Project Minerals (1) PDF

I. Definition of Minerals. Definition of Minerals Minerals are the naturally occurring, non-living solids that are made up of a specific chemicals and have an organized and defined atomic structure, with distinct physical properties and are the essential building blocks of rocks. They form naturally...

I. Definition of Minerals. Definition of Minerals Minerals are the naturally occurring, non-living solids that are made up of a specific chemicals and have an organized and defined atomic structure, with distinct physical properties and are the essential building blocks of rocks. They form naturally in the Earth through processes like cooling of lava or water evaporation and, are the building blocks of rocks and are fundamentals to Earth's geology. They are used in everyday items like salt, jewelry, and tools. II. Define the 5 characteristics of Minerals. 1. Naturally Occurring Minerals are formed by natural processes without human intervention. Example: Quartz forms in Earth's crust through the cooling of molten rock or from precipitation in hydrothermal systems. 2. Inorganic Minerals are not produced by living organisms or biological processes. They are purely non-living, chemical compounds. Example: Halite (table salt) forms through the evaporation of salty water, not through organic activity. 3. Solid State  Minerals exist as solids under normal Earth conditions. Their structure is stable and does not flow like a liquid or expand like a gas. Example: Ice is a mineral when naturally formed (like in glaciers) but loses its status when melted into water. 4. Definite Chemical Composition Minerals have a specific chemical formula that describes their elemental makeup. Some minerals allow minor variations in their composition. Example: Quartz has the chemical formula SiO₂, while olivine can range between (Mg₂SiO₄) and (Fe₂SiO₄). 5. Ordered Atomic Structure The atoms in a mineral are arranged in a repeating, orderly pattern, forming a crystal lattice. This structure determines many physical properties like cleavage and hardness. Example: In diamond, carbon atoms are tightly bonded in a lattice, giving it incredible hardness. III. Minerals vs. Rocks. 1. Definition Minerals: Natural, inorganic substances with a specific chemical composition and a crystal structure. Example: Quartz, diamond.  Rocks: Solid materials made up of one or more minerals, and sometimes other substances like organic material. Example: Granite, sandstone, and limestone. 2. Composition Minerals: Have a single chemical formula (e.g., Quartz is SiO₂). Rocks: A combination of minerals or other materials. For example, granite is made of quartz, feldspar, and mica. 3. Structure Minerals: Have a consistent, ordered atomic structure. Rocks: Do not have a specific atomic structure; their composition can vary depending on the minerals they contain. 4. Formation Minerals: Form naturally through geological processes like crystallization from magma or evaporation of water. Rocks: Form through the combination and alteration of minerals under specific conditions, such as heat, pressure, or erosion. 5. Examples Minerals: Quartz, mica, calcite, feldspar. Rocks: Granite (igneous), sandstone (sedimentary), marble (metamorphic). IV. Minerals vs. Mineraloids. 1. Definition Minerals: Naturally occurring inorganic solids with a definite chemical composition and an ordered crystal structure. Mineraloids: Naturally occurring inorganic substances that lack a defined crystal structure. 2. Atomic Structure Minerals: Have a highly ordered atomic arrangement (crystal lattice). o Example: Quartz (SiO₂) has a well-defined crystalline structure. Mineraloids: Do not have an organized crystal structure, so they are considered "amorphous." o Example: Opal (hydrated silica) lacks a true crystal structure. 3. Composition Minerals: Have a specific and consistent chemical formula. o Example: Halite (NaCl). Mineraloids: May have variable or less-defined chemical compositions. o Example: Obsidian (volcanic glass) has no fixed formula because it cools too quickly for crystals to form. 4. Formation Minerals: Form through slow cooling or processes that allow crystals to grow over time.  Mineraloids: Often form when conditions prevent crystal growth, such as rapid cooling or precipitation. Examples: Minerals: Quartz, calcite, feldspar. Mineraloids: Opal, obsidian, amber (organic but treated as a mineraloid), and mercury (liquid but sometimes grouped with mineraloids). V. Physical Properties of Minerals. a. Color as a Physical Property of Minerals Color is one of the most noticeable physical properties of minerals and refers to the outward appearance of the mineral in reflected light. It can provide clues about a mineral's composition but is not always a reliable identification feature due to various factors. Key Points About Color in Minerals: 1. Caused by Chemical Composition o The color of a mineral is determined by the elements present in it and how they absorb and reflect light. o Example: Malachite is green because of its copper content. 2. Variations Due to Impurities o Many minerals can appear in different colors due to trace impurities or structural defects. o Example: Quartz can be clear, pink (rose quartz), purple (amethyst), or yellow (citrine) depending on impurities like iron or radiation effects.  3. Not Always Reliable o Some minerals have consistent colors (e.g., sulfur is always yellow), but many vary widely. o Example: Fluorite can be green, purple, blue, or yellow. 4. Surface Conditions o Weathering or tarnishing can alter a mineral's surface color, making it less reliable for identification. o Example: Copper can develop a green patina over time. Importance of Color in Mineral Identification While color is an easy property to observe, geologists often pair it with other physical properties, such as streak, hardness, and luster, to accurately identify minerals. Example: Pyrite (fool’s gold) is metallic gold in color but leaves a black streak. Hematite can appear red or metallic gray but always leaves a reddish-brown streak. b. Streak as a Physical Property of Minerals Streak refers to the color of a mineral in its powdered form. It is observed by rubbing the mineral across an unglazed porcelain plate, called a streak plate, to see the color of the fine powder left behind. Key Features of Streak: 1. Consistent for Each Mineral o The streak color is often more consistent than the mineral’s surface color, which can vary due to impurities, weathering, or tarnish. o Example: Hematite can appear metallic silver or reddish- brown, but its streak is always reddish-brown. 2. Helps in Mineral Identification o Streak can help distinguish between minerals that appear similar in color or texture. o Example: Gold and pyrite (fool's gold) are both metallic yellow, but gold leaves a yellow streak, while pyrite leaves a greenish-black streak. 3. Works Best for Softer Minerals o Minerals softer than the streak plate (around 7 on the Mohs scale) will leave a streak. Harder minerals won't leave a streak and instead scratch the plate. 4. Non-Metallic vs. Metallic Streaks o Metallic Minerals: Tend to leave a dark, dense streak (e.g., black or gray). o Non-Metallic Minerals: Usually leave a light or white streak. How to Perform a Streak Test: 1. Obtain an unglazed porcelain streak plate. 2. Firmly drag the mineral across the plate. 3. Observe the color of the powdered line left behind. Examples of Streak Colors: Hematite: Reddish-brown streak. Pyrite: Greenish-black streak.  Quartz: No streak (harder than the streak plate). Malachite: Light green streak. c. Hardness as a Physical Property of Minerals Hardness measures a mineral’s resistance to being scratched. It is a key property used in mineral identification and is determined by comparing the mineral to a standard scale called the Mohs Hardness Scale. Key Features of Hardness: 1. Determined by Atomic Structure The hardness of a mineral depends on the strength of the o bonds between its atoms. o Example: Diamond is the hardest natural mineral because its carbon atoms are tightly bonded in a strong, three-dimensional lattice. 2. Mohs Hardness Scale o A relative scale from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest) used to measure hardness: Rank Mineral Common Comparison 1 Talc Easily scratched by a fingernail. 2 Gypsum Scratched by a fingernail. 3 Calcite Scratched by a copper coin. 4 Fluorite Scratched by a steel knife. 5 Apatite Scratched by a steel file. 6 Orthoclase Scratches glass.  Rank Mineral Common Comparison 7 Quartz Scratches steel and glass. 8 Topaz Scratches quartz. 9 Corundum Scratches topaz. 10 Diamond Scratches all other minerals. 3. Relative, Not Absolute o The Mohs scale is based on relative comparison, meaning a mineral rated 10 is not "10 times harder" than a mineral rated 1. The differences between hardness levels vary. 4. Testing Hardness o Hardness is tested by scratching the mineral with a tool or another mineral of known hardness. o Example: Quartz (7) will scratch glass (5.5), but glass cannot scratch quartz. 5. Uses of Hardness in Identification o Helps distinguish between similar-looking minerals. o Example: Calcite (3) can look like quartz (7), but quartz is much harder. Importance of Hardness: Hardness is crucial for determining how a mineral can be used and its resistance to wear and weathering. For instance: Talc (1): Used in talcum powder. Diamond (10): Used in cutting tools and industrial applications. d. Luster as a Physical Property of Minerals Luster describes how a mineral's surface reflects light. It is one of the key physical properties used to identify minerals and provides information about a mineral's appearance and surface texture. Types of Luster: Luster is broadly divided into two main categories, with several subtypes: 1. Metallic Luster Minerals with a shiny, metal-like appearance. Reflects light like polished metal. Example: Pyrite (fool's gold), galena. 2. Non-Metallic Luster Non-metallic lusters include several subtypes based on appearance: Vitreous (Glassy): Shiny like glass. o Example: Quartz, calcite. Pearly: Iridescent, resembling a pearl. o Example: Talc, some micas. Silky: Soft sheen like silk, often from fibrous minerals. o Example: Gypsum (satin spar variety). Resinous: Appears like resin or tree sap. o Example: Amber, sphalerite. Earthy (Dull): No shine; looks like soil or clay. o Example: Kaolinite, limonite. Greasy: Appears as though coated with a thin layer of oil. o Example: Opal, some varieties of talc. Adamantine: Brilliant, diamond-like sparkle. o Example: Diamond, cerussite. How to Observe Luster: 1. Examine the mineral under good lighting. 2. Observe the way light reflects off its surface—whether it shines, sparkles, or remains dull. 3. Classify it as metallic or non-metallic, and then identify the specific type of non-metallic luster. Why Luster is Important: Luster helps distinguish minerals with similar characteristics. For example: Metallic Luster: Pyrite (metallic gold) vs. gold (true metallic). Vitreous Luster: Quartz vs. calcite. Examples of Minerals by Luster: Metallic: Galena, pyrite. Vitreous: Quartz, garnet. Earthy: Hematite, bauxite. Pearly: Mica, talc. e. Diaphaneity as a Physical Property of Minerals Diaphaneity refers to a mineral's ability to transmit light. It describes how light passes through a mineral and is commonly categorized into three main levels based on transparency. Levels of Diaphaneity:  1. Transparent o Light passes through the mineral clearly, allowing objects to be seen distinctly through it. o Example: Quartz, calcite (in clear form). 2. Translucent o Light passes through the mineral, but objects cannot be seen clearly. The mineral appears cloudy or frosted. o Example: Opal, fluorite. 3. Opaque o No light passes through the mineral, even on thin edges. The mineral appears completely solid. o Example: Hematite, pyrite. Factors Affecting Diaphaneity: 1. Mineral Structure: o Crystalline arrangement and atomic bonding determine how much light passes through a mineral. o Example: Well-ordered crystals like quartz are often transparent. 2. Impurities: o Trace elements or inclusions can alter the diaphaneity of a mineral. o Example: Pure calcite is transparent, but impurities can make it translucent or opaque. 3. Surface Condition: o Weathering or polishing affects how light interacts with the surface.  o Example: A rough quartz surface may appear less transparent than a polished one. How to Test Diaphaneity: 1. Hold the mineral up to a light source. 2. Observe whether light passes through and how clearly objects can be seen. 3. Classify it as transparent, translucent, or opaque. Examples of Minerals by Diaphaneity: Transparent: Quartz, clear calcite. Translucent: Chalcedony, gypsum. Opaque: Galena, magnetite. Why Diaphaneity is Important: Diaphaneity helps differentiate between minerals with similar appearances. For example: Quartz (transparent) vs. chalcedony (translucent). Hematite (opaque) vs. corundum (translucent in thin slices). f. Habit as a Physical Property of Minerals: Habit refers to the typical shape or form a mineral takes as it grows. It describes the overall appearance of a mineral's crystals or aggregates, which is determined by the conditions of its formation, such as temperature, pressure, and available space. Key Features of Habit: 1. Crystal Habit o The geometric shape or arrangement of a single crystal. o Example: Quartz often grows in a prismatic habit. 2. Aggregate Habit o The appearance of a group of crystals growing together. o Example: Chalcedony has a botryoidal (grape-like) habit. 3. Influencing Factors o A mineral's habit depends on environmental conditions like: ▪ Space available for growth. ▪ Temperature and pressure. ▪ Rate of cooling or crystallization. Types of Habits: 1. Single Crystal Habits: o Prismatic: Long, slender, prism-like crystals. ▪ Example: Quartz, beryl. o Cubic: Cube-shaped crystals. ▪ Example: Halite, pyrite. o Tabular: Flat, plate-like crystals. ▪ Example: Feldspar. o Acicular: Needle-like crystals. ▪ Example: Natrolite. o Bladed: Thin, blade-like crystals. ▪ Example: Kyanite. 2. Aggregate Habits: o Botryoidal: Grape-like clusters. ▪ Example: Malachite, hematite. o Fibrous: Thread-like, fibrous structures. ▪ Example: Asbestos. o Granular: Aggregates of small, grain-like crystals. ▪ Example: Garnet. o Massive: No distinct crystal form; appears as a solid mass. ▪ Example: Limonite. How to Observe Habit: 1. Examine the mineral’s overall shape and structure. 2. Determine whether it is a single crystal or an aggregate. 3. Match its appearance to common habits. Why Habit is Important: Habit provides visual clues about how and where a mineral formed. For instance: Quartz with a prismatic habit indicates growth in open spaces. Massive forms suggest growth in compact environments without enough space for crystal shapes to form. Examples of Minerals by Habit: Prismatic: Quartz, tourmaline. Cubic: Pyrite, galena. Botryoidal: Hematite, malachite. Fibrous: Gypsum (satin spar), asbestos. Massive: Limonite, some forms of calcite. g. Cleavage vs. Fracture: Physical Properties of Minerals Cleavage and fracture are two physical properties that describe how a mineral breaks when subjected to stress. While both involve the mineral's breaking patterns, they are distinct in nature and appearance. 1. Cleavage: Definition: Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along flat, smooth planes where atomic bonds are weaker. Characteristics: o Breaks along parallel surfaces, producing clean, flat edges. o Consistent and predictable for a specific mineral. o Related to the crystal structure of the mineral. Key Features: o Quality: Described as perfect, good, or poor, based on how cleanly the break occurs. o Planes: Minerals may have one or multiple cleavage planes. Examples of Minerals with Cleavage: o Mica: Perfect cleavage in one direction, forming thin sheets. o Halite: Cleaves in three directions at 90°, forming cubic shapes. o Calcite: Cleaves in three directions, forming rhombohedral shapes. 2. Fracture: Definition: Fracture is the way a mineral breaks when it does not exhibit cleavage. It occurs when the atomic bonds are of equal strength in all directions. Characteristics: o Breaks produce irregular or uneven surfaces. o Not along planes of weakness. Types of Fracture: o Conchoidal: Smooth, curved surfaces resembling broken glass. ▪ Example: Quartz. o Fibrous: Splinters or fibers. ▪ Example: Chrysotile (asbestos). o Uneven: Rough, irregular surfaces. ▪ Example: Limonite. o Hackly: Jagged, sharp edges, often seen in metals. ▪ Example: Native copper. Key Differences Between Cleavage and Fracture Property Cleavage Fracture Breaking Smooth, flat planes. Irregular, uneven surfaces. Pattern Breaks along weak Breaks without regard to Cause atomic bonds. atomic bonds. Predictable and Predictability Unpredictable and random. consistent. Quartz, obsidian, native Examples Mica, halite, calcite. copper. Why It Matters in Mineral Identification Cleavage is a diagnostic property for minerals with well- defined crystal structures, helping to distinguish similar- looking minerals. Fracture is useful for identifying minerals that lack cleavage, like quartz or obsidian. h.Physical Properties of Minerals: Special Characteristics These properties are unique to specific minerals and are often used as additional diagnostic tools in mineral identification. Here's an overview of magnetism, fluorescence, reaction to chemicals, taste, and odor 1. Magnetism: Definition: The ability of a mineral to attract or repel a magnet due to its magnetic elements, such as iron, nickel, or cobalt. Types of Magnetism: o Ferromagnetic: Strong attraction to magnets (e.g., Magnetite). o Paramagnetic: Weak attraction requiring a strong magnet (e.g., Hematite). o Diamagnetic: Weak repulsion to a magnetic field (e.g., Quartz). Testing: Bring a magnet close to the mineral and observe its reaction. 2. Fluorescence: Definition: The ability of a mineral to glow under ultraviolet (UV) light. This occurs due to certain elements like uranium or manganese in the mineral structure. Examples: o Fluorite: Glows in various colors under UV light. o Calcite: Often fluoresces red, orange, or pink. Testing: Expose the mineral to UV light in a dark environment. Uses: Commonly used in identifying minerals for collectors and in industrial applications. 3. Reaction to Chemicals: Definition: How a mineral reacts when exposed to certain chemicals, particularly acids. This property is tied to the mineral's chemical composition. Examples of Reactions: o Calcite: Effervesces (bubbles) when exposed to dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl). o Dolomite: Reacts with HCl only when powdered. Testing: Place a drop of dilute HCl on the mineral's surface and look for bubbling or fizzing. 4. Taste: Definition: A distinguishing property of certain minerals that have a unique taste. This property should be used with caution, as some minerals may be toxic.  Examples: o Halite (Rock Salt): Salty taste. o Sylvite: Bitter, salty taste. Testing: Touch a clean surface of the mineral with the tongue. Avoid tasting potentially harmful minerals. 5. Odor: Definition: The smell emitted by a mineral, either when scratched, struck, or exposed to certain conditions. Examples: o Sulfur: Emits a distinct "rotten egg" smell. o Arsenopyrite: Releases a garlic-like odor when struck. o Clay Minerals: Often have an earthy smell when wet. Testing: Gently scratch the mineral or expose it to water and observe any odor released. Comparison Table Example Property Testing Method Minerals Bring a magnet close to the Magnetite, Magnetism mineral. Hematite Shine UV light on the mineral Fluorescence Fluorite, Calcite in the dark. Reaction to Apply dilute HCl and look for Calcite, Chemicals effervescence. Dolomite Taste a clean surface Taste Halite, Sylvite cautiously. Scratch, strike, or wet the Sulfur, Odor mineral. Arsenopyrite Importance of These Properties: These special properties are essential for identifying minerals with unusual or unique characteristics. While they may not be present in all minerals, their presence can confirm a mineral's identity quickly and effectively. Safety Note: Always use caution when testing taste, odor, or chemical reactions, as some minerals may be toxic or reactive. Use protective equipment and handle acids or potentially hazardous minerals responsibly. VI. Mineral Groups. a. Silicate Mineral Groups and Common Rock- Forming Minerals Silicates are the largest group of minerals and make up about 90% of the Earth's crust. They contain silicon and oxygen, often combined with metals. The structure of silicates varies, but they are typically divided into several subgroups based on how the silica tetrahedra (SiO₄) are arranged. Here’s a breakdown of the main silicate groups and some common rock-forming minerals under each: 1. Nesosilicates (Isolated Tetrahedra) Structure: In nesosilicates, each silicon-oxygen tetrahedron (SiO₄) is isolated from others and bonded to other atoms (often metals like aluminum, magnesium, or iron). Common Elements: Silicon, oxygen, and metal cations. Characteristics: These minerals tend to be hard and are often found in igneous rocks. Common Rock-Forming Minerals in Nesosilicates: Olivine (Mg, Fe)₂SiO₄: A major component of the Earth's mantle and a common mineral in basalt. Garnet (X₃Y₂(SiO₄)₃): A group of minerals that are common in metamorphic rocks like schist and gneiss. Zircon (ZrSiO₄): Often found in igneous rocks and used for dating rocks. 2. Inosilicates (Chain Silicates) Structure: In inosilicates, the silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are linked together in chains through shared oxygen atoms (Si-O- Si bonds). Common Elements: Silicon, oxygen, and metal cations. Characteristics: These minerals are commonly found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. They often form long, prismatic crystals. Common Rock-Forming Minerals in Inosilicates: Pyroxenes (e.g., Augite, (Ca, Mg, Fe)₂Si₂O₆): Common in basalt, gabbro, and other mafic igneous rocks. Amphiboles (e.g., Hornblende, (Ca, Na)₂–₃(Mg, Fe)₄Al(Si, Al)₈O₂₂(OH)₂): Found in many metamorphic rocks and some igneous rocks. 3. Tectosilicates (Framework Silicates) Structure: In tectosilicates, the silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are arranged in a 3D framework, with each oxygen atom shared between two tetrahedra. This creates a very strong, interconnected structure. Common Elements: Silicon, oxygen, and metal cations. Characteristics: These minerals are often found in abundant quantities in the Earth’s crust and form the framework of many rocks. Common Rock-Forming Minerals in Tectosilicates: Quartz (SiO₂): One of the most abundant minerals in the Earth's crust, found in many types of rocks including granite, sandstone, and sedimentary rocks. Feldspars (e.g., Orthoclase, KAlSi₃O₈; Albite, NaAlSi₃O₈): The most abundant group of minerals in the Earth's crust, found in granite, basalt, and other igneous rocks. Zeolites: A group of hydrated aluminosilicate minerals often found in volcanic rocks and sediments. 4. Phyllosilicates (Sheet Silicates) Structure: In phyllosilicates, the silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are arranged in sheets, with each oxygen atom shared between two tetrahedra. The sheets are held together by weaker bonds, allowing them to separate easily. Common Elements: Silicon, oxygen, and metals like aluminum, magnesium, or iron. Characteristics: These minerals often have a layered structure and can easily be split into thin sheets. They are important components of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Common Rock-Forming Minerals in Phyllosilicates: Micas (e.g., Biotite, K(Mg, Fe)₃(AlSi₃O₁₀)(OH)₂; Muscovite, KAl₂(AlSi₃O₁₀)(OH)₂): Found in metamorphic rocks like schist and granite. Clay Minerals (e.g., Kaolinite, Al₂Si₂O₅(OH)₄): Important components of sedimentary rocks like shale and mudstone, and in soils. Chlorite (a group of minerals with the general formula (Mg, Fe)₆Al₄(Si₄O₁₀)(OH)₂): Common in metamorphic rocks like schist and greenstone.  Summary Table Silicate Group Structure Common Minerals Isolated tetrahedra Nesosilicates Olivine, Garnet, Zircon (SiO₄) Chains of Pyroxenes (e.g., Augite), Inosilicates tetrahedra (SiO₄) Amphiboles (e.g., Hornblende) 3D framework of Quartz, Feldspars (e.g., Tectosilicates tetrahedra (SiO₄) Orthoclase, Albite), Zeolites Micas (e.g., Biotite, Muscovite), Sheets of Phyllosilicates Clay minerals (e.g., Kaolinite), tetrahedra (SiO₄) Chlorite b. Non-Silicate Mineral Groups and Their Economic Uses Non-silicates are minerals that do not contain silicon and oxygen in their structure. Tho less abundant, they make up a smaller percentage of the Earth's crust compared to silicates but are still extremely important, both geologically and economically in various industries. Non-silicates are categorized into several groups based on their chemical composition and structure. Below are the main non-silicate groups and their economic uses. 1. Carbonates:  Composition: Carbonates contain the carbonate ion (CO₃²⁻) combined with metals such as calcium, magnesium, or iron. Common Minerals: Calcite (CaCO₃): Found in limestone and marble. Dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂): A component of dolostone. Siderite (FeCO₃): An iron carbonate mineral. Economic Uses: Building Materials: Calcite is used in cement production, and marble, derived from calcite, is a valuable building material and ornamental stone. Agriculture: Limestone (calcite) is used to neutralize acidic soils, providing an essential service to agriculture. Iron Production: Siderite is used as an iron ore, primarily in the production of iron and steel. Carbon Sequestration: Calcite and other carbonates are used in carbon capture processes to reduce CO₂ emissions. 2. Sulfates: Composition: Sulfates consist of the sulfate ion (SO₄²⁻) bonded with metal ions. Common Minerals: Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O): Used in construction. Barite (BaSO₄): Used in drilling fluids. Anhydrite (CaSO₄): A dehydrated form of gypsum. Economic Uses:  Construction: Gypsum is used in the production of plaster, plasterboard (drywall), and cement, all essential in construction and building industries. Oil and Gas Industry: Barite is used as a weighting agent in drilling fluids for oil and gas extraction. Agriculture: Gypsum is applied to improve soil quality by reducing compaction and enhancing water infiltration. Chemical Manufacturing: Gypsum is used in the production of sulfuric acid. 3. Sulfides: Composition: Sulfides consist of sulfur combined with metals or metalloids. Common Minerals: Galena (PbS): The primary ore of lead. Chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂): A copper-iron sulfide mineral. Pyrite (FeS₂): Known as "fool’s gold," it is often used in the production of sulfur. Economic Uses: Lead Production: Galena is the most important ore of lead, used in batteries (especially lead-acid batteries), shielding from radiation, and in various industrial applications. Copper Extraction: Chalcopyrite is one of the most important ores for copper production, which is essential in electrical wiring, construction, and machinery. Gold Prospecting: Pyrite is often mistaken for gold, but it is also used in sulfuric acid production and in the manufacture of sulfur for various chemical processes.  Sulfur: Pyrite is also used in the production of sulfur and sulfuric acid, key in fertilizer and chemical industries. 4. Oxides: Composition: Oxides consist of oxygen combined with one or more metals. Common Minerals: Hematite (Fe₂O₃): The most common iron ore. Magnetite (Fe₃O₄): An iron oxide mineral, also a magnetic material. Bauxite (Al₂O₃·2H₂O): The primary ore of aluminum. Chromite (FeCr₂O₄): The primary ore of chromium. Economic Uses: Iron Production: Hematite and magnetite are important sources of iron, which is crucial in steel manufacturing. Aluminum Production: Bauxite is the primary source of aluminum, a metal used extensively in industries such as construction, aerospace, and packaging. Chromium Production: Chromite is the main ore for extracting chromium, which is essential in stainless steel production and various chemical processes. Magnetic Materials: Magnetite is used in magnetic storage devices and as a raw material in iron and steel production. 5. Halides:  Composition: Halides are minerals that contain a halogen element (such as chlorine, fluorine, bromine, or iodine) combined with a metal. Common Minerals: Halite (NaCl): Also known as rock salt. Fluorite (CaF₂): A source of fluorine. Sylvite (KCl): Potassium chloride. Economic Uses: Salt Production: Halite is used for table salt, industrial applications (such as de-icing roads), and in the chemical industry for producing chlorine and sodium hydroxide. Fluorine Production: Fluorite is used to extract fluorine, which is then used in the production of refrigerants, aluminum, and in petroleum refining. Fertilizer Production: Sylvite is a primary source of potassium, used in fertilizers to enhance crop production. 6. Native Metals: Composition: Native metals are pure metals found in nature, uncombined with other elements. They often occur in their elemental form. Common Minerals: Gold (Au): A precious metal used in jewelry and electronics. Copper (Cu): A key metal in electrical wiring and construction. Silver (Ag): Used in currency, jewelry, and electronics. Economic Uses: Gold: Gold is highly valued for its use in jewelry, as a form of currency, and in electronics for its excellent conductivity and corrosion resistance. Copper: Copper is one of the most widely used metals, essential in electrical wiring, plumbing, and industrial machinery. It’s also an important material in renewable energy technologies. Silver: Silver is used in jewelry, photography, electronics, and solar panels. It is also used in coinage and as an investment metal. VII. Coal and Petroleum. a. Coal: Definition, Origin, Types, Uses, and Occurrence in the Philippines 1. Definition of Coal: Coal is a sedimentary rock that is primarily composed of carbon, along with varying amounts of other elements such as hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. It is a fossil fuel formed from the remains of plants that lived and died millions of years ago. Coal is used as a major energy source for electricity generation and industrial processes due to its high carbon content, which allows it to release a large amount of energy when burned. 2. Origin and Formation of Coal: Coal formation is a long process that occurs over millions of years. It begins with the accumulation of plant material (like trees, ferns, and other vegetation) in swampy, low-oxygen environments. Over time, this plant matter becomes buried by sediment. The combination of heat, pressure, and time transforms the plant material into peat, which is the precursor to coal. Steps of Coal Formation:  1. Peat Formation: Dead plant material accumulates in swamps or marshes, forming peat, which is rich in organic material. 2. Compaction and Burial: As more layers of soil and sediment accumulate on top of the peat, it becomes compacted, leading to an increase in temperature and pressure. 3. Transformation into Lignite: With continued heat and pressure, the peat undergoes chemical changes, forming lignite (the lowest grade of coal). 4. Formation of Higher-Rank Coals: Over millions of years, lignite can change into higher ranks of coal such as bituminous and anthracite. 3. Types of Coal: Coal is classified into different types based on its carbon content and the degree of metamorphism (heat and pressure) it has undergone. The types of coal, from lowest to highest grade, are: a. Peat Carbon Content: Low (less than 50%) Characteristics: Peat is not technically coal, but it is the precursor to coal formation. It is a soft, brownish material. Uses: Used in some areas for fuel, especially in wetlands. b. Lignite (Brown Coal) Carbon Content: 50%–60%  Characteristics: Lignite is soft, brown coal that has a low carbon content and a relatively high moisture content. It is the lowest grade of coal and is typically found in younger deposits. Uses: Primarily used for electricity generation in power plants. c. Sub-bituminous Coal Carbon Content: 60%–70% Characteristics: Sub-bituminous coal is darker and more compact than lignite but still contains more moisture than higher grades of coal. Uses: Used in electricity generation and as a fuel for industrial processes. d. Bituminous Coal Carbon Content: 70%–85% Characteristics: Bituminous coal is a dense, black coal with a higher carbon content. It is widely used for electricity generation and industrial purposes like steel production. Uses: Majorly used for power generation and in the production of coke for the steel industry. e. Anthracite (Hard Coal) Carbon Content: 85%–98% Characteristics: Anthracite is the highest grade of coal, with a high carbon content and low moisture. It has a hard, shiny appearance and burns more cleanly than lower-grade coals. Uses: Used for residential heating, power generation, and in certain industrial applications. 4. Applications/Uses of Coal: a. Power Generation: Electricity Generation: The largest use of coal is in electricity generation. When coal is burned, it produces steam that drives turbines to generate electricity. b. Industrial Use: Steel Production (Coke): Coke, derived from bituminous coal, is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in the production of iron and steel. Cement Manufacturing: Coal is used as a fuel in cement production. Chemicals: Coal is used in the production of chemicals like ammonia, methanol, and other petrochemicals. c. Residential Heating: In some regions, anthracite coal is still used in home heating systems due to its ability to burn more cleanly and efficiently. d. Liquid Fuels (Coal Liquefaction): Coal can be converted into liquid fuels (such as synthetic gasoline and diesel) through a process called coal liquefaction. This is used to supplement crude oil supplies. e. Gas Production (Coal Gasification): Coal can be gasified to produce synthesis gas (syngas), a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and other gases that can be used for energy or chemical production. 5. Occurrence of Coal in the Philippines: The Philippines has significant coal reserves, particularly in areas like Semirara Island and Cebu, which are the primary sources of coal production in the country. Key Areas of Coal Occurrence in the Philippines: Semirara Island (Antique): The largest coal mining site in the Philippines, Semirara Island produces most of the country’s coal. The coal here is primarily sub-bituminous coal and is used both domestically and for export. Cebu: Another important coal-producing region with both domestic use and export markets. Other Areas: Other regions such as Surigao del Sur, Negros Occidental, and Zamboanga del Sur also have coal deposits, though they are not as extensively mined as in Semirara Island. Uses of Coal in the Philippines: Electricity Generation: Coal is a critical energy source for the Philippines, as it is used in numerous coal-fired power plants throughout the country. Industry: Coal is also used in various industrial processes, such as cement production and for power generation in industrial applications. Coal Importation: Despite having domestic coal reserves, the Philippines also imports coal, especially from countries like Indonesia, Australia, and Russia, to meet its growing energy demand. b. Petroleum: Definition, Origin/Formation, Types, Uses, and Occurrence in the Philippines 1. Definition of Petroleum: Petroleum, commonly known as crude oil, is a naturally occurring liquid fossil fuel primarily composed of hydrocarbons (compounds made of hydrogen and carbon atoms). It is found deep beneath the Earth's surface and is extracted through drilling. Petroleum is the raw material for many fuels, including gasoline, diesel, and kerosene, as well as for various chemicals and materials. 2. Origin and Formation of Petroleum: The formation of petroleum is a complex process that takes millions of years, beginning with the accumulation of organic matter from ancient marine microorganisms (plankton, algae, etc.) and plants. This organic material is then buried by layers of sediment in environments like shallow seas, lakes, or swamps. Steps in Petroleum Formation: 1. Accumulation of Organic Material: Over millions of years, dead plants and microorganisms accumulate on the seabed, where they are buried by layers of sediment. 2. Formation of Kerogen: As the layers of organic material and sediment build up, they undergo heat and pressure, transforming into a waxy substance called kerogen. 3. Conversion to Oil: With increasing heat and pressure, the kerogen undergoes thermal cracking, breaking down into liquid hydrocarbons. This process forms crude oil or petroleum.  4. Migration: Petroleum begins to migrate through porous rock layers until it becomes trapped in reservoir rocks by non- porous rocks above it, forming oil reservoirs. 5. Accumulation and Extraction: The petroleum accumulates in these reservoirs and can be extracted through drilling. 3. Types of Petroleum: Petroleum is categorized based on its viscosity, density, and the ratio of light to heavy hydrocarbons it contains. The types of petroleum include: a. Light Crude Oil: Characteristics: Light in color and low in viscosity. It contains a higher proportion of lighter hydrocarbons like gasoline and diesel. Uses: Primarily used to produce high-value products such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and jet fuel. b. Heavy Crude Oil: Characteristics: Darker in color with a thicker consistency. It contains a higher proportion of heavy hydrocarbons and is harder to refine. Uses: Requires more extensive refining processes. It is used to produce heavier fuels and industrial oils. c. Sweet Crude Oil: Characteristics: Contains low amounts of sulfur (less than 0.5%). Sweet crude oil is easier to refine and produces fewer pollutants when burned. Uses: Preferred for refining gasoline and other high-quality fuels. d. Sour Crude Oil: Characteristics: Contains higher amounts of sulfur (more than 0.5%), which makes it more difficult to refine and produces more pollutants. Uses: Requires additional refining processes to remove the sulfur before it can be used for fuel production. 4. Applications/Uses of Petroleum: Petroleum has a vast array of applications and is a critical resource for modern industries and daily life. Some of its most important uses include: a. Fuel Production: Gasoline (Petrol): Used primarily as fuel for automobiles and other internal combustion engines. Diesel: Used in diesel engines for trucks, buses, and industrial machinery. Jet Fuel: Refined from kerosene and used in aircraft for propulsion. Heating Oil: Used to heat homes and buildings, particularly in colder regions. b. Industrial Uses: Petrochemicals: Petroleum is a raw material for producing a wide range of chemicals used in plastics, synthetic fibers, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and detergents. Lubricants: Petroleum-based oils and greases are used in engines, machinery, and industrial equipment. c. Asphalt and Tar: Petroleum is refined to produce asphalt and tar, which are used in road construction, roofing, and waterproofing. d. Electricity Generation: Petroleum can be used to generate electricity, though it is less commonly used for this purpose compared to coal or natural gas. e. Synthetic Materials: Petroleum is used in the production of synthetic materials like nylon, rubber, and plastic that are integral to the manufacturing of everyday goods like clothing, vehicles, and electronics. 5. Occurrence of Petroleum in the Philippines: The Philippines has limited domestic petroleum resources compared to other countries, but it does have oil fields and gas reserves. These resources are mainly located in the northwestern part of the Philippines and offshore areas. Key Petroleum Reserves in the Philippines: Malampaya Gas Field (Offshore Palawan): This is the largest and most significant source of natural gas in the Philippines. While it is primarily a natural gas field, it also contains significant petroleum reserves. Batangas and Camarines Norte: There are small oil reserves located in onshore areas in Batangas and Camarines Norte. However, these reserves are not large enough to meet the country's full demand for oil, so the Philippines still relies heavily on imports. Oil Exploration: The Philippines has been exploring potential oil reserves in offshore areas, particularly in the South China Sea and Benham Rise region. However, exploration and development of these reserves have been hindered by territorial disputes and environmental concerns. Petroleum Production and Importation: The Philippines produces a small amount of crude oil, primarily from the Nido and Tuba oil fields in the Palawan Basin. However, the country remains heavily dependent on oil imports, particularly from countries like Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Kuwait, to meet its domestic fuel needs. Sources: o Youtube o Wikipedia