Adeleke University PSY 101: Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes PDF

ADELEKE UNIVERSITY PSY 101: Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes Course Lecturer: A.O. Adesina  What is Psychology? Psychology is a discipline that permeates almost all areas of our lives. It is an exciting discipline that is familiar, exotic, surprising...

ADELEKE UNIVERSITY PSY 101: Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes Course Lecturer: A.O. Adesina  What is Psychology? Psychology is a discipline that permeates almost all areas of our lives. It is an exciting discipline that is familiar, exotic, surprising and challenging. Psychology takes a reflective attitude to understanding how we live, think, feel and act as humans. It is a discipline that has been variously defined by scholars.  Introduction cont’d. We shall examine some misconceptions about the discipline of Psychology exist i.e. Pseudo-Psychology. Many people erroneously believe that psychology deals with madness or astrology. To be properly acquainted therefore with this concept, we shall examine the concept of Psychology. we shall undertake the task of unravelling the meaning of Psychology; examining its origin and evolution; brief history; nature and characteristics; as well as the tasks/aims of the concept/discipline.  Misconceptions on Psychology Psychology deals with treating mad people! Psychologists are professional who read people’s minds just by looking at them or their forehead! A popular misconception of psychology is called Pseudo-Psychology. A pseudo-psychology is any unfounded system that superficially resembles psychology.  Misconceptions Cont’d. Pseudo-psychology gives the appearance of science but is actually false. Pseudo-psychology avoids evidence that contradicts their beliefs. Some pseudo-psychologies include palmistry, graphology, numerology, astrology, and phrenology.  Misconceptions Cont’d. Palmistry: This is the practice of telling fortunes from the lines, marks and patterns on the palms. It is a false system that claims to reveal personality traits and to predict the future of the palms of the hands. It is also called ‘chiromancy’ (which comes from the Greek word for hand ‘Cheiro’).  Misconceptions Cont’d. Graphology: This is a pseudo-psychology system based on the belief that handwriting can reveal personality traits. Careful analysis in psychological studies has shown that graphologists score close to zero in evaluating personality.  Misconceptions Cont’d. Numerology: This false system is hinged on the belief that human behaviour or personality traits are revealed by certain numbers usually birthdays (date, month & year), which are combined together in calculating and interpreting the meaning of key numbers to reveal personality traits.  Misconceptions Cont’d. Astrology: This is another false system based on the belief that human behaviour is influenced by the position of planets and stars. It is based on the assumption that the position of the planets and stars at the time of a person’s birth determines personality traits and in turn affects behaviour and major life events such as marriages, accidents, deaths, etc.  Misconceptions Cont’d. Phrenology: The pseudo-psychology is based on the belief that personality traits are revealed by the shape of the skull. Phrenology is traced to a 19th century anatomy teacher, Franz Gall who theorised that ‘Personality was revealed by bumps on the skull’.  Pseudo-Psychologies are misconceptions of Psychology Pseudo-psychologies are misconceptions about what psychology investigates because they are not supported by scientific evidence. Psychology is neither common sense nor pseudoscience. Belief in pseudo-psychologies is based on the following thinking errors:  Pseudo-Psychologies Cont’d. Uncritical acceptance: i.e. the tendency to believe generally positive or flattering descriptions of oneself. Fallacy of positive instances: The tendency to remember or notice information that fits one’s expectations, while neglecting discrepancies. Barnum or Forer effect: The tendency to consider a personal description accurate if it is stated in general terms.  Origin and Evolution of Psychology The term psychology is derived from the Greek roots ‘psyche’ (soul or mind) and ‘logos’ (knowledge or study) meaning the study of the soul or mind. From research, we can say that psychology dates back to the 17th century, with philosophers seeking to study the connection between the mind and the body.  Cont’d. The earliest known psychologists are the Greek philosophers, Plato (428-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). These two philosophers in particular raised fundamental psychological questions that are still very relevant today. For instance, they questioned the distinction between nature and nurture and the existence of free will. Aristotle is often regarded as the father of psychology. His book, De Animal (On the Soul) is regarded as the first book on psychology. This question-raising attitude of the philosophers continued from the ancient period right through the renaissance and modern periods. Prominent among the philosophers that touched on psychological issues include Rene Descartes, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau.  Cont’d. The word ‘psychology’ was not in use until the 19th century, when it emerged as an independent field of study in 1879 through the works and activities of German Professor Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), who developed a psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany and later, an American psychologist William James (1842-1910), who founded a psychology lab at Harvard University. Wilhelm Wundt, a German physiologist, philosopher known today as the founder or father of modern experimental psychology- he is also reputed as the first person to ever call himself a psychologist.  Defining Psychology Early Definitions Early psychology was part of philosophy due to the interest of ancient philosophers like Plato and Aristotle who were interested in the study of the soul. So, during this period, psychology was identified as the study or science of the soul. However, the term ‘soul’ was criticised as too vague and wide in its understanding during the medieval period. There were questions regarding the physical existence, weight and volume of soul.  Defining Psychology The definition of Psychology as the study of soul became unacceptable primarily because no convincing proof or evidence of the precise nature of soul was supplied. This definition was then relegated because of its metaphysical nature. It was found inadequate to satisfy the canons of science”  Defining Psychology Next, psychology was defined as ‘the science of the mind’ by some ancient Greek philosophers. According to them, psychology was held as a branch of mental philosophy. However, the definition does not include overt behaviour of human beings and mind cannot be measured directly, this definition was also refuted by some psychologists.  Defining Psychology Next, psychology was defined as ‘the science of consciousnesses’. According to Bagga & Singh (1990), at one time during the history of psychology, it was felt that the main business of psychology was to the conscious experience. Consciousness makes us conscious or aware of the situation or a thing around us. This definition too is now outdated and has since been rejected due to the following reasons:  Cont’d. consciousness cannot be studied objectively as it is more personal and subjective. second objection came from the fast developing branch of the abnormal psychology which brought the study of unconscious part of our mind within the province of psychology. the term consciousness does not include animal or human behaviour. the term consciousness also was seen to have a philosophical tinge and therefore not accepted by the modern scientific psychologists.  Current Definitions Finally, modern psychology has been defined as ‘a science of behaviour.’ In the early decades of 20th century, Watson, the father of the school of ‘Behaviourism’ defined psychology as ‘the study of behaviour’. According to Morgan et al. (1986), Watson rejected mind as the subject of psychology and insisted that psychology be restricted to the study of behaviour- the observable (or potentially observable) activities of people and animals. Watson held that there are no essential differences between human and animal behaviour and that we can learn much about human behaviour from the study of what animals do. Watson emphasized that noting is innate and everything can be learned. From here, the term ‘behaviour’ became the centre point of defining psychology.  Defining Psychology Psychology concerns itself with the scientific investigation of behaviour, including from the stand-point of behaviour, much of what earlier psychologists dealt with as experience Psychology is the study of human and animal behaviour. It includes the application of this science to human problems (Morgan et al., 1986) Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes (Fieldman, 1996) Psychology is the study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state and external environment (Tavris and Wade, 1997) Psychology is all about human behaviour, about mental processes, and about the context in which behaviour and mental processes occur (Das, 1998)  Cont’d. From the above definitions, we can safely define: psychology studies behaviour psychology as a science psychology as an application to solve human problems  Psychology studies behaviour Through the study of behaviour, psychology understands internal mental processes which are revealed or made manifest by observing behaviours such as patterns of sleeping, eating, walking, talking and so on. Nature of Behaviour Behaviour is a broad concept and complex phenomenon. According to the psychologists, behaviour is everything or anything that a human or animal does that can be observed in some way. As such, behaviour includes all actions and responses of organisms that can be measured directly or indirectly. Behaviour not only means bodily movements but also can include mental and cognitive processes such as feelings, attitudes, thoughts, emotions, and all other internal vents, which cannot be observed directly but can be measured indirectly through what people say (vocal behaviour) and how they react to different problems and situations.  Characteristics of Behaviour Behaviour is influenced by a number of factors: these factors include: biological, cultural, social; environmental, past experience, motivational, emotional, and cognitive (e.g., feelings, emotions, motivations, thoughts), etc. Behaviour varies in complexities: behaviour can be as simple as picking a pen, waving a friend or reflex responses like sneezing, coughing, etc. Some other behaviour includes certain skills which become a habit over a period such as playing guitar, cycling, etc. Yet some other behaviour involves complex activities like repairing a car. Other highly complex behavioural activities landing on a moon, flying a fighter plane, etc. The factors influencing behaviour are individual and environment: factors pertaining to an individual can be categorised under physiological (biological needs such as hunger, thirst, shelter, clothing, etc) and psychological (ideas, opinions, attitudes, etc.). The environmental factors include physical surroundings, family and friends, the larger society and even the overall cultural and social background.  Cont’d. Individual differences: behaviour varies from one person to the other as well as from one group of people to the other group of people. People differ in their physiological and bodily conditions, in their past experiences, in their abilities, in their background etc. it is therefore natural that if ten people are put in the same situation, each person’s behaviour differs from that of the others, in some respects or in some degrees. Behaviour also shows similarities: though behaviour differs from person to person but this does not mean that all people differ from all others, at all times, and in all situations. There is also a considerable degree of similarity in behaviour among people. For instance, if a particle of dust falls into a person’s eye, he/she tries to remove it. This type of behaviour is found universally  Cont’d Behaviour is always purposeful and goal directive: human behaviour is always purposeful and one’s actions are always directed towards some goal or the other. A boy sitting and studying suddenly gets up and takes a glass of water. Here, the goal is to have a glass of water and the purpose is to quench his thirst. On the other hand, a boy is sitting and studying and feels cold. He gets up and switches off the fan. Here, the goal is to switch off the fan and the purpose is to avoid the discomfort of cold. From here, all our behaviours can be categorised under: (i) approach behaviour (positive goal oriented) (ii) avoidance behaviour (negative goal avoidance) Behaviour is changeable to a large extent: it was mentioned earlier that a number of factors influence behaviour. In view of this, it is possible to change behaviour by modifying these factors. It is this changeability which enables a child to become a bad man. It is again these very characteristics which help people to adjust to new surroundings. These changes are the results of one’s practice or experience ( learning)  Psychology as a science Psychology has been defined as a science of behaviour. This becomes relatable when we factor in the definition of science as a systematised body of knowledge gathered through carefully observing and measuring events (Morgan et al, 1986). The observation of events are systematised in various ways, but mainly by classifying and establishing general principles and laws to describe and predict new events as accurately as possible. Psychology studies behaviour in the same way that the other sciences study their subject matter and therefore shares a number of features with them.  Cont’d. According to Morgan et al, (1986), psychology adopts similar characteristics as science among others such as: Empirical observation: this involves experiment and observation rather than argument, opinion or belief. Systematic approach and theory: data from observations and experiments are essential to science, but for them “to make some sense” in helping us to understand events, they must be ordered in some ways. The scientist tries to find a limited number of principles which will summarise the data economically. Scientific theories are therefore important tools for the organization of data. Measurement: this is another distinguishing feature of many sciences. Defined as the assignment of numbers to objects or events according to certain rules. Definition of terms: careful definition of terms is essential to clear thinking in science. The procedure in psychology is to define concepts by relating them to observable behaviour (operational definition). When we define a concept operationally, we define it in terms of measurable and observable operations. For example, the concepts of length, height in physics, and concepts like intelligence, motivation, personality in psychology are defined in terms of observable operations, which can be performed to measure them. However, psychology cannot measure behaviours such as bravery, friendship, love, beauty, etc, as these cannot be defined operationally.  Psychology as an application to solve human problems Psychology is a discipline that can be applied to not only study real-life issues but also provide possible solutions to them, whether in the areas of educational psychology, social psychology, industrial psychology or behavioural psychology.  The Tasks/ Aims of Psychology Firstly, a science of behaviour should observe, investigate and identify factors which influence behaviour and also assess their relative influences. It must investigate the role of each of these factors, separately and together in producing similarities and differences in behaviour. Based on these investigations, psychology should arrive at generalisations in the form of theories, laws and principles explaining the similarities and also the differences in behaviour. It should also explain the complimentary functions of the factors and the processes, in generating similarities as well as differences among people. Since behaviour is purposive, psychology must investigate the nature, kinds and number of purposes, their origin and development, and the relationship among them.  Cont’d. Since behaviour changes, it is the responsibility of psychology to study and explain the nature of such changes, kinds, the processes which govern them and the interaction among different kinds of changes. While changes in behaviour are to be understood, stability and consistency in behaviour also need to be explained. The master concern of psychology is to explain how change and stability, similarities and differences, are organised and integrated to produce both generality and uniqueness in behaviour.  Early Schools of Psychology Psychology, as a separate area of study, split away from philosophy a little over 130 years ago. The successes of the experimental method in the physical sciences encouraged some philosophers to think that mind and behaviour could be studied with scientific methods. With the establishment of psychological laboratories by Wundt and William James, the study of psychology as mind and later behaviour led to attempts that were made to find laws relating to events in the physical world to a person’s mental experience of those external events. For this, they carried out experiments in the areas of imagery, memory, thinking, and emotion.  Cont’d. Questions were raised about the nature of the mind and the best ways to study mind; so also were germane questions raised as to what should be studied in psychology. Should psychology study mind, or should it study behaviours, or should both mind and behaviour be included? Different influential psychologists of the time held quite different views on the nature of the mind and the proper subject matter for psychology. Schools of thought formed around different scholars and thus birthed the early schools of psychology; as they set the direction for much of the research on mind and behaviour in the early years of 20th century (Morgan et al., 1986). These schools of thought include: Structuralism, Functionalism, Gestalt psychology, Behaviourism and Psychoanalysis.  Structuralism Structuralism is considered the first school of thought in psychology, focusing on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components to understand the structure of the mind. The structuralists assume that the mind as a natural phenomenon could be scientifically observed. As such, they thought that the study of the mind should be a description of the basic or elementary units of sensation, image and emotion which compose it.  Founders and Key Figures Wilhelm Wundt: Often regarded as the father of experimental psychology, Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. He used controlled methods, such as introspection, to analyze the basic elements of consciousness. Edward B. Titchener: A student of Wundt, Titchener further developed and promoted structuralism in the United States. He proposed that the mind could be understood by identifying its basic elements, which he categorized into sensations, images, and affections  Main Concepts: Introspection: The primary method used in structuralism, introspection involves looking inward to examine one’s own conscious thoughts and feelings. Participants would report their sensory experiences in response to stimuli, such as a ticking metronome, to identify the fundamental components of their perceptions. Basic Elements of Consciousness: Titchener identified three elementary states of consciousness: – Sensations: Basic sensory experiences, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. – Images: Components of thoughts, such as memories and mental images. – Affections: Components of emotions, such as feelings of pleasure or displeasure  Goals and Influence: Understanding Mental Structure: Structuralism aimed to map out the structure of the mind by analyzing its basic elements and understanding how they combine to form more complex experiences. Influence on Psychology: Although structuralism was eventually overshadowed by other schools of thought, such as functionalism and behaviorism, it laid the groundwork for experimental psychology and the scientific study of mental processes.  Criticisms Subjectivity of Introspection: Critics argued that introspection was too subjective and unreliable, as it depended on individuals’ self-reports, which could be biased or inconsistent. Lack of Practical Application: Structuralism was criticized for focusing too much on the components of consciousness without addressing how these elements function in real-world situations. Conclusion Despite its limitations, structuralism played a crucial role in establishing psychology as a scientific discipline and influenced subsequent psychological theories and methodologies.  Functionalism Functionalism emerged as a significant school of thought in early psychology, focusing on the purpose and function of mental processes and behavior rather than their structure. It developed as a reaction to structuralism and emphasized understanding how mental activities help an organism adapt to its environment.  Key Principles of Functionalism: Focus on Function: – Functionalism is concerned with the functions of mental processes and behavior. It asks questions like: What do mental processes do? How do they help an organism survive and thrive? Adaptation: – Functionalists believe that mental processes have evolved because they are adaptive and help individuals respond to their environment. This perspective aligns closely with evolutionary theory. Holistic Approach: – Unlike structuralism, which breaks down mental processes into basic elements, functionalism looks at the mind as a whole. It considers how mental processes operate together to produce behavior.  Key Figures William James: – Often considered the father of American psychology, James was a leading figure in functionalism. He emphasized the fluid and dynamic nature of consciousness and the importance of studying how mental processes function in real-life situations2. John Dewey: – Dewey applied functionalist principles to education, advocating for learning through doing and the importance of adapting education to meet the needs of students2. James Rowland Angell: – Angell further developed functionalist ideas, emphasizing the role of mental processes in helping individuals adapt to their environment  Impact on Psychology: – Functionalism paved the way for other psychological approaches, such as behaviorism and applied psychology. It broadened the scope of psychological research to include practical applications and the study of behavior in natural contexts. Criticisms – Critics argue that functionalism lacks a clear methodology and can be too broad in its focus. However, its emphasis on the practical applications of psychology and the adaptive nature of mental processes has had a lasting impact on the field. Conclusion -- Functionalism’s holistic and adaptive approach to understanding the mind and behavior has influenced many areas of psychology, including educational psychology, cognitive psychology, and evolutionary psychology.  Gestalt Psychology Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that emerged in the early 20th century, focusing on understanding how people perceive and experience objects as whole patterns rather than as separate components. The central tenet of Gestalt psychology is encapsulated in the phrase, “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”  Key Principles of Gestalt Psychology: Holistic Perception: – Gestalt psychology emphasizes that our minds tend to perceive objects as part of a greater whole and as elements of more complex systems. This holistic approach contrasts with the atomistic view of structuralism, which breaks down mental processes into basic elements. Gestalt Laws of Perception: – Law of Prägnanz: We tend to perceive complex images in the simplest form possible. – Law of Similarity: Objects that are similar are perceived as part of the same group. – Law of Proximity: Objects that are close to each other are perceived as a group. – Law of Continuity: We prefer perceptions of continuous figures. – Law of Closure: We tend to fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object  Founders and Key Figures: Max Wertheimer: Considered one of the founders, Wertheimer’s work on the phi phenomenon (the perception of motion between stationary objects) laid the groundwork for Gestalt psychology. Wolfgang Köhler: Known for his research on problem- solving and insight in chimpanzees, Köhler contributed significantly to the understanding of perception and learning. Kurt Koffka: Koffka helped introduce Gestalt psychology to the United States and wrote extensively on the subject, emphasizing its applications to developmental psychology.  Applications and Influence Perception and Cognition: Gestalt principles have been applied to understand visual perception, problem-solving, and cognitive processes. They explain how we organize sensory information into meaningful patterns and structures. Psychotherapy: Although distinct from Gestalt psychology, Gestalt therapy, developed by Fritz Perls, draws on some Gestalt principles to focus on the present moment and the holistic experience of individuals. Design and Art: Gestalt principles are widely used in design, art, and user interface development to create visually appealing and easily understandable compositions.  Criticisms: Lack of Quantitative Methods: Critics argue that Gestalt psychology lacks rigorous quantitative methods and relies heavily on descriptive analysis. Overemphasis on Perception: Some suggest that Gestalt psychology overemphasizes perceptual processes at the expense of other cognitive functions. Conclusion Despite these criticisms, Gestalt psychology has had a lasting impact on various fields, including psychology, design, and education, by highlighting the importance of holistic processing in human perception and cognition.  Behaviorism Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors rather than internal mental states. It focuses on how behaviors are learned and conditioned through interactions with the environment. Behaviourists rejected the idea that mind should be the subject of psychology, and instead, emphasized that psychology be restricted to the study of behaviour- the observable (or potentially observable) activities of people and animals.  Key Principles: Observable Behavior: – Behaviorism asserts that psychology should be a science based on observable and measurable behaviors, not on unobservable internal processes like thoughts and feelings. Conditioning: – Classical Conditioning: This type of learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response. Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs are a classic example. – Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner expanded on behaviorism by introducing operant conditioning, which involves learning through rewards and punishments. Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative outcomes are less likely. Stimulus-Response Relationships: – Behaviorists believe that all behaviors are responses to environmental stimuli. This perspective emphasizes the importance of the environment in shaping behavior.  Key Figures: John B. Watson: – Often considered the father of behaviorism, Watson argued that psychology should focus on observable behavior. His famous “Little Albert” experiment demonstrated how emotional responses could be conditioned in humans. B.F. Skinner: – Skinner is known for his work on operant conditioning. He developed the Skinner box, a controlled environment for studying how rewards and punishments influence behavior. Ivan Pavlov: – Pavlov’s research on classical conditioning laid the groundwork for behaviorism. His experiments with dogs showed how a neutral stimulus (a bell) could become associated with an unconditioned stimulus (food) to produce a conditioned response (salivation)  Applications and Impact Behavior Therapy: – Behaviorism has led to the development of behavior therapy, which uses principles of conditioning to change maladaptive behaviors. Techniques such as systematic desensitization and token economies are based on behaviorist principles. Education: – Behaviorist principles have been applied in educational settings to shape student behavior through reinforcement and punishment. Techniques like positive reinforcement and behavior modification are commonly used.  Criticisms Reductionism: – Critics argue that behaviorism is too reductionist, ignoring the complexity of human behavior and the role of internal mental processes. Determinism: – Behaviorism is often criticized for being deterministic, suggesting that behavior is entirely shaped by the environment and leaving little room for free will. Conclusion Despite these criticisms, behaviorism has had a profound impact on psychology, particularly in the areas of learning and behavior modification. It has provided valuable insights into how behavior is acquired and maintained, influencing both theoretical and applied psychology.  Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. It is both a theory of personality and a therapeutic approach aimed at uncovering and resolving unconscious conflicts that shape behavior and emotions.  Key Concepts of Psychoanalysis: Unconscious Mind: – Freud proposed that much of human behavior is influenced by unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories. These unconscious elements can manifest in dreams, slips of the tongue (Freudian slips), and neurotic behaviors. Structure of the Mind: – Freud divided the mind into three parts: Id: The primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories. Ego: The realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego. Super-ego: The moral conscience that incorporates societal standards and values. Defense Mechanisms: – Freud identified various defense mechanisms that the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety and conflict. These include repression, denial, projection, and rationalization. Psychosexual Stages of Development: – Freud theorized that personality develops through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous zones. These stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital 1.  Therapeutic Techniques Free Association: – Patients are encouraged to speak freely about their thoughts, feelings, and memories. This technique aims to uncover repressed material in the unconscious mind. Dream Analysis: – Freud believed that dreams are a window into the unconscious mind. Analyzing dreams can reveal hidden desires and conflicts. Transference: – During therapy, patients may project feelings about important figures in their lives onto the therapist. This process can help uncover unresolved conflicts and emotions.  Influence and Legacy: Impact on Psychology: – Psychoanalysis has had a profound impact on both the theory and practice of psychology. – It introduced the idea that early childhood experiences significantly influence personality development and mental health. Cultural Influence: – Beyond psychology, Freud’s ideas have influenced literature, art, and popular culture, shaping how we think about the human mind and behavior.  Criticisms Scientific Validity: – Critics argue that many of Freud’s theories lack empirical support and are difficult to test scientifically. Overemphasis on Sexuality: – Freud’s focus on sexual drives as the primary motivator of behavior has been criticized as overly deterministic and reductionist. Conclusion Despite these criticisms, psychoanalysis remains an important and influential school of thought in psychology, providing valuable insights into the complexities of human behavior and the unconscious mind.