I/O Psychology - PSM 109 Final Reviewer PDF

I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL including Organizational Theories stress management and work-life integration. Industrial Components (Personnel Psychology)...

I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL including Organizational Theories stress management and work-life integration. Industrial Components (Personnel Psychology) Organizational Theories: Why study in IOP? Job Analysis: Determining job roles, Understanding Organizational responsibilities, and necessary skills to Behavior and Structure: help I/O create accurate job descriptions and psychologists and professionals recruitment processes. understand how Recruitment and Selection: Developing people behave within different selection methods (e.g., interviews, organizational structures and cultures psychometric tests) to ensure candidates fit the job and organizational culture. Analyzing Behavior Patterns: Knowing why employees behave a certain way Performance Appraisal: Creating under specific conditions. assessment tools to evaluate employee performance, set objectives, and guide Identifying Influencing Factors: career development. Recognizing structural influences on communication, decision-making, and Training and Development: Designing workflow within an organization. and implementing training programs to upskill employees and prepare them for future roles within the organization. Improving Workplace Efficiency and Productivity: to improve organizational efficiency. Organizational theories provide Organizational Component (Organizational insights into how work can be structured Psychology) to maximize productivity. Workplace Motivation and Attitudes: Task Structuring: Classical theories, like Studying what drives employees to Taylorism (Scientific Management), guide perform well, including factors like job the optimization of task allocation, satisfaction, employee engagement, and minimizing redundancy, and reducing morale. inefficiency. Leadership and Management: Analyzing different leadership styles and Hierarchy and Authority: Theories related their to hierarchical structures (e.g., Weber's impacts on teams, helping develop Bureaucracy) offer principles for effective effective leaders within the organization. role delineation and leadership alignment. Organizational Development: Facilitating structural and cultural changes Enhancing Employee Satisfaction and to improve organizational efficiency and Motivation: critical to organizational adaptability. success, and organizational theories offer models to understand and address Work-Life Balance and Employee employee needs. Well-being: Promoting policies and practices that support the mental health Human Relations Movement: Elton and overall well-being of employees, Mayo’s work in this area shows the Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL importance of employee morale, Culture: instrumental in shaping and highlighting that social factors and maintaining a positive recognition play a vital role in motivation. workplace culture that reflects shared values, beliefs, and practice. Needs and Rewards: Maslow’s hierarchy and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Schein’s Model of Organizational Culture: inform organizations about employee This theory helps organizations identify needs, helping to design incentive and nurture cultural layers, from visible structures that boosts motivation and artifacts to underlying assumptions. engagement. Social Identity Theory: By understanding how employees view themselves in Guiding Leadership and Management In relation to their organization, managers Practices: offer frameworks for effective can foster a sense of belonging and leadership and management. loyalty. Contingency Theory: This theory suggests that there is no single best way Influencing Policy and Ethical to lead Practices: have ethical implications, or manage; instead, leadership should be influencing how policies are created and adapted to the situation and applied within an organization. organizational context. Equity Theory: This theory, which centers Transformational Leadership: emphasizes on fairness in reward allocation, guides vision, inspiration, and consideration for policies that foster fairness and equity, employees’ individual needs, aligning reducing conflicts and resentment. leadership with organizational goals and values. Stakeholder Theory: Highlighting the importance of considering various stakeholders (employees, clients, Supporting Organizational Change and community), this theory informs policies Adaptability: provide principles to that balance profitability with social understand and manage change within responsibility. organizations. Lewin’s Change Model: This model Advancing I/O Psychology as a introduces unfreezing, changing, and Science: provide hypotheses that can be refreezing stages, offering a systematic tested through research, advancing way to implement and solidify change. scientific understanding in the field. Organizational Development: This area Evidence-Based Practice: Using draws on multiple theories to guide established theories allows I/O interventions that enhance organizational psychologists to design interventions health and adaptability, especially grounded in research, ensuring that relevant in today’s rapidly changing work practices are not only theoretically sound environment. but also empirically validated. Innovation and Theory Development: Building a Positive Organizational Discussing existing theories encourages new insights and modifications, leading to Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL the evolution of I/O psychology as a field. productivity and efficiency How to increase the output of the average Organization Theory worker Set of concepts, and principles that provide framework for systematic How to improve the efficiency of study of structure, functioning and management. performance of organization and of Major contributors: the behavior of individuals and Frederick Taylor, groups working in them. Henry Gantt, and Attempts to explain the workings of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth organizations to produce understanding and appreciation of Principles of Scientific Management organizations. Theory Draws from various bodies of knowledge and disciplines. explains 1) Work, equipment and processes how organization structures are built. should be standardized. Suggests how organization can be 2) Time and task study should be used to designed to improve their determine the standards for workers. effectiveness. 3) Selection, training and developing Classical Organization Theory workers instead of allowing them to choose their own tasks and train The classical theory viewed organization themselves. as a machine and human beings as components of that machine. 4) Cooperate fully with the workers to ensure they use the proper method. They were of the view that efficiency of the organization can be increased by 5) Divide work and responsibility so making human beings efficient. management is responsible for planning work methods using scientific principles Their emphasis was on specialization and and workers are responsible for executing coordination of activities. the work accordingly. Most of the writers gave emphasis on efficiency at the top level and few at lower Administrative Management Theory levels of organization. Focused on total organization. Three main theories Emphasis was on the development of Scientific management theory managerial principles rather than work Administrative management theory methods. Behavioral theory. Major Contributors: Henry Fayol, Scientific Management Theory Max Weber, Mary Parker Follet Arouse because of the need to increase Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL motivation, leadership, trust, teamwork and conflict management. Major contributions : Hawthorne Experiment Weber’s Theory Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory Mc Gregor Theory of X & Y Disliked organizations managed on a Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory personal family like basis. Employees loyal to individual supervisors Hawthorne Experiment rather than organization. Organization is a social system not just techno-economic system. According to Weber: Management should be managed Employers can be motivated by impersonally. psychological and social wants because Formal organization structure, where their behavior is also influenced by specific rules are followed is important. feelings, emotions and attitudes. Authority should be something that was part of a person’s job and passed Economic incentives are not the only from individual to individual as one person method to motivate people. left and another took over. Management must learn to develop Fayol’s Principles of Management cooperative attitudes and not rely 1) Division of work merely on command. 2) Authority and responsibility 3) Discipline Maslow Need Hierarchy Theory 4) Unity of command. Theory of motivation 5) Unity of direction 6) Remuneration Considerations on five groups of human 7) Subordination of personal interest needs Assumptions to general interest 8) Centralization Human needs are never completely satisfied 9) Scalar chain 10) Order Human behavior is purposeful and is 11) Equity motivated by the need for satisfaction 12) Stability of tenure 13) Esprit de corps Needs can be classified according to a 14) Initiative hierarchical structure of importance, from the lowest to highest Behavioral Theories of Management MC Gregor Theory X and Y Successful organization depends largely on a manager’s ability to understand and Dichotomy about the assumptions work with people. managers make about the workers and how these assumptions affect behavior. Addresses human dimensions of work: Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL Two basic kinds of manager exists Theory X manager It believed that efficiency of organization Theory Y manager can be increased by making each individual more efficient. Hard guy, soft guy approach of managing people in the organization. It deals with formal organization structures. Theory X It focuses on objectives and tasks and not Negative assumptions about employee. on the human beings performing the tasks. Assumes that average person has an inherent dislike for work and will avoid if It aims at maximizing control. they can. It emphasizes on the direction on the Employees are lazy, untrustworthy and detection of errors occurred and then incapable for assuming responsibilities. correction They must be coerced, controlled, Pillars of Organization Theory directed and threatened with punishment to get them put forth adequate efforts towards achievement of organization (I) DIVISION OF LABOUR: objectives. Division of labor implies that work must be Average employee prefer to be directed. divided to obtain specialization with a view to improve the performance of They wish to avoid responsibility and workers. have little ambition. They are interested only in security. The classical theory rests on the assumption that the more a particular job is broken into its simplest component Theory Y parts, the more specialized a worker can Work is as natural as play or rest if the become in carrying out his part of the job. conditions are favorable. The specialization in workers will make Employees are not only trustworthy and the organization efficient. capable of assuming responsibility, but also have high levels of motivation. Various activities of a job are specified and subdivided into different components People will exercise self-direction and so that these may be assigned to different self-control to achieve organizational persons. objectives to which they are committed. The workers will go on repeating their work under division of labor. Characteristics of Classical Organization Theory The performance of same work will help workers to improve their efficiency and It is based on organization as a machine the organization as a whole is benefitted and individuals working in it as different by this exercise components of this machine. Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL The span of control means the number of subordinates a manager can control. Classical thinkers specified numbers at different levels which can be effectively supervised by a superior. A manager cannot exercise proper control if the number of subordinates increases (II) SCALAR AND FUNCTIONAL beyond a certain figure, on the other hand PROCESS: if the number is less then his capacity and knowledge cannot be fully utilised. The scalar process refers to the growth of chain of command, delegation of authority, unity of command and DRAWBACKS OF CLASSICAL obligation to report. ORGANIZATION THEORY It ignores human aspect and views It is called scalar process because it human beings as components of the provides a scale or grading of duties organization according to the degree of authority and machine. responsibility. It believes that people at work can be It generates superior- subordinate motivated solely through monetary relationship in the organization. incentives. The functional process deals with the It is an authoritarian theory. division of organization into specialized parts or departments and regrouping of It is based on certain principles which are the parts into compatible units. based mainly on experience and not tested by scientific researches. (III) STRUCTURE It takes static view instead of dynamic view of the organization. It is the framework of formal relationships among various tasks, activities It regards organization as a closed and people in the organization. system instead of open system..Thus it ignores the influence of external factors The basic structural element in the on organization and its member classical theory is position. Each position is assigned a specific task NEO-CLASSICAL ORGANISATION and authority is delegated for its THEORY: accomplishment. The classical theory of organization The efficiency with which these tasks will focused main attention on physiological be accomplished will determine the and mechanical variables of effectiveness of the organization. organizational functioning. These studies focused attention on human beings in the organization. (IV) SPAN OF CONTROL: Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL 7) Man’s approach is not always rational. Neoclassical organizational theory is a reaction to the authoritarian structure of Often, he behaves non- logically in terms of classical theory. rewards which he seeks from his work. The neoclassical approach emphasizes 8) Communication is necessary as it carries the human needs of employees to be information for the functioning of the happy in the organisation and the feelings of the people workplace, at work. This allows creativity, individual growth and motivation, which increases IMPROVEMENTS OVER CLASSICAL productivity and profits. THEORY: Managers utilizing the neoclassical Flat Structure approach manipulate the work environment to produce positive results. The classical theory suggested tall structure whereas neo-classical theory suggested flat structure. CHARACTERISTICS OF NEO-CLASSICAL ORGANIZATION In tall structure there is a problem of THEORY: communication because of differentiation 1) The organization in general is a social between decision makers and system composed of numerous interacting implementers, the levels of management are too many and motivation of people is parts. difficult. 2) Informal organizations exist within the In case of flat structure the wide span of formal organization. Both are affected by control helps in motivation, chain of and affect each other. communication is shorter and it is free from hierarchical control. 3) Human being is independent and his behavior can be predicted in terms of social Decentralization factors at work. Neo-classical theory advocates decentralized organization which is close 4) Motivation is a complex process. Many to flat structure because of wider span of socio- psychological factors operate to control. motivate human beings at work. It allows autonomy and initiative at the lower level. It also develops people to 5) A conflict between organisational and occupy higher positions in future. individual goals often exists. There is a need to reconcile the goals of the individual with those of the organisation. Informal Organization 6) Team-work is essential for higher The neo-classical theorists advocated the productivity. need for both formal and informal organizations. Formal organization represents the Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL intentions of top management for the purpose of interactions among the people. These qualities are framed in a philosophy which accepts the premise Informal organization is necessary to plug that the only meaningful way to study the loop holes of formal organization and organization is to study it as a system. to satisfy the social and psychological needs of people. This theory may be understood in two approaches: systems approach and Managements use informal organization contingency approach. for overcoming resistance to change on the part of workers and also for fast communication process SYSTEM APPROACH Both formal and informal organizations This approach studies the organization in are interdependent upon each other. its totality. The mutually dependent variables are DRAWBACKS OF NEO-CLASSICAL properly analyzed. THEORY Both internal and external variables are It is not a new theory of organizations. It is studied in analyzing the nature of merely a modification of classical organization. theory. Organization as a system can well be The structures of organization suggested understood by identifying various by this theory are not suitable in all sub-systems within it. situations. Each sub-system may be identified by The theory over- emphasizes on human certain processes, roles, structures and aspect. Consequently, other aspects norms of conduct. remained ignored or neglected. Certain assumptions of this theory are not SUB-SYSTEM OF SYSTEM APPROACH true. Consequently, there are conflicts of Katz and Kahu have identified five interests of various groups in the sub-systems of organization: organization. 1) Technical sub-system concerned with MODERN ORGANISATION THEORY: the work that gets done; Modern organization theory is of recent origin, having developed in early 1960’s. 2) Supportive sub-system of procurement, disposal and institutional relations; This theory has tried to overcome the drawbacks of earlier theories. 3) Maintenance of sub-systems for tying people into their functional roles; The distinctive qualities of modern organization theory are its conceptual analytical base, its reliance on empirical 4) Adaptive sub-systems concerned with research data and, above all, its organizational change; and integrating nature. Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL 5) Managerial sub-systems for direction, situations. adjudication and control of the many sub-systems and the activities of the The contingency theory reveals situations structure. that require more intense focus and takes account of unique circumstances. CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN 5 ELEMENTS OF SYSTEM APPROACH ORGANIZATION THEORY Organization as a system is composed of five elements:- 1) It considers organization as a system composed of many subsystems such as Inputs- human, finance, material, managerial, technical, social sub system. equipment, information. 2) It regards individual as complex being Transformational processes- who can be motivated in multitude of ways. technological and managerial. 3) It is descriptive approach of studying Outputs- products or services organizations. Feedback- reaction from the environment. 4) It is multi- disciplinary theory as draws concepts and principles from several Environment disciplines such as sociology, psychology, economics, engineering and so on. CONTINGENCY THEORY Contingency approach suggests an 5) It is dynamic in interaction with the organisational design which suits a structure. It is constantly subject to change particular unit. as environment changes. Organization adapts itself suitably to the changing Contingency theory accepts that there is environment and it survives. no universally ideal leadership style because each organization faces unique circumstances internally and externally. 6) It is both macro and micro in its approach. It is micro when considered with In contingency theory, productivity is a respect to the entire nation or industry. It is function of a manager’s ability to adapt to macro with respect to internal parts of the environmental changes. organization. Managerial authority is especially 7) It ensures better flow of communication important for highly volatile industries. at all the levels and ensures effective This allows managers the freedom to control. make decisions based on current Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL DRAWBACKS OF MODERN 1. Personality ORGANIZATION THEORY Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). Behaviors that are not part of an It is not a unified theory of organization but a mixture of several theories. employee’s job but will make the organization a better place to work. It is based on past empirical studies and Openness to experience, there is nothing new in it. conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and stability. It does not identify the precise relationships among the Conscientiousness is the best organization and its external system. personality predictor of work performance, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), It is not useful for smaller organizations. and academic performance; stability is most associated with salary and setting Motivation. Internal force that drives a high goals; and extraversion is most worker to action as well as the external highly correlated with the number of promotions received. factors that encourage that action. Ability and skill- worker can do the job 2. Self-esteem. The extent towhich a person views him or Motivation- worker will do it properly herself as a valuable and worthy individual. Chronic Self-esteem: The positive or The various theories suggest that negative way in which a person views employees will be highly motivated if: himself or herself as a whole. they have a personality that predisposes Situational Self-esteem. The positive or them to be motivated; negative way in which a person views him their expectations have been met; or herself in a particular situation. the job and the organization are consistent with their values; the employees have been given Socially influenced Self-esteem. The achievable goals; positive or negative way in which a person the employees receive feedback on their views him or herself based on the goal attainment; expectations of others. the organization rewards them for achieving their goals; Consistency Theory. Korman’s theory that the employees perceive they are being employees will be motivated to perform at treated fairly; and their coworkers demonstrate a high level levels consistent with their levels of of motivation. self-esteem. Self-fulfilling Prophecy. The idea that Researchers have found four individual people behave in ways consistent with their differences that are most related to work self-image. motivation: Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL Galatea Effect. When high self-expectations result in higher levels of 1. Choose their goals and set levels for performance. each goal. 2. Plan how they will accomplish those Pygmalion effect/ Rosenthal effect. The goals. idea that if people believe that something is 3. Take action toward accomplishing the true, they will act in a manner consistent goals (goal striving). with that belief. 4. Evaluate progress toward goal attainment and either maintain, revise, or abandon a goal. Golem effect. When negative expectations of an individual cause a decrease in that Meeting Employee’s Values and individual’s performance. Expectations 3. Intrinsic motivation. Work motivation in Job Expectations. A discrepancy between the absence of such external factors as pay, what an employee expected a job to be like promotion, and coworkers. and the reality of the job can affect motivation and satisfaction. Extrinsic Motivation. Work motivation that arises from such non-personal factors as Realistic job preview (RJP). A method of pay, coworkers, and opportunities for recruitment in which job applicants are told advancement. both the positive and the negative aspects of a job. Work Preference Inventory (WPI). A measure of an individual’s orientation Job characteristics theory. The theory toward intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. proposed by Hackman and Oldham that suggests that certain characteristics of a job 4. Need for achievement. According to trait will make the job more or less satisfying, theory, the extent to which a person desires depending on the particular needs of the to be successful. worker. Need for affiliation. The extent to which a Needs, Values, and Wants. A discrepancy person desires to be around other people. between an employee’s needs, values, and wants and what a job offers can also lead to Need for power. According to trait theory, low levels of motivation and satisfaction. the extent to which a person desires to be in control of other people. Three theories focus on employees’ needs and values: Self-regulation. A theory that employees can be motivated by monitoring their own 1. Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy progress toward the goals they set and adjust their behavior to reach those goals. Hierarchy. A system arranged by rank. Self- regulation is a four-step process in which people: Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL Needs theory. A theory based on the idea Goal setting. A method of increasing that employees will be satisfied with jobs performance in which employees are given that satisfy their needs. specific performance goals to aim for. Basic biological needs. The first step in Maslow’s needs hierarchy, concerning For goal setting to be most successful, the survival needs for food, air, water, and the goals themselves should possess certain like. qualities represented by the acronym SMART: Safety needs. The second step in Maslow’s hierarchy, concerning the need for security, Specific. Properly set goals are concrete stability, and physical safety. and specific (Locke & Latham, 2002). A goal such as “I will produce as many as I can” Social needs. The third step in Maslow’s will not be as effective as “I will print five hierarchy, concerning the need to interact thousand pages in the next hour. ” The with other people. more specific the goal, the greater the productivity. Ego needs. The fourth step in Maslow’s hierarchy, concerning the individual’s need Measurable. Properly set goals are for recognition and success. measurable. That is, if one’s goal is to improve performance or increase customer Self-actualization needs. The fifth step in service, can performance or customer Maslow’s hierarchy, concerning the need to service be measured? realize one’s potential. Relevant. Properly set goals are also 2. ERG theory. Alderfer’s needs theory, relevant. Setting a goal about increasing which describes three levels of satisfaction: public speaking skills will not be as existence, relatedness, and growth. motivating to a person working in a landfill as it would be to a police officer who often 3. Two-factor theory. Herzberg’s needs testifies in court. theory, postulating that there are two factors involved in job satisfaction: hygiene factors Timely. Goals work best when there is a and motivators. time frame for their completion. Hygiene factors. In Herzberg’s two-factor Are Employees Rewarded for Achieving theory, job-related elements that result from Goals? but do not involve the job itself. Operant conditioning. A type of learning Motivators. In Herzberg’s two-factor theory, based on the idea that humans learn to elements of a job that concern the actual behave in ways that will result in favorable duties performed by the employee. outcomes and learn not to behave in ways that result in unfavorable outcomes. Employee’s Achievable Goals Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL Six factors must be considered in signs of approval, and expressions of determining the effectiveness of incentive appreciation. programs: Travel. Many organizations are offering 1. Timing of the incentive. Research travel awards rather than financial rewards. indicates that a reinforcer or a punisher is most effective if it occurs soon after the 4. Use of individual-based versus performance of the behavior. Unfortunately, group-based incentives. Incentives can be if the timing of the incentive is too long, the given for either individual performance or effectiveness of the incentive to improve group performance. performance will be hindered. Individual incentive plans. Are designed 2. Contingency of the consequences. If it to make high levels of individual is not possible to immediately reward or performance financially worthwhile, and the punish a behavior, it should at least be research is clear that monetary incentives made clear that the employee understands increase. The two most common individual the behaviors that brought reward or incentive plans are: punishment. Pay for performance. A system in which 3. Type of incentive used. Obviously, it is employees are paid on the basis of how important to reward employees for much they individually produce. productive work behavior. Merit pay. An incentive plan in which Premack Principle. The idea that employees receive pay bonuses based on reinforcement is relative both within an performance appraisal score. individual and between individuals. Group Incentive Plans. The idea behind Reinforcement hierarchy. A rank-ordered group-based, or organization- based, list of reinforcers for an individual. incentive plans is to get employees to participate in the success or failure of the Financial incentives. Can be used to organization. Rather than encouraging motivate better worker performance either individual competition, these plans reward by making variable pay an integral part of employees for reaching group goals. an employee’s compensation package or by using financial rewards as a “bonus” for Profit sharing. Developed in the United accomplishing certain goals. States by Albert Gallatin way back in 1794. As its name implies, profit-sharing programs Recognition. Rather than providing provide employees with a percentage of financial incentives, many organizations profits above a certain amount. reward employee behavior through recognition programs. Gainsharing. A group incentive system in which employees are paid a bonus based Social recognition. A motivation technique on improvements in group productivity. using such methods as personal attention, Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL Baseline. The level of productivity before the implementation of a gainsharing plan. Expectancy (E): The perceived relationship between the amount of effort an employee puts in and the resulting outcome. Stock options. A group incentive method in Instrumentality (I): The extent to which the which employees are given the option of outcome of a worker’s performance, if buying stock in the future at the price of the noticed, results in a particular consequence. stockwhen the options were granted. Valence (V): The extent to which an 5. Use of positive incentives (rewards) employee values a particular consequence. versus negative incentives (punishment) Understanding Work Teams 6. Fairness of the reward system (equity) Why Have Teams Become So Popular? Equity theory. A theory of job satisfaction stating that employees will be satisfied if Teams typically outperform individuals. their ratio of effort to reward is similar to that Teams use employee talents better. of other employees. Teams are more flexible and responsive to Inputs. In equity theory, the elements that changes in the environment. Teams facilitate employee employees put into their jobs. involvement. Teams are an effective way to Outputs. In equity theory, what employees democratize an get from their jobs. organization and increase motivation. Input/output ratio.The ratio of how much Work Group. A group that interacts employees believe they put into their jobs to primarily to share information and to make how much they believe they get from their decisions to help each group member jobs. perform within his or her area of responsibility. Organizational justice. A theory that postulates that if employees perceive they Work Team. A group whose individual are being treated fairly, they will be more efforts result in a performance that is likely to be satisfied with their jobs and greater than the sum of the individual motivated to do well. inputs. Expectancy theory. Vroom’s theory that motivation is a function of expectancy, Work Work Teams Groups instrumentality, and valence. The following definitions are combinations of those Share Goal Collective suggested by others and make the theory information Performanc easier to understand: e Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL Neutral Synergy Positive rewards Individual Accountabi Individual lity and mutual Composition Ability Random Skills Complemen Personality and varied tary Roles and diversity Size Types of Teams Flexibility Preference for teamwork Problem-Solving Teams. Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who Work Design meet for a few hours each week to discuss Autonomy ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the Skill Variety work environment. Task Identity Task Significance Self-Managed Work Teams. Groups of 10 to 15 people who take on the Process responsibilities of their former supervisors. Common purpose Specific goal Cross-Functional Teams. Employees from Team efficacy about the same hierarchical level, but from Conflict different work areas, who come together to Social loafing accomplish a task (Task forces, committees). Creating Effective Teams: Diversity Virtual Teams. Teams that use computer Group Demography. The degree to which technology to tie together physically members of a group share a common dispersed members in order to achieve a demographic attribute, such as age, sex, common goal. race, educational level, or length of service Characteristics of Virtual Teams: in the organization, and the impact of this attribute on turnover. 1. The absence of paraverbal and nonverbal cues Cohorts. Individuals who, as part of 2. A limited social context a group, hold a common attribute. 3. The ability to overcome time and space constraints Turning Individuals Into Team Players Team Effectiveness: The Challenges Context – Overcoming individual resistance to team Adequate resources membership. Leadership – Countering the influence of individualistic Climate of trust cultures. Performance evaluation and Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL – Introducing teams in an organization that has historically valued individual Formal Channels achievement. Are established by the organization and transmit messages that are related to the Shaping Team Players professional activities of members. – Selecting employees who can fulfill their team roles. – Training employees to become team players. Informal Channels – Reworking the reward system to Used to transmit personal or social encourage cooperative efforts while messages in the organization. These continuing to recognize individual informal channels are spontaneous and contributions. emerge as a response to individual choices. Team Effectiveness and Quality Elements of the Communication Process Management Requires That Teams: The sender 1. Are small enough to be efficient and Encoding effective. The message 2. Are properly trained in required skills. The channel 3. Allocated enough time to work on Decoding problems. The receiver Noise 4. Are given authority to resolve problems Feedback and take corrective action. 5. Have a designated “champion” to call on when needed. Communication Process. The steps between a source and a receiver that result Communication. The transference and the in the transference and understanding of understanding of meaning. meaning. Communication Functions Interpersonal Communication 1. Control member behavior. 2. Foster motivation for what is to be Oral Communication done. – Advantages: Speed and feedback. 3. Provide a release for emotional – Disadvantage: Distortion of the messag expression. 4. Provide information needed to make decisions. Written Communication – Advantages: Tangible and verifiable. – Disadvantages: Time consuming and The Communication Process lacks feedback Channel. The medium selected by the sender through which the message travels to the receiver. Types of Channels Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL Nonverbal Communication 2. Explain decisions and behaviors that – Advantages: Supports other may appear inconsistent or secretive. communications and provides observable expression of emotions and feelings. 3. Emphasize the downside, as well as – Disadvantage: Misperception of body the upside, of current decisions and future language or gestures can influence the plans. receiver's interpretation of message. 4. Openly discuss worst-case possibilities—it is almost never as anxiety-provoking as the unspoken fantasy. Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness Criteria Computer-Aided Communication E-mail Criteria Chain Wheel All – Advantages: quickly written, sent, and Channel stored; low cost for distribution. – Disadvantages: information overload, Speed Moderat Fast Fast lack of emotional content, cold and e impersonal Accurac High High Moderat y e Instant messaging – Advantage: “real time” e-mail Emerge Moderat High None transmitted straight to the receiver’s nce of a e desktop. leader – Disadvantage: can be intrusive and distracting. Member Moderat Low High satisfacti e on Intranet. A private organization-wide information network. Grapevine Characteristics Extranet. An information network – Informal, not controlled by management. connecting employees with external – Perceived by most employees as being suppliers, customers, and strategic more believable and reliable than formal partners. communications. – Largely used to serve the self-interests of Videoconferencing. An extension of an those who use it. intranet or extranet that permits face-to-face virtual meetings via video links. Suggestions for Reducing the Negative Consequences of Rumors Knowledge Management. A process of organizing and distributing an organization’s 1. Announce timetables for making important decisions. collective wisdom so the right information gets to the right people at the right time. Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109 I/O PSYCHOLOGY 3PSY-C | J.A.L | FINAL Why KM is important: power, and connection independence. and intimacy Intellectual assets are as important as physical assets. Complain that Criticize men for women talk on and not When individuals leave, their knowledge on. listening and experience goes with them. Offer solutions Speak of problems A KM system reduces redundancy and to promote makes the organization more efficient. closeness To boast about their Express regret accomplishments. Choice of Communication Channel Channel Richness. The amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode. Characteristics of Rich Channels 1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously. 2. Facilitate rapid feedback. 3. Are very personal in context. Barriers to Effective Communication Emotions. How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how the message is interpreted. Language. Words have different meanings to different people. Communication Apprehension. Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written communication, or both. Communication Barriers Between Men and Women: Men talk to: Women talk to: Emphasize status, Establish Reference: PPT Learning Materials | PSM 109