear 5  - Pinna and Tympanic membrane (sound waves - Stimulus: vapor or gas or odoriferous particles strike the eardrum) dissolved in the air 2. Middle Ear - Olfactory sense (chemical sense) - Malleus/Ossicles – Hammer (three tiny bones) - Incus – Anvil - Stapes – Stirrup 3. Inner Ear - Vestibule - Semicircular - Cochlea (snail) – contains basilar membrane on which seated the organ of corti (rods & cells) SKIN – cutaneous sensation. Three layers: (1) The insensitive outer layer or epidermis, (2) The sensitive middle layer or dermis, and TYPES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENTS (3) The inmost layer Conduction Hearing Impairment – the cause composed of fat. might be a damaged eardrum Nerve Hearing Impairment – normal aging and Perception – sensory experience, involves both the exposure to loud noises. recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli TONGUE - Taste (chemical sense) Five Senses: touch, sight, taste, smell, taste - Tiny nubs, papilla, or prominences on the Proprioception – set of senses involving the ability to surface of the tongue detect changes in body positions and movements contain taste buds or taste bulbs in which THE PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION hair cells connect with Bottom-Up Processing – the sensory receptors the ends of a sensory register information about the external nerve. environment and send it up to the brain for - Taste buds (branches analysis and interpretation. Initiated by stimulus of sense cells and are input not located on the Top-Down Processing – starts out with cognitive surface; located in little processing at the higher levels of brain pits which extend down Absolute Threshold – smallest intensity of the the surface) stimulus that must be present for it to be - Stimulus: chemical substance in liquid forms or detected soluble in the saliva Differential Threshold – the minimum change in simulation required to detect the difference NOSE between 2 stimuli (JND-Weber’s Law) - Olfactory sense-organ is a membrane lining the nasal cavity and composed of a layer of cylindrical cells whose outer ends are exposed to currents of air. 6  Figure-Ground ▪ Accommodation – To bring an image Processing - to describe into focus on the retina, the lens of the the tendency of the eye changes shape to focus on close visual system to simplify objects or distant objects a scene into the main object that we are PARAPSYCHOLOGY looking at (the figure) - the scientific study of Extra Sensory Perception, and everything else that including all things that do not normally fall into forms the background the realm of ordinary psychology. (perception (or ground). (Faces or vases illusion, Rubin vase) that occurs without the use of normal sensory) Grouping - people perceived sights and sounds as organized wholes. KINDS OF EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION ▪ Proximity (Nearness) – elements may be Telepathy –refer to the claimed ability to read grouped according to their perceived another person’s thoughts or mind reading closeness in time or space, elements Clairvoyance –ability to “see” things that are not that appear nearer together tend to particularly present grouped together Precognition –ability to know something in ▪ Similarity – perceptual elements that advance of its occurrence or to predict future are similar in some respect tend to be events grouped together Psychokinesis – ability to affect the physical ▪ Continuity – sensations that appear to world purely through thought create a continuous form are perceive Astral Projection – the astral body leaves the as belonging together physical body. ▪ Closure – one of the important laws that proposes that within limits, physically CHAPTER 4: CONSCIOUSNESS incomplete figures tend to be perceived as complete figures or as meaningful Consciousness – person’s awareness of everything that is wholes. going on around him/her at any given moment ▪ Texture – basic features of stimuli have Waking Consciousness –thoughts, feelings, and the same texture (such as orientation of sensations are clear, organized, and the person feels elements), people tend to group those alert stimuli together Altered State of Consciousness – there is a shift in the ▪ Common Region – elements located quality/pattern of mental activity as compared to waking within some boundary tend to be group consciousness together ▪ Common Fate - elements that move in NECESSITY OF SLEEP the same direction are perceived as together. (Applied to moving objects) Circadian Rhythm – cycle of bodily rhythm that occurs over a 24-hour period Depth Perception “Circa” – about, “Diem” - day ▪ Interposition – closer objects block the Hypothalamus - tiny section, influences the view of things farther away glandular system ▪ Relative Size – objects that casts the larger image on the retina is perceived to be closer ▪ Texture Gradient - textures of images appear less detailed as distance increases, so as the texture of a surface changes across the retinal image, people perceived a change in distance ▪ Linear Perspective – objects in the distance appear to converge towards a single point. Objects that are nearer the point of convergence are seen as farther away ▪ Motion Parallax – In motion, objects nearer to seem to speed across our visual field whereas objects in the distance seem to move slowly 7  ▪ Suprachiasmatic PROBLEMS DURING SLEEP Nucleus – deep Insomnia – inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, within the or get a good quality of sleep hypothalamus; Sleep Apnea – disorder in which the person tells pineal gland stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more to secrete Narcolepsy – sleep disorder which a person falls melatonin (makes immediately into REM sleep during the day a person feel sleepy) without warning Microsleeps –sleep lasting only a few seconds ▪ Cataplexy – sudden loss of muscle tone Sleep Deprivation – loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability DREAMS Adaptive Theory – animals and humans evolved Freud – dreams as wish fulfillment sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping ▪ Manifest Content – actual dream when predators are most active ▪ Latent Content – true, hidden meaning Restorative Theory –sleep is necessary to the of a dream physical health of the body and serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage HYPNOSIS – state of consciousness which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion BRAIN WAVE PATTERNS Electroencephalograph (EEG) – see brain wave THEORIES OF HYPNOSIS activity as a person passes through the various Hypnosis as Dissociation – hypnosis works only stages of sleep and to determine what type of in a person’s immediate consciousness, while a sleep the person has entered hidden “observer” remained aware of all that ▪ Alpha Waves – state of relaxation or was going on light sleep Social-cognitive Theory of Hypnosis – assumes ▪ Theta Waves – early stages of sleep that people who are hypnotized are not in an ▪ Delta Waves – long, slow waves, altered state but are merely playing the role deepest stage of sleep expected of them in a situation. STAGES OF SLEEP PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS Rapid Eye Movement (REM) – eyes move rapidly - Drugs that alter thinking, perception, and under the eyelids and the person is typically memory experiencing a dream Physical Dependence Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM/Non-REM Tolerance – more and more drug is needed to sleep) – stages of sleep that do not include REM achieve the same effect ▪ Stage One: light sleep, may experience: Withdrawal – physical symptoms (nausea, pain, o Hypnagogic Images – vivid tremors, crankiness, and high blood pressure) visual events resulting from a lack of an addictive drug in the o Hypnic Jerk – knees, legs or body systems whole body jerks Psychological Dependence – feeling that a drug is ▪ Stage Two: sleep spindles (brief burst of needed to continue a feeling of emotional/psychological activity for a second or two) (prepares well-being body for REM) STIMULANTS SLEEP DISORDERS - Drugs that increase the functioning of the Nightmares - bad dreams occurring during REM nervous system REM Behavior Disorder – rare disorder that Amphetamines (Labs) blocks the movement of the voluntary muscles Cocaine (Natural Drug) fails, allowing the person to thrash around and Nicotine (Tobacco) even get up and act out nightmares Caffeine (Sodas) Sleepwalking (Somnambulism) – during deep sleep, an episode of moving/walking around in DEPRESSANTS one’s sleep, more common among children - Drugs that decrease the functioning of the Night Terrors – rare disorder, which the person nervous system experiences extreme fear and screams or runs Barbiturates (Sedative effect) during deep sleep without waking fully Benzodiazepines (Lower anxiety and reduce stress) Rohypnol (“Date rape” drug) 8 ALCOHOL - Chemical resulting from fermentation or distillation of various kinds of vegetable matter - Often confused as a stimulant but actually a depressant on CNS NARCOTICS - class of opium-related drugs that suppress the sensation of pain by binding to and stimulating the nervous system’s natural receptor sites for endorphins Opium Morphine (Severe pain) Heroin (Extremely addictive) HALLUCINOGENS Psychogenic Drugs –including hallucinogens and marijuana that produce hallucinations or increased feelings of relaxation and intoxication ▪ Psilocybin – natural hallucinogen found in certain mushrooms MARIJUANA (Pot or weed) – mild hallucinogen derived from the leaves and flowers (hemp plant) Made by: Jessa Jenibel Buella Prepared and arranged by: Deanna Eross Kenn C. Bince Psychological Society QC, Educational Committee 9