PSYC FINAL PDF

Chapters 8–16 (Emphasis on 15,16) HOW DO HUMANS DEVELOP? What is human development? Pattern of continuity and change in human capacities that occurs throughout the course of life Changes occur on three different levels: 1) Physical 2) Cognitive 3) Emot...

Chapters 8–16 (Emphasis on 15,16) HOW DO HUMANS DEVELOP? What is human development? Pattern of continuity and change in human capacities that occurs throughout the course of life Changes occur on three different levels: 1) Physical 2) Cognitive 3) Emotional/socio-emotional Research Methods: Cross-sectional study: Data collected at one point in time Problem: A cohort is a generational group, people born in the same time period Longitudinal study: Data collected repeatedly over time Problem: Expensive/time-consuming, and [reduction in number] effects Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory: Cognitive development is an interpersonal process that happens in a cultural context. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Parent-child interactions provide scaffolding to build a child’s cognitive abilities higher and higher. Erikson’s Theory of Socioemotional Development: 1st Stage - Trust vs Mistrust - Baby’s basic needs must be met by responsive caregivers - Infants depend on caregivers - World is a predictable and friendly place - Once trust is established, toddlers begin to see themselves as independent agents Are Early or Later Life Experiences More Important in Development? Life-span Developmentalists Study both children and adults ○ Insufficient attention given to adult development and aging Early experiences are not necessarily more influential (?) Early and later experiences make significant contributions ○ Hence, a person generally *NOT* doomed to be a prisoner of their childhood Resilience Resilience ○ Even in the face of adversity, a person shows signs of positive functioning ○ What factor(s) predict(s) whether a child will be resilient to a challenging situation? Having a supportive relationship with a parent of a competent adult outside the home can contribute to childhood resilience. How Does Cognition Develop in Infancy and Childhood? Jean Piaget (1896-1980) ○ Children actively construct their cognitive world via SCHEMAS Schemas ○ Concepts that organize information ○ Two processes responsible for how schemas develop Assimilation ★ Incorporate new information/experiences into existing schemas E.g. “All four-legged furry animals are ‘dogs’.” Accommodation New information leads to altered/new schemas ** Question: How does the conflict between assimilation and accommodation drive intellectual growth? Assimilation allows children to gather info quickly and interact with the world, but eventually ACCOMMODATION, when misfit between new object and existing schema too LARGE Object Permanence Objects continue to exist even when cannot be directly seen/sensed Usually achieved between 8-12 months There are alternative reasons why a child may not search for an object rather than a lack of mental representation, e.g. - The child could become distracted or - Lose interest in the object and therefore lack the motivation to look for it - May not have the physical coordination to carry out the motor movements necessary for the retrieval of the object Conservation Principle Permanence of object attributes despite superficial changes Parenting Styles Authoritarian: Controlling and punitive – Does NOT explain decisions ○ Correlated with child’s lack of initiative, poor communication skills, social incompetence Authoritative: Discipline with explanations – Encourage independence with limits ○ Correlated with child’s social competence, social responsibility, and self-reliance Neglectful: Parents generally uninvolved ○ Correlated with less social competence and poor self-control in child Permissive: Parents are involved, but place few limits ○ Correlated with child’s poor social competence, lack of respect for others, poor self-control To Remember: 1. The dimensions of human development 2. The possible harms of parent phone overuse on children’s development 3. Key changes that occur during infancy and childhood 4. Parenting styles and their relations to child development P.2 Learning Objectives 1. Know about key features of emerging adulthood Arnett’s 5 Key Features of Emerging Adulthood 1. Identity Exploration Time of significant changes in identity for many individuals, especially in love and work 2. Instability Residential changes peak during emerging adulthood – often instability in love, work, and education 3. Self-focus Little in the way of social obligations, duties, and commitments to others Higher autonomy in running own lives 4. Feeling “in between” Many emerging adults consider themselves neither adolescents nor full-fledged adults 5. Age of possibilities Individuals have an opportunity to transform their life ○ Many emerging adults are optimistic about their future ○ For emerging adults who have experiences difficult times while growing up, emerging adulthood presents an opportunity to guide their lives in a positive direction 2. Ability to self-reflect on one’s own psychological development 3. Know about physical changes during adulthood Early Adulthood ○ Peak of physical development Middle Adulthood ○ Most lose height, many gain weight ○ Menopause for women (late 40s or early 50s) ○ Estrogen decline can produce uncomfortable symptoms such as hot flashes Late Adulthood ○ Elective optimization with compensation  ○ Accumulated wear and tear ○ Less ability to repair and regenerate How Does the Brain Change as We Age? ○ Adults *can* grow new brain cells throughout life ○ But, regeneration of brain cells in adulthood may be limited to hippocampi and olfactory bulbs ○ Research with rats suggest that sustained aerobic exercise (like long-distance running) leads to higher levels of neurogenesis 4. Describe examples of cognitive and emotional development during adulthood How Does Cognition Develop in Adulthood? Early Adulthood ○ Idealism gives way to realistic pragmatism (a way of dealing with problems using practical solutions) Middle Adulthood ○ Memory peaks ○ Highest functioning for 4 of 6 intellectual abilities (only 2 declined) Late Adulthood ○ Speed of processing generally declines ○ Memory retrieval skills decline ○ Wisdom increases in some individuals ○ Physical activity can improve cognitive function **Reaction time increases with age What Underlies the Socioemotional Development of Adults? Erikson’s Theory – 6th Stage (of 8) Intimacy vs. Isolation ○ Individuals either form intimate relationships with others or become socially isolated ○ Women enter marriages or common-law relationships at a younger age than men Marital rates (Canada, 2017): ○ Women were 28-31 (on avg.) ○ Men were 30-32 Erikson’s Theory – 7th Stage (of 8) Generativity vs. Stagnation ○ Making a contribution to the next generation ○ Lack of success at this stage is associated with the popular notion of a mid-life crisis ○ Key association: What Is the Role of Meaning in Adult Socioemotional Development? Integrity vs. Despair (8th and final stage) ○ Looking back – evaluating their lives and seeking meaning ○ Life review and reminiscence Older adults come to a sense of meaning or despair ○ If individuals have a well-established sense of integrity (lives as meaningful) Face later years with lower fear of death In absence of integrity, older adults more likely to feel despair and fear  Chapter 10 – Motivation & Emotion Learning Objectives 1. Describe 3 key theories of motivation 1) Evolutionary Approach ○ Sign stimuli → Instincts 2) Drive Reduction Theory Homeostasis, drives, & needs As a drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it 3) Optimum Arousal Theory Terkes-Dodson law: Best performance under moderate arousal Overlearning ○ Learn task so well, can perform at best under stressful/crisis situations (AUTOMATICALLY)  2. Know about the biology of hunger and obesity A: Stomach contractions, detected by stomach balloon volume, accompanies a person’s hunger feeling (line C) B: Passage of time C: Ppt’s manual signals of feelings of hunger D: Hip/waist movement, to rule out such movements not causing changes in stomach volume Gastril signals ○ Stomach contractions ○ Cholecystokinin (CCK): Involved in digestion, signals us to *STOP* eating – CCK says OH THAT’s OKAY! Blood chemistry ○ Glucose: Low glucose levels → hunger ○ Insulin: Regulates glucose levels ○ Leptin: Produces feelings of being full Obesity Associated with many health problems ○ Heart diseases, type II diabetes, high blood pressure, different types of cancer, even neurodegeneration Genetics ○ Partially inherited from parents Set points ○ The weight maintained when the individual makes no effort to gain or lose weight 3. Identify key psychological factors implicated in obesity Traditionally focused on ○ Emotional state: Emotional eating ○ External food cues: Advertising Current research more focused on ○ Time and place cues ○ Plate size ○ Segmentation  ○ Other behavioral strategies “Hiding” snacks Always take a small bowl Pt 2. Learning Objectives 1. Ability to describe the role of motivation in everyday life The drive to achieve your goals or needs What drives us to grow and evolve 2. Know how to distinguish intrinsic vs extrinsic motivations Intrinsic – Because of the interest and enjoyment in the task itself ○ Enjoyment ○ Purpose ○ Growth ○ Curiosity ○ Passion ○ Fun ○ Self-Expression Extrinsic – Because of the outcome that will result by doing the task ○ Promotions ○ Pay raises ○ Bonuses ○ Benefits ○ Prizes ○ Winning ○ Perks  3. Know about the misattribution of emotion/arousal *Capilano suspension bridge study Key result: Men who’d just walked across high/unstable suspension bridge gave survey responses with more sexual content compares to men who crossed a lower/stable bridge - Example of adrenaline when going on a date giving impression of attraction The process whereby people mistake assuming what’s causing them to feel aroused. Self-regulation & Successful Pursuit of Goals Self-regulation The process by which an organism controls behavior to pursue important objectives Delay of gratification Putting off a pleasurable experience in the interest of some larger but later reward 4. Know how to minimize/prevent procrastination Why do we procrastinate? ○ Unworthy award ○ Fear of failure ○ Fear of success ○ Overwhelmed ○ Idea of perfection  ○ Driven by negativity ○ Self doubt ○ Misaligned goals and tasks How to minimize/prevent procrastination: ○ Being aware of the causes and reasons for procrastination ○ Planning ahead/creating a plan with a set deadline ____________________________________________________________  Learning Objectives P. 3 1. Know basic definitions (& dimensions) of happiness Happiness: The state of being content Three Types of Happiness Examples Causes Life Satisfaction I think my life is great A good income I am satisfied with my job Achieving one’s goals High self-esteem Positive Feelings Enjoying life Supportive friends Loving others Interesting work Extroverted personality Low Negative Feelings Few chronic worries Low neuroticism Rarely sad or angry One’s goals are in harmony A positive outlook 2. Describe conceptual models of happiness →PERMA Positive emotions: Feeling good, feeling fulfilled Engagement: Being completely engrossed in whatever you are doing Relationships: Having authentic and loving relationships Meaning: Living with a sense of purpose Accomplishment: Having a sense of achievement 3. Know about biological factors in happiness Happiness “set point” ○ Around which a person’s happiness fluctuates Genetic heritability ~30%  Obstacles to Happiness: Hedonic Treadmill Adaptation level theory (Harry Helson) Individual’s judges a stimulus based on ○ Prior experiences ○ Recollections of prior experiences (perceiving similar stimuli) Varies 4. Learn about approaches/strategies to increase your happiness Gratitude attitude Personally meaningful goals ○ Adopting responsibility Work Family & children  Ben-Shahar’s Happiness Model ○ To be happy: Simultaneously live for today *and* tomorrow Identify and pursue activities that deliver immediate pleasure *and* long term meaning Ikigai ○ ‘A reason for being’, a Japanese-inspired mental model, to help find your motivation(s) and purpose Happiness “Over-pursuit” Caution ○ Don’t over pursue it ○ Don’t overthink it Sexuality & Gender Differences Learning Objectives Basic definitions of sex, gender, & gender identity Sex: biological features of an individual (male & female genitalia) Intersex: having a mixture of both male and female genitalia (1.7%) Gender: social and cultural beliefs about what it means to be a boy/man or girl/woman Gender Identity: personal sense of being a boy/man, girl/woman or other (both, neither, fluid, etc.)  Theories of gender development Biological Focus on biological processes that underlie gender differences ○ Genes, hormones, brain structures, functions to underlie the biological underpinnings of gender Male – Must mate with several female partners; valuable female mate=healthy, motherly Female – Commitment from male mate; valuable male mate=strong, offers resources, protective - How does prenatal hormone exposure relate to later sex-typed behavior? - How do genetic factors influence the development of gender identity? Evolutionary Adaptive functions for our distant ancestors. Sexual selection is used to explain gender differences in behavior, and gender differences in reproductive challenges are thought to underlie differences in sexual behavior - How do men and women differ in terms of engaging in casual sex? - Do sex differences in nonhuman primates show the same patterns as those found in humans? Social Cognitive Focuses on how processes such as learning and the development of cognitive schemas associated with sex lead to conceptions of gender - When do children learn that a person’s gender makes a difference in how they are treated by others? - (A child named X) - How do peer groups react to children who behave in gender-nonconforming ways? Social Role Division of labor leads to expectations about what is gender-appropriate behavior. Division of labor leads to the construction of gender roles and stereotypes that influence the opportunities and aspirations of men and women. - Do women seek out different opportunities in cultures that have more egalitarian gender attitudes? - Do gender differences we see in one culture translate to another?  Gender differences in sexuality Mating behavior Men are more likely to agree to casual sex>? - Is proposer gender a confound? Gender differences also in mate preferences Males preferred younger mates Females preferred more resources Gender differences in emotion and cognitive abilities Generally small differences (“small” to “medium” effect sizes, i.e., Cohen’s d =.2 to.5) ○ Overlapping distributions AVOID GENERALIZING Experienced Emotions Women report more sadness, anxiety, and disgust (vs. men) Men report more anger and irritability (vs. women) Empathy Women report higher levels Women show better “theory of mind” Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities Spatial skills/object rotation: Men slightly better Verbal abilities: Women slightly better Sexuality & Gender Differences Learning Objectives Different types of sexual disorders 1. Sexual desire/response disorders (most common) a. Low sexual desire/interest b. Men i. Premature ejaculation ii. Erectile dysfunction 2. Paraphilic disorders a. Harmless (to self and other) b. Harmful (to self and other) 3. Pedophilic disorders a. Fantasizing about or engaging in sex with children “Harmless” defined as (APA): 1. Mutual consent 2. No person distressed experienced 3. Individuals NOT putting themselves in danger or physical harm Treatment approaches In general Psychotherapy and/or pharmaceuticals Pedophilia-specific Biological/pharmaceutical (to reduce sexual desire) Castration ○ Removal of the testes ○ Chemically via lowering of testosterone Possible causes of pedophilic disorder - Prenatal factors, neurodevelopmental origins - Head injuries - Possibly brain neurological differences  Sexuality & well-being Frequency of sexual behavior is positively related to psychological well being ↑ sex ↔ ↑ happier But only up to a point: ~One/week Beyond that, fails to increase well-being Study 1 shows that sex frequency and well-being is only positive for those in relationships Study 3: sex frequency positively associated to well-being through heightened relationship satisfaction (sex→relationship satisfaction → well-being) Sexual activities generally pleasurable/positive throughout life, including older adults Older couples generally focus on QUALITY, rather than QUANTITY of sex Increased sexual satisfaction predicts higher relationship satisfaction Ch. 9 Quiz yourself – REVIEW Ecological systems theory views the child’s development as [occurring within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment]. Longitudinal study: continuous or repeated measures to follow particular individuals over prolonged periods of time Cross-sectional study: observational studies that analyze data from a population at a single point in time Sequential study: we look at a whole bunch of groups over time Teratogen: any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period Synaptic pruning: neurons that were seldom stimulated lose their synapse Piaget’s theory Assimilation: using current schemas to interpret the external world Primary (sexual organs) vs Secondary sex. (other visible changes) characteristics Adolescent (impression formation) (two dimension) identity: - Exploration and Commitment (MARCIA) - Challenge: Identity vs. Identity Confusion - Puberty does not involve the increase in intellectual functioning EMOgdala: Involved in processing information about emotion Selective Optimization with Compensation is a lifespan model of psychological and behavioral management for adaptation to changes related to human development and for adaptation to age-related gains and losses  Ch. 10 Quiz yourself – REVIEW Instinct: An innate, biological pattern of behavior that is universal across species The goal of drive reduction is: Homeostasis “Performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal” – the Yerkes-Dodson law Cholecystokinin helps start the process of digestion (CCK – tells us when we are full) Self-Determination theory (CAR) Competence Autonomy Relatedness Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: - Self-transcendence - Self-actualization - Esteem - Love and belonging - Safety needs - Physiological needs The sympathetic nervous system increases blood flow to the brain and decreases digestion Schacter-Singer theory of emotion explains emotional misattribution Valence of an emotion is whether the emotion is PLEASANT OR UNPLEASANT  Ch. 11 Quiz yourself – REVIEW Gender affirmation typical stages → Disclosing–Hormones–Removal of secondary sex char–Affirming surgery Social Role Theory – We use internalized expectations and stereotypes to evaluate our own gender-related behavior and choices Evolutionary Theory – Differences in reproductive and survival challenges are thought to underlie gender differences in behavior Sexual Selection: male and female members of a species differ from each other because of differences in competition and choice A man might be more likely to help in situations with more risk Men are more likely to engage in overt aggression; women have higher rates of relational aggression than overt WLW – higher relationship satisfaction; better conflict resolution; more likely to break up Sexual Behavior: Arousal and sexual response occur when the behavior is performed Activities involved in reproduction Behaviors specific to each individual that are pleasurable in a way that is usually intimate and personal Sexual Response Pattern: Excitement–Plateau–Orgasm–Resolution Sex Stereotypes: are patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually Paraphilic disorders do NOT involve behaviors that use non living objects for pleasure - **Sexual response disorder – difficulty experiencing sexual arousal and orgasm Sexual INFECTION = Herpes HPV = WARTS around genitals and can increase the risk of CANCER What is Personality? Chapter 12 Basic Definitions of Personality Personality Pattern of enduring thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to their world Typical ways an individual adapts to their world (thoughts, emotions, & behaviors) Personality Psychology The study of psychological attributes that underlie who we really are ○ The unified and enduring core characteristics that account for our existence throughout our lifespan 3 Approaches to Personality  Psychodynamic Humanist Trait - Traits: Lasting/enduring characteristics of a person across situations and time - E.g. If setting up a friend on a blind date, how would you describe the person…? (Likely via traits) - Trait theories: - Personality consists of broad, enduring dispositions that lead to characteristic responses across situations Personological & Life Story Social Cognitive Biological Big Five 5 broad categories to describe the main dimensions of personality (from natural language) Openness Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Imaginative vs. Organized vs. Sociable vs. retiring Soft hearted vs Calm vs. anxious practical disorganized ruthless Fun-loving vs. somber Secure vs. Interested in Careful vs. careless Trusting vs. insecure variety vs. Energetic vs. reserved suspicious routine Disciplined vs. Self-satisfied vs. impulsive Helpful vs. self-pitying Independent vs. uncooperative conforming Extraversion reloaded: Ambivert vs. Omnivert? Ambivert Consistently somewhere in between introvert and extrovert Omnivert Both an introvert *and* an extrovert, depending on situation Generally hopping between introvert and extrovert Can we change our personalities? Traits relatively stable, but personality CAN change throughout one’s life Personality & Life Story Approaches to Personality Personological: Study of the whole/entire person Murray’s personological approach To understand someone, must know their whole history, i.e., physical, psychological, and sociological aspects of a person’s life McAdam’s life story approach Our unique life story and memories of what makes us who we are Changing narrative provides us with a sense of coherence across time Social Cognitive Approaches to Personality Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Personality/cognitive factors, Behavior, & Environmental/situational factors  ALL important in understanding personality Reciprocal determinism ↗ P, B, and E interact (via 2-way streets) to create personality. Fundamentals of Measurement (Reliability vs. Validity) 1. Test must be *reliable* I.e., produce consistent scores across questions or measurement occasions If not, full stop 2. *And* test must be *valid* (construct validity) E.g., a. Correlate to a different (validated) measure of the same construct b. Predicts theoretically-relevant behavior or objective outcomes c. Known-groups approach - (Validity more difficult to establish) Thus, avoid “projective tests” (rorschach inkblots; TAT, etc.)  Limitations & Conceptual Problems with Personality Questionnaires Often don’t KNOW ourselves that well ○ Co-workers/family members can often be better judges of our personalities Over-emphasize some aspects while under-emphasizing/omitting other aspects Behavior is often situational Inconsistent across time (low/poor reliability) Best Practices in Personality Assessment Questionnaire item construction 1. Avoid double negatives 2. Avoid internal contradictions 3. Avoid ambiguous questions 4. Avoid leading questions 5. Avoid loaded questions 6. Avoid double-barreled questions 7. Avoid “jargon” 8. Avoid poor answer scale options 9. Avoid questions that will lead to “socially desirable” responses Dark Triad/Tetrad of Personality Narcissism Exaggerated sense of self importance, low/lack of empathy, and strong need for admiration Psychopathy Lack of empathy, lack of remorse, shallow emotions, and impulsivity Machiavellianism Exploiting and manipulating others, lack of motals, emotional callousness, and high self-interest Sadism Enjoys inflicting pain on others Relationships High-conflict, tumultuous; struggle to maintain long-term friendships/relationships Career Can be highly successful, but can also be fraught with tension, and difficulty Mental Health May appear confident & assertive, but often experience issues with depression and anxiety Ethics Often involve unethical behavior, can result in legal problems &/or reputational damage  Personality & Health/Wellness Big 5 Conscientiousness Regular exercise, avoiding drinking/smoking, healthy diet checking smoke detectors, seatbelts Better health and lower stress Less likely to die (over time period tracked) Neuroticism Associated with low well-being Extroversion Associated with increased well-being (but traits versus states) Personal control/agency Optimism Type A vs. Type B Personalities  Definitions & Unique Features of SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Social Psychology: Study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people → How a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual (or imagined) presence of others Focus: Situational factors that lead to behavior How personality (X) situation factors interact Unique Features: 1. Social psychology is connected to real life Examples a. Emergence of social psychology as a field can be traced back to years after U.S. Civil War b. Field takes inspiration from real-life events & findings have implications for many aspects of everyday life  2. Social psychological research is often experimental Person Perception & Impression Formation Social Cognition How people select, interpret, remember, and use social information Person Perception How we use social stimuli to form impressions of others Key social cue: The face ○ Automatically process information about how trustworthy and dominant a person is likely to be Primacy effect ○ Tendency to attend to and remember what we learn first Are first impressions correct? ○ They can be! Causal Attributions & Fundamental Attribution Error Attribution Theory People motivated to discover the underlying causes of other individuals’ behaviors  Attributions = explanations of causes of behavior Attributions vary along three dimensions: 1. Internal vs external causes (e.g. personality vs. situational) 2. Stable vs unstable causes 3. Controllable vs uncontrollable causes Fundamental Attribution Error Overestimate the importance of internal traits Underestimate the importance of external causes Actor-observer asymmetry Actors often explain own behavior in terms of external causes Observers often explain actors’ behaviors in terms of internal causes  Attitudes & Persuasion (ELM) Persuasion Trying to change someone’s attitude Elements of persuasion ○ Communicator (source) ○ Message (in a specific medium) ○ Target (audience) Elaboration likelihood model Central vs. peripheral route Personality X situation approach  Central vs. peripheral route depends on interaction of personality X situational factors Examples Personality: Need for cognition (NFC) Situation Rushed/tired Persuasion Techniques The Foot-in-the-door Strategy Involves making a smaller request at the beginning ○ “Would you be interested in a three-month trial subscription to a magazine?” Saves the biggest demand for last ○ “How about a full year?” The Door-in-the-face Technique Involves making the biggest pitch first ○ “Would you be interested in a full-year subscription?” Customer probably will reject, but follow-up with smaller ask Strategies to Resist Persuasion Inoculation (attitude inoculation)  Give people a weak version of a persuasive message & allow them time to argue against it Advance warning - More generally, gives a bit of time to prepare counter-arguments Avoidance/selective avoidance - Avoid information that may challenge/contradict one’s own beliefs/attitudes - Physical avoidance, whereby people leave the room or avoid the advertising section in a newspaper; - Mechanical avoidance: turn off radio/TV, change the channel - Cognitive avoidance: ignore information (e.g. commercials), look away from the banner ads (“banner-blindness”, eye-tracking studies) Counter arguing: Return to one’s attitudes/principles Social Behavior 1. Altruism/prosocial behaviors (e.g. helping) 2. Aggression (hostile or forceful behavior, sometimes with intent to harm) Altruism & Aggression Altruistic Behaviors Helping others  *Without* benefit(s) to self & Despite cost(s) to self But are such acts truly (completely) altruistic? Altruism vs. egoism debate Aggression Hostile or forceful behavior, sometimes with intent to harm others Physical vs. relational aggression Women are more likely to use relational aggression Causes of Aggression Evolutionary pressures Genetic factors Neurobiological factors Personality Situational factors ○ Frustration-aggression hypothesis ○ Cognitive determinants ○ Observational learning TV shows/moves, social media Violent video games Social Influence (Conformity & Obedience) Conformity: Behavior is influenced/changed by *OTHER* individuals or groups Famous Asch (1951) conformity studies “Perceptual accuracy” study 5 other “participants” instructed to all give same incorrect answer Result: On average, Ps conformed to incorrect answers ~35% of the time Obedience: Behavior that complies with explicit demands on an individual with authority Milgram’s obedience experiments Study: Effects of punishment on memory Ppt instructed to deliver shocks of increasing intensity for each incorrect answer Result: On average, ~65% of Ps obeyed the experimenter, despite learner pleading the teacher to stop Personality Traits of Non-Compliant Participants Higher capacity for empathy Greater moral development Higher internal locus of control  Higher assertiveness and independence Resistance to stress Low levels of Authoritarianism Safeguards to Avoids Unethical Conformity/Obedience August Landmesser (shipyard worker). A real story of a man who refused to "just follow orders" (had children with a Jewish woman, expelled from party, couldn’t marry her (Nuremberg laws), tried to flee (wasn’t accidental, not paying attention, etc.) Prejudice vs. stereotype vs. discrimination ○ Prejudice: Attitude/emotion (Negative) attitude or emotional reaction towards members of a group ○ Stereotype: Belief/thought (Positive/negative) belief of traits/characteristic of members of a group ○ Discrimination: Behavior (Negative) behaviors towards members of a group  Romantic/close relationships (“birds of a feather flock together" vs. "opposites attract") ○ What creates attraction Physical attractiveness Proximity/propinquity Mere exposure Pheromones (not so much) Similarity attraction effect Complementarity (“opposites attract”) Sociality & health/wellness Key predictor of health is social ties/social interactions Unique value of Social Interactions Exchange of ideas Help to solve problem Non-device diversion/distraction Staying sane Social isolation & loneliness negative effects Self centeredness Depression/anxiety Insufficient humility & gratitude Extremist beliefs/extremism Decline of sociality? - Evidence (Twenge et al., 2020) - Anecdotal experiences Psychological Disorders Basic definitions & concepts (diagnosis of psychological disorders) Abnormal behavior: Unusual or deviant behavior Psychological disorder: Abnormal behavior – over a prolonged period of time – that is: 1. Maladaptive (interferes w/ person’s daily functioning in work/relationships) &/or 2. Causes significant personal distress Models of classification (DSM-5) Categorial system: Must meet diagnostic criteria (# of symptoms & time period) I.e., Individual must experience enough symptoms for a long enough time to be “diagnosed” with disorder Categorial system, but reality involves a “symptoms continuum” Benefits of classifying disorders: - To practitioners: common basis for communicating about disorders to other practitioners - To patients/sufferers: helps them to understand their condition, to help them overcome, reduce, &/or better manage symptoms - Pharms: sell meds (WE DON'T WANT THIS) Changes & critiques of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-51) Strongest Critiques: - Biology-centric (treating as if medical illnesses) (pharm. Lobby bias) - Too many new categories have been added (do not have consistent enough research to support) (pharm. Lobby bias)  - Loosening diagnostic criteria: (pharm. Lobby bias) Weakest Critiques: - Relies too much on social norms and subjective judgments - Focuses on problems and does not emphasize strengths as well as weaknesses Does everyone have ADHD? YES Anxiety disorders (OCD, GAD, & SAD) Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) - Experience persistent anxiety for at least 6 months, unable to specify reasons for it - Nervous most of time and worries a great deal (fatigue, muscle tension, stomach problems, difficulty sleeping) Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) - Intense fear of being humiliated or embarrassed in public Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) - Obsessions: Repeated (intrusive) thoughts, urges, or mental images that cause anxiety - E.g., fear of germs, desire for symmetry, fear of unlocked doors - Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors (routines) done to relieve distress from obsessive thoughts - Must significantly impair general functioning  Bipolar Disorder (Type I and II) Mood related disorder - Bipolar I; extreme mood & energy fluctuations - Bipolar II; similar to I but milder hypomanic states rather than full mania - Cyclothymia; alternating between milder hypomanic states and milder depressive states (but greater fluctuations than average person) Major depression disorder Mood related disorder - MDD; significant depressive episode and depressed characteristics (e.g., lethargy, hopelessness), for at least 2 weeks  - Dysthymia; feeling “lower” (down) than usual (milder than MDD) but lower than average person At least 5 (or more) of following symptoms in last 2 weeks (must experience #1 or #2) 1) ** Depressed mood most of the day 2) ** Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities 3) Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain 4) Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day 5) Psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every day (observable by others) 6) Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day 7) Feelings of worthlessness or excessive inappropriate guilts (which may be delusional) nearly every day (not merely self-reproach or guilt about being sick) 8) Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly every day (either by their subjective account or as observed by others). 9) Recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying) Distinguishing between normal “lows” vs. depression symptoms Suicide (psychological & sociocultural factors) - Tragic taking of one’s life - Desire to die emerge when social needs are *not* met - Individual feel they do NOT belong - Chronically lonely - Perceive to be a burden on others Psychological factors - ~90% estimated to have diagnosable psychological disorder - Commonly depression & anxiety - Immediate & highly stressful circumstance - Substance abuse Sociocultural factors  - Lowest rates of suicide in countries w/ cultural and religious norms against suicide (decline of family & religion again likely implicated) Suicide prevention 1. Access to mental health services 2. School-based programs a. Mental health education (coping skills & resilience training) b. Peer support programs 3. Community and social support programs a. Raising awareness about suicide warning signs 4. Follow-up care and post-discharge programs 5. Gatekeeper training programs (key community members) 6. Crisis intervention and support hotlines 7. Media guidelines and responsible reporting (journalism) 8. Improves data collection/tracking of suicides & suicide risk factors Euthanasia & Assisted Suicide 1. Voluntary: Consent given by patient 2. Non-Voluntary: Consent unavailable 3. Involuntary: Conducted against the will of the patient Active vs. passive euthanasia - Active: Use of lethal substances or forces (e.g. lethal injection) - Passive: Withholding treatment necessary for the continuance of life Euthanasia: Doctor directly administers substance that causes death (e.g. lethal injection) Assisted Suicide: Doctor gives drug to patient to end their lives Medical Assistance in Dying (MAID) Process allowing eligible individuals to receive assistance from a medical practitioner in ending their life Requirements (must meet all): - Be eligible for health services (province or federal) - Be at least 18 y/o and mentally competent - Have a grievous & irremediable medical condition (all 3): - Have a serious illness, disease, or disability - Be in an advanced state of decline that cannot be reversed - Experience unbearable physical or mental suffering from illness, disease, disability, or state of decline that cannot be relieved under conditions you consider acceptable - Make a voluntary request for medical assistance in dying - Give informed consent to receive medical assistance in dying Broadened eligibility: Persons suffering solely from mental illness eligible for MAID as of March 17, 2024 - Has been delayed for 3 years id – The Freudian structure of personality consisting of unconscious drives; the individual’s reservoir of sexual energy. - Seeks immediate gratification (pleasure principle) Ego – The Freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality. - Reality principle superego – The Freudian structure of personality that serves as the harsh internal judge of our behavior; what we often call conscience. (Clinical) Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist Clinical psychology: Area of psych that integrates science and theory to prevent and treat psychological disorders Psychotherapy Definitions & Basics Psychotherapy: Nonmedical processes that helps patient recognize and overcome (or better manage) a psychological disorder Effectiveness of Psychotherapy Does psychotherapy work? Yes (meta-analyses; but publication bias & small sample sizes) Kind of… (“more careful” meta analyses) E/N/O perspective More effective for some individuals, some of the time, for some conditions Which psychotherapies work best? Depends on person’s diagnosis (condition) & Condition severity Factors in Effective Psychotherapy 1. Therapeutic alliance 2. Therapist characteristics a. Skills, training, experiences, etc. 3. Client characteristics a. Personality traits and interests/values 4. Other factors (beyond client) a. Support systems, environment (community, job, home life), and genetics Main Differences of Psychotherapies Insight vs. symptoms management Insight: Gaining insight into deeper causes of a problem Symptoms: Focus on immediate ways to reduce and/or better manage symptoms (via applying specific psychotherapeutic techniques and skills training) Directive vs. nondirective Direct: Therapist more direct/outspoken in giving advice to client Non-direct: Client responsible for driving/leading the therapy interactions (therapist less direct/active) Main Psychotherapy Approaches 1. Psychodynamic therapies 2. Humanistic therapies 3. Behaviour therapies (CC & OC techniques)  4. Cognitive techniques (CBT, DBT, ACT) 5. Integrated approaches (mixtures of approaches) Signs You May Need Therapy 1. Your issues are interfering with daily life 2. You turn to dangerous coping mechanisms 3. Your friends and family are worried 4. You’ve exhausted your other options  Behaviour Therapies – CC & OC Techniques Classical Conditioning techniques Generally used for treating phobias Desensitization ○ Systematic desensitization: Imagined → ○ Exposure therapy: “In vivo” (gradually exposed to objects IRL) Aversive conditioning Operant Conditioning techniques Person’s environment: Determine which “consequences of behaviour” need to be changed ○ Reinforcements following healthier behaviours ○ Punishments following unhealthy behaviours Cognitive therapies (CBT, DBT, ACT) Focused on changing maladaptive thoughts & false beliefs Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) Challenge and change maladaptive thoughts Replace self-defeating thoughts (false beliefs) with more realistic thoughts to improve behaviours Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT) Dialectic between acceptance *and* change-oriented strategies 4 core principles: Mindfulness, acceptance/change, distress tolerance & emotion regulation To treat mood disorders, substance abuse, personality issues, and interpersonal conflict Acceptance Commitment Therapy (ACT) Accept negative feelings/thoughts and redirect attention toward valued goals Improves over CBT (latter which can reinforce maladaptive thoughts by trying to change them)  1) How is DBT related to CBT? DBT involves more acceptance and other change-oriented strategies 2) How is ACT related to CBT? Teaches acceptance of negative thoughts/feelings instead of trying to change negative thoughts Stigma of seeking Psychotherapy ○ “You’re crazy” mindset ○ Deemed weak for seeking help ○ Denied housing/employment/treated poorly/unfairly by family, friends, or religious organizations ○ Labels Other Types of Therapy (Group, Couples, Self-Help Support Groups) Group Therapy Brings together individuals who share a psychological problem ○ May think others have it way worse, so less motivated to improve own problems Family/couples therapy Group therapy among family members/couples ○ Couples therapy while still dating? (Could make sense, but generally would want to wait for a more serious relationship before expending that much effort/costs?) Self-help support groups Individuals get together to discuss how to better manage a specific problem ○ Generally led by a nonprofessional  Cross-cultural competence in psychotherapy Cross-cultural competence 1) How skilled a therapist feels about being able to manage cultural issues that might arise in therapy & 2) How clients perceive the therapist’s ability Dominant features: - Demonstrating respect for cultural beliefs and practices and… - Balancing the goals of a particular therapeutic approach with the goals/values of a culture Family therapy might be more effective than individual therapy for people in cultures that place high value on family (e.g., central/south american and asian cultures) Q) But what if goal of therapeutic approach *CONFLICTS* with values of a different culture? Ethnicity and gender issues in psychotherapy Many ethnic minorities prefer to discuss problems with parents, friends, and relatives rather than mental health professional ○ Ethnic match between therapist and client generally leads to better treatment outcomes  Sociocultural Issues in Psychotherapy Gender match Same-gender therapist preference ○ Traditionally, goal of therapy has been autonomy or self-determination for the client, which are often (?) more important to men compared to women… whose lives are generally more characterized by relatedness and connection w/ others HENCE … ○ Some psychologists argue therapy should involve increased attention to relatedness and social connections to others *OR* Emphasize *BOTH* autonomy/self-determination *and* relatedness/connections to others Autonomy/self-determination vs. relatedness/connections to others → Crucial importance of tailoring therapy to specific goals of client  Gov Safety Nets for Severe Mental Disorders AISH (assured income for the severely handicapped) “Medical condition”: “Severe handicap” impacts ability to earn a living which must meet following 3 criteria: 1. Your mental and/or physical functioning is impaired 2. Impairment substantially limits your ability to earn a living, & 3. Impairment is likely permanent, because there is no therapy available to improve your ability to make a living Must also meet 2 additional criteria; You’re expected to: 1. Look for, accept, or maintain reasonable employment 2. Make use of suitable training or rehabilitation Health psychology definitions and basic concepts Health psychology (Social) psychological processes underlying maintaining health & preventing/better managing illness (ill-health) – behav., soc., cog., factors Behavioural medicine Developing & integrating behavioural and biomedical knowledge to promote health and reduce illness – behav., soc., biomedical factors Overlap but distinct (both share focus on behavioural & social factors influencing health, but BM more focused on biomedical/bio factors).  Making positive life changes – Theory of reasoned action (TRA) & theory of planned behaviour (TPB) Therapy of reasoned action (TRA) Changes require individuals… 1. Have specific intentions (about behaviour) 2. Hold positive attitudes (about new behaviour) 3. Believe their social group also looks favorably on new behaviour Theory of planned behaviour (TPB) Involves 3 TRA components + a 4th: 4. Person’s perceived control over the outcome/behaviour Health Psychology seeks to help individuals identify & implement ways they can effectively change their behaviours for the better For this, one needs to adopt different practices, which involve changed the way you act and live Changing behaviours often starts with changing attitudes - From a social cognitive perspective, beliefs about one’s ability to make healthy changes is a KEY factor  Stages of change model Processes by which individuals give up bad habits & adopt healthier lifestyles Changes do *NOT* occur overnight → Rather, generally occur across 5 stages 1. Precontemplation: Person not yet thinking about change 2. Contemplation: Thinking about it (acknowledges problem), but not yet ready to change 3. Preparation/Determination: Person preparing to take action 4. Action/Willpower: Person commits to making change & enacts a plan 5. Maintenance: Person try to continue avoiding temptation & pursue healthier behaviour (eventually transcend temptation) 5b RELAPSE: Often relapse during maintenance stage, and then return to stage 3, 4, or 5, but this is normal/to be expected (majority of individuals who succeed, don’t achieve on the 1st try) Resources to support effective life change Social support/social relationships Info & feedback from *others* indicating that You’re loved & cared for, Esteemed and valued & Included in a network of communication & mutual obligation 3 main types of benefits: Tangible assistance Information Emotional support  Strategies to beef up your social support systems - Identify new support systems - Patient - Ask for help - Join peer support groups - Embrace shared interest - Enjoy your community Stress & stages of stress Stress Valuable and healthy response to cope with challenging events and/or threatening situations ○ Distress: Stress from negative events (e.g. losing a job, death of loved one) ○ Eustress: Stress from positive events (e.g. married, graduating college) - Either way, stress symptoms generally similar: Loss of appetite, muscular weakness, decreased interest in the world - But chronic stress that continues long-term can negatively influence our physical, psychological, & emotional well-being Stages of Stress 1. Alarm: Initial shock, resistance to illness temporarily falls below normal levels 2. Resistance: Higher resistance than normal via hormones 3. Exhaustion: If stress persits, negative effects on body accumulate and vulnerability to disease increase Internal Stressors Unchecked worries & doubts  Negative self-talk and low self-esteem Setting unrealistic expectations Compound stress Combined & cumulative effects of multiple stressors over time Types of stress coping strategies Coping means 1. Spending effort to solve problems, and 2. Seeking to reduce stress Cognitive appraisal: our interpretation of an experience as either threatening or challenging, based on whether we have the resources to cope effectively with the event 2 types of coping 1. Problem-focused coping Cognitive strategy of facing troubles & trying to solve them 2. Emotion-focused coping Managing emotions/emotional reactions, rather than confronting the problem itself Problem-focused coping generally superior (but emotion-focused coping can be helpful, e.g., grieving individuals) Strategies for successful coping Positive emotions: Positive emotion-inducing activities (e.g. loving kindness meditation, gratitude journal) Optimism: Cultivate positive expectations for the future Hardiness/resilience: Combination of 3 factors Personal control: Sense of control over one’s life Transformational coping: Stress seen as a challenge for growth  Commitment plurality: Committed to various areas of one’s life (meaning/purpose, & social relationships) Combining coping strategies superior Post-traumatic growth Happiness Ratios of meaning- Seeking vs. pleasure-seeking activities across age But still useful to debate general (age-invariant) ratios Happiness: ? Eudaimonic=pursuit of authenticity, meaning, virtue, and growth Hedonism: The pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain. Short term, selfish/wasteful