PSYC-1160 Midterm Exam Study Guide PDF

PSYC-1160 Midterm Exam Study Guide Key Topics to Review Thinking and Reasoning Thinking ​ Any mental activity or processing of information. ​ Involves learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, and believing. ​ Essential for decision-making and problem-solving in daily l...

PSYC-1160 Midterm Exam Study Guide Key Topics to Review Thinking and Reasoning Thinking ​ Any mental activity or processing of information. ​ Involves learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, and believing. ​ Essential for decision-making and problem-solving in daily life. Problem Solving ​ Definition: The process of finding solutions to difficult or complex issues. ​ Steps: 1.​ Define/frame the problem: Identify the nature and constraints of the problem. 2.​ Develop strategies: Utilize subgoals, heuristics, and algorithms to approach the problem. 3.​ Evaluate solutions: Compare initial expectations with the outcome to assess effectiveness. 4.​ Reassess and refine: Modify approaches if the solution is ineffective. Problem-Solving Strategies ​ Algorithms: Step-by-step, rule-based procedures that guarantee a correct solution but can be time-consuming. ○​ Example: A mathematical formula for solving quadratic equations. ​ Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that speed up decision-making but may lead to errors. ○​ Example: Choosing a familiar brand when shopping without comparing alternatives. ​ Subgoals: Breaking down a large problem into smaller, manageable parts. ○​ Example: Completing a research paper by setting deadlines for each section. ​ Trial and Error: Experimenting with different solutions until the correct one is found. ○​ Example: Testing different keys to open a lock. Obstacles to Problem Solving ​ Functional Fixedness: Viewing objects as having only one fixed function. ○​ Example: Failing to see that a coin can be used as a screwdriver. ​ Mental Set: Sticking to old problem-solving patterns even when they are ineffective.  ○​ Example: Always attempting to solve math problems with the same method despite failure. ​ Cognitive Load: Overwhelming working memory with too much information, reducing efficiency. ○​ Example: Struggling to focus on a test while thinking about multiple unrelated tasks. Reasoning ​ Inductive Reasoning: Drawing general conclusions from specific observations. ○​ Example: Noticing that all observed swans are white and concluding that all swans must be white. ​ Deductive Reasoning: Applying broad principles to specific cases. ○​ Example: If all mammals have lungs and a dolphin is a mammal, then a dolphin must have lungs. Decision Making ​ System 1 (Fast Thinking): Intuitive, automatic, and relies on gut instincts. ○​ Example: Instantly recognizing a familiar face. ​ System 2 (Slow Thinking): Analytical, deliberate, and requires cognitive effort. ○​ Example: Carefully weighing pros and cons before making a major purchase. Cognitive Biases (Heuristics in Decision-Making) ​ Loss Aversion: People prefer avoiding losses rather than acquiring equivalent gains. ○​ Example: Refusing to sell a declining stock to avoid a perceived financial loss. ​ Confirmation Bias: Seeking out information that aligns with existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence. ○​ Example: Reading news articles that support one’s political views while disregarding opposing arguments. ​ Base Rate Neglect: Ignoring statistical probabilities in favor of anecdotal information. ○​ Example: Assuming a lottery win is likely because someone on TV won recently. ​ Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe an event was predictable after it has already happened. ○​ Example: Saying “I knew it all along” after a sports team wins. ​ Representativeness Heuristic: Assessing similarity to a prototype rather than actual probabilities. ○​ Example: Assuming a quiet, bookish person is a librarian rather than a farmer despite statistical odds. ​ Availability Heuristic: Judging an event’s likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind. ○​ Example: Overestimating the risk of plane crashes due to frequent media coverage. ​ Anchoring Bias: Relying too heavily on the first piece of information received. ○​ Example: A car dealer offering a high initial price to make later discounts seem more reasonable. ​ Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing an investment because of prior costs rather than future benefits. ○​ Example: Staying in a bad relationship because of time and effort already invested. Creativity and Problem-Solving ​ Creativity: The ability to generate novel and effective solutions. ○​ Example: Inventing a new way to organize a cluttered workspace. ​ Convergent Thinking: Narrowing down multiple possibilities to find the best single solution. ○​ Example: Selecting the best answer on a multiple-choice exam. ​ Divergent Thinking: Exploring multiple possible solutions and thinking outside the box. ○​ Example: Brainstorming new product ideas for a business. Language & Cognition Phonemes, Morphemes, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics ​ Phonemes: The smallest units of sound. ○​ Example: The sound “b” in “bat.” ​ Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning. ○​ Example: “Un-“ (meaning “not”) in “undo.” ​ Syntax: The rules for sentence structure. ○​ Example: “The dog chased the cat” vs. “Chased the dog cat the.” ​ Semantics: The meaning of words and sentences. ○​ Example: “Bat” can refer to an animal or a piece of sports equipment. ​ Pragmatics: Social aspects of language use, including tone, context, and politeness. ○​ Example: Using “please” and “thank you” in polite conversation. Language Acquisition Stages ​ Babbling: The stage where infants begin producing sounds (4-6 months). ​ One-word stage: Using single words to represent ideas (around 12 months). ​ Two-word stage: Combining two words to make basic sentences (18-24 months). ​ Sentence Stage: Using more complex sentences and grammar (2+ years). Critical Period Hypothesis ​ Definition: Language acquisition is easiest during early childhood. ​ Example: Children who are not exposed to language by age 7 may struggle with fluent speech and grammar. ​ Application: Highlights the importance of early childhood education. Bilingualism and Cognitive Flexibility ​ Definition: The ability to switch between languages enhances cognitive functions like problem-solving and attention. ​ Example: A bilingual child is often better at switching tasks and solving complex problems. Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) ​ Definition: Language shapes how we think and perceive the world. ​ Example: The Inuit have many words for snow, influencing how they perceive and categorize different types of snow.  Code-Switching ​ Definition: Alternating between languages or dialects in conversation. ​ Example: Switching from English to Spanish when talking to a bilingual friend. Language Deprivation and Its Effects ​ Example: Children who are isolated from language development (e.g., Genie) may have difficulty acquiring normal speech patterns later in life. ​ The role of Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area: ○​ Broca’s area: Speech production. ○​ Wernicke’s area: Language comprehension. ​ Aphasia (types and effects): ○​ Broca’s aphasia: Difficulty producing speech. ○​ Wernicke’s aphasia: Difficulty understanding speech. Developmental Psychology Nature vs. Nurture & Early Influences ​ Gene-Environment Interaction: ○​ Definition: How genetics and environment work together to shape development. ○​ Example: A child’s genetic potential for intelligence is influenced by the quality of education and social interactions they receive. ​ Epigenetics: ○​ Definition: Environmental factors can affect gene expression without altering the underlying DNA. ○​ Example: Chronic stress or trauma can affect the brain's stress-response genes. ​ Critical vs. Sensitive Periods: ○​ Critical Period: A specific time window when certain skills must be acquired for typical development. ​ Example: Vision development in the first few months of life. ○​ Sensitive Period: A time when certain experiences have more impact but can still be learned outside this period. ​ Example: Language acquisition in childhood; easier to learn a second language before age 7. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory ​ Stages: ○​ Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): ​ Learning through sensory and motor interaction. ​ Key Concept: Object permanence (understanding objects exist even when not seen). ○​ Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): ​ Developing language, imagination, and symbolic thinking. ​ Key Concept: Egocentrism (difficulty seeing things from others' perspectives). ○​ Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): ​ Logical thinking about concrete events. ​ Key Concept: Conservation (understanding quantity doesn’t change even if appearance does). ○​ Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): ​ Ability to think abstractly and reason logically about hypothetical situations. ​ Assimilation vs. Accommodation:  ○​ Assimilation: Fitting new experiences into existing schemas. ○​ Accommodation: Changing existing schemas to incorporate new information. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory ​ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): ○​ The gap between what a child can do independently and what they can do with assistance. ​ Scaffolding: ○​ Definition: Providing support and guidance to help the child achieve a higher level of understanding. ​ Role of Culture: ○​ Cognitive development is deeply influenced by social and cultural contexts (e.g., language, tools). Attachment Theory (Bowlby & Ainsworth) ​ Strange Situation Task: ○​ A method to assess attachment styles in infants. ○​ Categories: Secure, Avoidant, Anxious, Disorganized. ​ Attachment Styles: ○​ Secure: Comfort with closeness and dependence. ○​ Avoidant: Difficulty trusting others, avoiding intimacy. ○​ Anxious: Clinginess and fear of abandonment. ○​ Disorganized: Inconsistent behavior towards caregivers, confusion. ​ Impact on Adult Relationships: ○​ Early attachment influences trust, intimacy, and coping with stress in adulthood. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development ​ Stages: 1.​ Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy): Trusting caregivers builds a foundation for future relationships. 2.​ Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlerhood): Developing independence, self-control. 3.​ Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood): Exploring the world and taking initiative. 4.​ Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle Childhood): Developing skills and confidence. 5.​ Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Forming a personal identity and sense of direction.  6.​ Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood): Establishing intimate relationships. 7.​ Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood): Contributing to society, guiding future generations. 8.​ Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood): Reflecting on life with either satisfaction or regret. Moral Development (Kohlberg) ​ Stages: 1.​ Preconventional: Focus on avoiding punishment and gaining rewards. 2.​ Conventional: Emphasis on societal norms and maintaining relationships. 3.​ Postconventional: Higher ethical principles, justice, and individual rights. ​ Heinz Dilemma: A moral decision-making scenario used to illustrate the stages of moral development. ​ Cultural and Gender Differences: Kohlberg’s stages may not apply universally across cultures or gender differences. Gilligan’s critique highlighted the importance of care-based morality, especially for women. Parenting & Social Development ​ Parenting Styles: ○​ Authoritative: Supportive, sets clear expectations (associated with the healthiest outcomes). ○​ Authoritarian: Strict, controlling, little warmth. ○​ Permissive: Lenient, few rules, nurturing. ○​ Uninvolved: Neglectful, little responsiveness. ​ Peer vs. Parental Influence: ○​ Peer influence increases in adolescence, while parental influence remains important for core values. ​ Divorce: ○​ Most children adjust well to divorce if the conflict between parents is low. High conflict can lead to emotional and behavioral issues. Intelligence & IQ Testing Theories & Measurement of Intelligence ​ Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: Includes linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligence. ​ Triarchic Theory (Sternberg): ○​ Analytical: Problem-solving ability. ○​ Practical: Adaptability in everyday situations. ○​ Creative: Innovation and novel thinking. ​ Spearman’s g and s: ○​ g-factor: General intelligence. ○​ s-factor: Specific abilities. ​ Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence (Cattell & Horn): ○​ Fluid: Problem-solving ability (declines with age). ○​ Crystallized: Knowledge accumulation (remains stable). IQ Testing & Measurement ​ Binet & Simon’s Intelligence Test: Designed to identify children needing educational support. ​ Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): Most widely used IQ test, measuring verbal comprehension, working memory, perceptual reasoning, and processing speed. ​ Stanford-Binet IQ Test: A revision of Binet’s test, introducing the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ). ​ Calculating IQ: ○​ Originally: (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100. ○​ Modern Approach: Standardized scoring based on a normal distribution. Genetic & Environmental Influences on Intelligence ​ Heritability of Intelligence: ○​ Twin studies show a strong genetic component (identical twins: 0.7–0.8 correlation, fraternal twins: 0.3–0.4). ○​ Adoption studies suggest that environment plays a role, but genetics remain significant. ​ Environmental Influences: ○​ Socioeconomic Status (SES): Access to education, nutrition, and resources affects IQ.  ○​ Early Intervention Programs: Programs like Head Start show short-term IQ boosts and long-term benefits in education. ○​ Flynn Effect: The observed rise in average IQ scores over decades due to factors like better nutrition, education, and test familiarity. Controversies & Ethical Issues ​ Eugenics Movement: Early misuse of IQ tests to justify forced sterilization and immigration restrictions. ​ Cultural Bias in IQ Testing: Tests may favor certain cultural and linguistic backgrounds. ​ Fixed vs. Growth Mindset (Dweck): ○​ Fixed Mindset: Intelligence is static and unchangeable. ○​ Growth Mindset: Intelligence can be developed with effort and learning. ​ Emotional Intelligence (EQ): ○​ The ability to recognize, understand, and manage emotions in oneself and others. ○​ Some argue it predicts life success better than IQ. Practice Questions 1.​ A therapist is working with a client who has an anxious attachment style. The client reports checking their partner’s social media constantly, seeking reassurance, and feeling overwhelming anxiety when their partner is unavailable. Which of the following strategies would likely be the most beneficial? ○​ C) Helping the client recognize and manage activating strategies to reduce anxiety-driven behaviors. 2.​ Monique routinely uses a shredder to shred her paper mail into confetti-sized pieces of paper. When packing her glassware to move into a new apartment, she runs out of protective Styrofoam packing material. Suddenly, Monique remembers the shredded junk mail confetti that she could use as packing material. In doing so, Monique has: ○​ D) Overcome functional fixedness. Thinking, Problem-Solving, & Decision-Making 1.​ What is an example of functional fixedness in everyday life? ○​ A) Using a paperclip to reset a device ○​ B) Only using a hammer to drive nails, not recognizing it can also be used as a paperweight ○​ C) Using a smartphone as a flashlight ○​ D) Seeing a new use for an old tool 2.​ Which problem-solving method guarantees a correct solution but can be time-consuming? ○​ A) Heuristics ○​ B) Insight ○​ C) Algorithms ○​ D) Trial and error 3.​ A person assumes that because all engineers they know are good at math, all engineers must be good at math. This is an example of: ○​ A) Deductive reasoning ○​ B) Inductive reasoning ○​ C) Confirmation bias ○​ D) Hindsight bias 4.​ Which cognitive bias describes the tendency to cling to initial information even when presented with new evidence? ○​ A) Anchoring bias ○​ B) Availability heuristic ○​ C) Hindsight bias ○​ D) Gambler’s fallacy 5.​ A person believes they knew the outcome of an event all along after it has happened. This is an example of: ○​ A) Representativeness heuristic  ○​ B) Confirmation bias ○​ C) Hindsight bias ○​ D) Anchoring bias Language & Cognition 6.​ Which aspect of language refers to the smallest unit of meaning? ○​ A) Phonemes ○​ B) Morphemes ○​ C) Syntax ○​ D) Semantics 7.​ A child refers to all four-legged animals as "dogs." This is an example of: ○​ A) Overgeneralization ○​ B) Syntax development ○​ C) Code-switching ○​ D) Pragmatics 8.​ What brain area is primarily responsible for speech production? ○​ A) Wernicke’s area ○​ B) Broca’s area ○​ C) Hippocampus ○​ D) Amygdala 9.​ Which theory suggests that language influences thought and perception? ○​ A) Linguistic relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) ○​ B) Critical period hypothesis ○​ C) Universal grammar ○​ D) Nativist theory 10.​What is an example of pragmatics in language? ​ A) Learning new words in another language ​ B) Understanding sarcasm based on context ​ C) Using correct grammar in writing ​ D) Speaking in full sentences Developmental Psychology 11.​Which of the following is NOT considered a teratogen? ​ A) Alcohol ​ B) Folic acid supplements ​ C) Tobacco ​ D) Radiation exposure 12.​According to Piaget, which stage is marked by the ability to think abstractly and use hypothetical reasoning? ​ A) Sensorimotor ​ B) Preoperational ​ C) Concrete operational ​ D) Formal operational 13.​The Strange Situation Task was designed to assess: ​ A) Moral reasoning ​ B) Attachment styles ​ C) Cognitive development ​ D) Language acquisition 14.​A child who is clingy, highly distressed when a caregiver leaves, and difficult to soothe upon return likely has which attachment style? ​ A) Secure ​ B) Avoidant ​ C) Anxious ​ D) Disorganized 15.​The idea that experiences during infancy and early childhood have a lasting impact on psychological development is most closely associated with: ​ A) Nature via nurture ​ B) Infant determinism ​ C) Gene-environment interaction ​ D) Critical period hypothesis