PSY101 Introduction to Cultural Psychology Lecture 2 PDF

PSY101 Introduction to Cultural Psychology Lecture 2  Part 1: Cross-cultural research methods Part 2: Enculturation Part 1: Cross-cultural research methods Outline Types of Cross-Cultural Research Types of Cross-Cultural Comparisons Exploratory vs. hypo...

PSY101 Introduction to Cultural Psychology Lecture 2  Part 1: Cross-cultural research methods Part 2: Enculturation Part 1: Cross-cultural research methods Outline Types of Cross-Cultural Research Types of Cross-Cultural Comparisons Exploratory vs. hypothesis testing Contextual factors Structure vs. level oriented Individual vs. ecological (cultural) level Outline (cont'd.) Designing Cross-Cultural Comparative Research Getting the right research question Designs that establish linkages between culture and individual mental processes and behaviours Bias and equivalence Conceptual bias Method bias Measurement bias Interpretational bias  TYPES OF CROSS- CULTURAL RESEARCH Types of cross-cultural research Cross-Cultural Comparisons Compare cultures on some psychological variable of interest Most prevalent type of cross-cultural study Different methods of cross-cultural studies are prominent at different times Different methods have particular strengths and weaknesses TYPES OF CROSS- CULTURAL COMPARISONS Exploratory vs. Hypothesis Testing Exploratory studies: examine existence of cross- cultural similarities and differences Strength: broad scope for identifying similarities and differences Weakness: limited capability to address causes of differences Hypothesis-testing: examine why cultural differences may exist Hypothesis-testing leads to more substantial contributions to theory development Structure vs. Level Oriented Structure: comparisons of constructs, structures, or relationships with other constructs Structure-oriented studies focus on relationships among variables Attempt to identify similarities and differences in these relations across cultures e.g. how do different cultures conceptualize intelligence? Level oriented: comparisons of scores Level-oriented studies ask whether people of different cultures have different mean levels of different variables e.g. what are the mean individualism scores of different cultures? Individual vs. Ecological (Cultural) Level Individual-level studies: individual participants provide data and are unit of analysis Ecological- or cultural-level studies: countries or cultures are units of analysis e.g. Hofstede's work-related values Data from > 117000 participants, from 72 countries Analysis of the country means on work related values led to five dimensions for describing cultures: Individualism vs Collectivism, Power distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Masculinity vs Femininity, Long vs Short term Orientation Multi-level studies: Involve data collection at multiple levels of analysis DESIGNING CROSS- CULTURAL COMPARATIVE RESEARCH Getting the Right Research Question Knowing the literature leads to knowing what research question to ask Understanding why study is to be conducted leads to questions about how to conduct it Easy to identify cultural difference, much more challenging to isolate source of cultural differences Identify active cultural (vs. noncultural) ingredients that produce those differences Researchers need to pay attention to many theoretical and empirical issues Linkage Studies Studies that measure an aspect of culture theoretically hypothesized to produce cultural differences Empirically link that measured aspect of culture with the dependent variable of interest Types Unpackaging studies Experiments Linkage Studies Unpackaging studies Includes measurement of a variable Assesses contents of culture thought to produce differences of the variable Utilizes context variables Individual-level measures of culture Assess variable on individual level thought to be product of culture e.g. Individualism versus collectivism Idiocentrism: Individualism on the individual level Allocentrism: Collectivism on the individual level Linkage Studies Experiments Studies in which researchers create conditions to establish cause-effect relationships Priming studies Experimentally manipulating mindsets of participants and measuring resulting changes in behaviour Behavioural studies Manipulations of environments and observation of changes in behaviour as function of environments BIAS AND EQUIVALENCE Bias and Equivalence Bias: differences that do not have exactly the same meaning within and across cultures − If bias exists in cross-cultural comparative study, comparison loses its meaning − Important to understand many aspects of studies that may be culturally biased Equivalence: similarity in conceptual meaning and empirical method between cultures Bias refers to a state of non-equivalence, and equivalence refers to a state of no bias Areas of Bias Degree to which measures used to collect data in different cultures are equally valid and reliable Linguistic equivalence alone does not Meas guarantee measurement equivalence urem Different cultures may conceptually define a construct differently and/or ent measure it differently Bias Areas of Bias Cross-cultural differences in definitions of Con meanings of psychological concepts − If a concept holds different meanings across stru cultures, then comparisons are less meaningful ct bias Are the research protocols semantically equivalent across the languages used in the study? Ling − Procedures used to establish linguistic uisti equivalence: back translation and committee c approach bias  Areas of Bias Systematic tendency to respond in certain way to items or scales If response biases exist, it is very difficult to compare data between cultures −Socially desirable responding: tendency to give answers that make oneself look good −Acquiescence bias: tendency to agree rather than disagree with items on questionnaires −Extreme response bias: tendency to use ends of scale regardless of item content Response bias−when Reference group effect: people make implicit social comparisons with others making ratings on scales Areas of Bias A condition in which the theoretical framework underlying a study or the hypotheses being tested mean different things in the cultures studied Mod −If frameworks and hypotheses tested are not equivalent el across cultures, data obtained may not be comparable bias Refers to when samples may not be adequate representations of their cultures as a whole, or when samples are different on Sam noncultural demographic characteristics plin −Are the samples in the cultures tested appropriately representative of their culture and equivalent to each other? g bias Areas of Bias Refers to situations in which the process of conducting research is different in different cultures in a Proce study dural −Do the procedures by which (admi data are collected mean the nistrat same in all cultures tested? ion) bias Areas of Bias Culture can bias ways researchers interpret their findings Data from hypothesis-testing are correlational Interp Cultural attribution fallacies: claim that between-group differences are retatio cultural without empirical justification nal Linkage studies address this problem Bias Ways to Deal with Nonequivalent Data Reduce Preclude non- comparison equivalence in the data Interpret the Ignore the non- non- equivalence equivalence Part 2: Enculturation Outline Humans Engage in Cultural Learning Enculturation and Socialization Culture, Parenting, and Families Whiting and Whiting’s Six Cultures Study Diversity in Parenting as a Function of Economics Parenting Goals and Beliefs Global Parenting Styles Parenting Behaviours and Strategies A Domain-Specific Approach to Parenting Siblings Extended and Multigenerational Families Outline (cont’d.) Culture and Peers Exposure to Peer Groups Culture and the Education System School Systems Parental and Familial Values Attitudes and Appraisals of Students Teaching Practices and School Environment Putting it All Together HUMANS ENGAGE IN CULTURAL LEARNING Humans and Cultural Learning Engaging in shared intentionality allows cultural learning Learning not only from others but through others Tomasello’s study Children understand intentionality, social learning, and communication on a complex level Provides the foundation for cooperation with other humans along with social learning and communication Humans can create and transmit a culture in a sophisticated manner ENCULTURATION AND SOCIALIZATION Enculturation and Socialization Constant across cultures: people wish to become competent, productive adults Different across cultures: meaning of "competent" and "productive” Culture must be learned with practice through prolonged process Socialization: process by which we learn and internalize rules and patterns of society Enculturation: process of learning and adopting ways and manners of their culture Enculturation and Socialization Socialization and enculturation agents People, institutions, and organizations that ensure socialization and enculturation occurs Parents who instil values in children Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory Studying children in relation to their particular contexts is key to understanding development Children contribute to their own development by interacting with and influencing people around them Enculturation and Socialization Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of Human Development CULTURE, PARENTING, AND FAMILIES Culture, Parenting, and Families Family: most important microsystem to child’s development By observing parents, we are observing essence of a culture (Margaret Mead anthropologist) Study of parenting within cultural context tells us what is important to that culture Whiting and Whitings’ Six Cultures Study Collected field data in Mexico, India, Kenya, USA, Okinawa, and Philippines Major focus: examine child rearing and children's behaviour in varied cultural contexts Child’s behaviour and personality is intimately connected to characteristics of broader ecology Women's work roles contribute to children's social behaviours Diversity in Parenting as a Function of Economics Diverse economic conditions produce socialization processes that vary across cultures Caregiving environment reflects set of goals ordered in importance: Physical health and survival Promotion of behaviours leading to self-sufficiency Behaviours that promote other cultural values, i.e. prestige Parenting Goals and Beliefs Parenting goals provide motivation and framework for raising children lead to variations in parenting behaviours across cultures Parental ethnotheories (parental cultural belief systems) motivate and shape what parents think is “right” way to parent Global Parenting Styles Authoritarian parents: expect unquestioned obedience; child needs to be controlled Permissive parents: warm and nurturing; allow children to regulate own lives with few guidelines Authoritative parents: sensitive to child's maturity; firm, fair, reasonable and affectionate Uninvolved parents: do not respond appropriately to children; indifferent Parenting Behaviours and Strategies Studies using HOME Inventory describe three general areas in which cultures vary: Warmth and responsiveness Discipline Stimulation/teaching Parenting beliefs and practices are congruent with developmental goals dictated by culture A Domain-Specific Approach to Parenting Criticism of global parenting: ignores differences due to particular child, situation, and context Domain-specific approach: Focuses on parenting behaviours rather than general styles Emphasizes complexity of socialization process Domains include: protection, control, reciprocity, guided learning, and group participation Parenting practices must be appropriate for domain in which child is functioning Siblings Siblings play important role in socialization of children Siblings can fulfill many roles: tutors, buddies, playmates, caretakers Skills important to culture are learned from siblings: perspective-taking, social understanding, conflict negotiation Repeated and prolonged interaction means older siblings can be influential role model to younger siblings Extended and Multigenerational Families Extended families: members other than parents and children (aunts, uncles, cousins, and grandparents) Multigenerational families: grandparents in addition to parents and children or just children Extended- and multigenerational-family child rearing is integral part of enculturation process Extended and multigenerational families have in common sharing of resources, emotional support, and caregiving CULTURE AND PEERS Culture and Peers Exposure to Peer Groups Cultures vary in exposure that children have to peer groups Industrialized countries: children spend significant amount of time with same-aged peers Solitary farm settlements: children will have limited options to interact with wide range of playmates Hunting and gathering society: children may be socialized by multiple-age peers CULTURE AND EDUCATION Culture and Educational System Educational system - Formalized mechanism of instruction in many societies and cultures Teaches and reinforces cultural values School systems Content taught in schools reflect the choices regarding what a culture believes is important to learn Parental and familial values Cultural differences in parenting beliefs about education impact children’s educational experiences Culture and Educational System Attitudes and appraisals of students Students around the world approach their academic work with different worldviews, attitudes, and attributional styles Differences can be attributed to parental variations Teaching practices and school environment Differences exist in the classroom in terms of teaching style, and expectations across cultures Actual behaviours contribute to children’s academic achievement Putting it All Together Each culture's way of raising children represents that culture's way of ensuring values and norms are transmitted to those children Practices are ritualized to transmit information from generation to next generation Contemporary theories Children's active processing of information results in reproduction of culture and production of new elements Enculturation is a life-long process