Principles of Seed Technology PDF

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Disclaimer:-The information on this website does not warrant or assume any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of the courseware contents. The contents are provided free for noncommercial purpose such as teaching, training, research, extension and self learning.  Principles Of Seed Technology 1 Seed Production 1-11 2 Seed Policy 12-16 3 Seed Demand Forecasting And Planning For Certified, Foundation 17-25 And Breeder Seed Production 4 Deterioration Of Crop Varieties – Causes And Maintenance 26-31 5 Seed Quality 32-43 6 Classes Of Seed 44-51 7 Seed Production In Maize 52-63 8 Hybrid Seed Production In Maize 64-76 9 Seed Production Techniques In Paddy Varieties 77-93 10 Hybrid Seed Production In Paddy 94-106 11 Seed Production In Sorghum 107-116 12 Hybrid Seed Production In Sorghum 117-124 13 Seed Production In Pearl Millet 125-137 14 Seed Production In Cotton Varieties And Hybrids 138-151 15 Seed Production In Sunflower 152-165 16 Seed Production In Varieties And Hybrids Of Castor 166-174 17 Seed Production Techniques Iin Vegetables 175-185 18 Brinjal 186-193 19 Chilli 194-197 20 Bhendi 198-209 21 Onion 210-223 22 Seed Production Of Cucurbitaceous Vegetables 224-230 23 Seed Certification 231-248 24 Seeds Act And Rules 249-278 25 Intellectual Property Rights (Iprs) 279-285 26 Varietal Identification 286-292 27 Seed Drying 293-302 28 Seed Processing 303-326 29 Seed Treatment 327-344 30 Seed Storage 345-368 31 Seed Marketing 369-379 32 Pricing Policy 380-385  SEED PRODUCTION Availability of quality seeds of improved cultivars is considered crucial for realizing productivity and adoption of cultivars in different agro-climatic conditions. The quality of seed alone is known to account for at least 10-15% increase in the productivity (ICAR 1993). However, lack of quality seed continues to be one of the greatest impediments to bridging the vast yield gap. Therefore, to approach the potentially realizable yield of a cultivar, production and distribution of quality seed is essential. The good quality seed should have the following characters: Genetic purity, and uniformity and should conform to the standards of the particular cultivar. Disease free, viable seeds. Free from admixtures of other crop seeds, weeds and inert matter. Acceptable uniformity with respect to size, shape and color. Seed Production Systemized crop production is known as seed production. In seed production adequate care is given from the purchase of seeds upto harvest adopting proper seed and crop management techniques. The benefits of seed production are  Higher income  Higher quality seed for next sowing Difference between seed and crop production Seed production Crop production Basic seed should be from an authentic Any seed material can be used source Seed plot should be selected carefully Can be grown in any area for better performance, as per edaphic and environmental requirement Needs isolation from other varieties Isolation is not necessary AgriExam.Com 1  Needs technical skill for maintenance of Special technical skill is not required quality Maintenance of genetic purity is Genetic purity is not required important Roguing is compulsorily practiced Roguing is not practiced Harvesting should be done at Harvested at field maturity physiological/ harvestable maturity Resultant seed should be vigorous and Question of viability does not arise viable Importance is given to seed quality Importance is given more to yield rather than the yield There are two types (major) of seed production ie. varietal and hybrid Seed production based on the type of seed used for multiplication.The difference between varietal and hybrid seed production are as follows Varietal seed production Hybrid seed production It is single parent multiplication It needs two to many parents Isolation distance requirement is less Isolation distance requirement is more Production is by open pollination Production is by managed control pollination (Female) Seed can be used continuously for Seed has to be changed every time 3/4/5 generations Production technique is uniform Technique differ with crop (multiplication) Production care is less Production care is more Yield will be lower Yield will be higher Profit is less Profit is higher AgriExam.Com 2  SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF SEED PRODUCTION Indian Agriculture has made enormous progress in the last 50 years. Food grains production has risen from 50 million tons in 1947 to 212 million tons in 2003-04. The country has advanced from a situation of food scarcity and imports to that of food security and exportable surpluses. The Green Revolution of India has been universally acclaimed as a successful enterprise of the farmers, the Scientists and the Government. The land mark achievements in agriculture in the 60s and 70s were the result of a combination of inputs like introduction of high yielding varieties, increased fertilizer use, expansion of irrigation facilities, massive extension efforts, improved farm practices and, above all, ingenuity and industry of the Indian farmers. However, the growth of agriculture sector has not kept pace with the growth of the population and has stagnated. The unsatisfactory growth of agriculture, apart from serious implications for food security of the country, has been adversely impacting the growth rate of country’s economy. The imperative of National food security, nutritional security and economic development demand a very focused and determined approach to raise productivity and production in agriculture. In view of the fact, that the area under cultivation is unlikely to increase significantly, thrust will have to be on raising productivity per unit of cultivated land. Substantial increase in yield and quality of crops depends upon a number of factors viz., inputs like fertilizers, irrigation and plant protection measures and suitable agronomic practices. However, the use of high quality seed thus plays a pivotal role in the crop production. The use of poor quality seeds nullifies the utility of all agronomic practices and every other input applied to the crop no matter how lavishly they are applied. Economically, the cost of seed is a very small component of the total cost of production. Sindhur Sen (1974) summarizes the importance of seed quality thus “What are known as the seeds of hope may turn into seeds of frustration” if they are not of high quality. It is therefore, important to use the seed confirming to the prescribed standards in terms of high genetic purity, physical AgriExam.Com 3  purity, physiological quality and health quality. Since ages, Indian farmers were mostly dependent on traditional varieties, therefore seed requirements were met through farm saved seeds. The use of traditional varieties coupled with farm saved seeds whose quality is not guaranteed, resulted in drastic reduction in production. Seed is the critical determinant of agricultural production on which depends the performance and efficacy of other inputs. Quality seeds appropriate to different agro-climatic conditions and in sufficient quantity at affordable prices are required to raise productivity. Availability and use of quality seeds is not a onetime affair. Sustained increase in agriculture production and productivity necessarily requires continuous development of new and improved varieties of crops and efficient system of production and supply of seeds to farmers. The National Seeds Policy 2002 clearly emphasizes that “It has become evident that in order to achieve the food production targets of the future, a major effort will be required to enhance the seed replacement rates of various crops. This would require a major increase in the production of quality seeds……..” According to the National seeds Policy 2002, the thrust areas have to be - i) Varietal Development. ii) Seed Production. iii) Seed Replacement Rate Enhancement. iv) Primary responsibility for production of breeder seed to be that of the ICAR/State Agriculture Universities. v) An effective seed production programme. vi) Popularization of new varieties. vii) Availability of newly developed varieties to farmers with minimum time gap. viii) Provision of incentives to domestic seed industry to enable it to produce seeds of high yielding varieties and hybrid seeds at a faster pace to meet the challenges of domestic requirements. After the genesis of NSP, NSE & SSC and private seed companies, production of certified and foundation seeds have been undertaken by them. AgriExam.Com 4  Crop/Season-wise Requirement and Availability of Certified/Quality Seeds in India (2008-2009)(Indiastat.com) Crop Requirement Availability Cereals Total 13343953 16964189 Pulses Total 1749254 1829974 Oil Seed Total 4814665 5349716 Fibre Total 302279 361151 Patato 430000 430000 The Indian seed industry is the eighth largest in the world with an estimated value of INR 49 billion (USD 1.06 Billion) and with an annual growth rate of 12% to 13 %. The industry has shown a buoyant growth over the last two years on well supportive monsoons. The development of private seed industry is no more confined to just production and marketing of seed. It has well acquired technological strength to cater to the varietal needs of tomorrow. Along with industries Indian farmers have in recent years adopted intensive cultivation practices in order to meet the growing demand for agricultural produce. India is bestowed with varied agro climatic conditions / zones, experienced and dedicated farmers, viable seed industry, legislations etc favouring the production of quality seeds. However, there is an urgent need for streamlining all our strengths to overpower the weaknesses. Strengths A well developed and knitted seed multiplication and distribution systems linked with several ICAR institutes / SAUs / NSC / SFCI etc. A network of 20 seed certification agencies and more than 96 notified seed testing laboratories to legally assure the quality seeds moving in the seed market. AgriExam.Com 5  A large number of varieties in different vegetable crops are available suited to varied agro climatic conditions. This makes the selection easier for taking up production in a particular area. Our county is bestowed with varied agro climatic conditions, which can be exploited for taking up seed production of vegetables at any time of the year in one or other past of the country. A very fast development of private seed companies which are helpful in bridging. The gap between demand and supply of vegetable seeds in the country. Weaknesses Vegetable seed production in the country has been vulnerable to vagaries of weather resulting in production of poor quality seeds. Availability of realistic data on actual area under vegetable and requirements of vegetable seeds is inappropriate. Maintenance of isolation distance. Since in our system there is no restriction for planting any particular vegetable crops in any particular area, it becomes difficult many times to maintain the recommended isolation distance. Very low or no indents for new improved varieties due to ignorance about the performance of newly developed improved varieties. Non-availability of adequate nucleus and breeder seeds in the seed production chain. Problems in lifting produced seeds against indents. Factors which affect demand It is important to distinguish between actual demand, perceived demand and what the government expects the farmers to buy. The total amount of certified or labelled seed sold may be quite a small proportion of the total requirement. Many factors have to be considered while assessing and forecasting demand. Some of these are: Cropping pattern and intensity Type of seed used AgriExam.Com 6  Climate Demand for crop products Market scenario Disposable farm income Rate or level of adoption of new technology Government policy Crop cycles Habits and tradition Product performance Competitiveness Price Promotion The most important factors that need to be taken into account when an individual company or organization is estimating the market share that may be gained by its own products are product performance, competitive positioning, price and promotion. This will form the basis of sales forecasting and production planning. Demand Forecasting of seed In adequate estimation of demand and the consequences of over production or under production can cause serious financial consequences for a seed company. Too many carryovers and stock write-offs will prove to be expensive, while lack of seed means a loss of revenue and a source of frustration for the sales force and the dealer network. This combination of special features in the seed industry makes the accurate assessment of demand even more critical. Some of these features are Longer period of time for the development new products from breeding programmes Seasonality of production Production subject to variables like agro climatic conditions outside the control of management Statutory controls and quality standards Existence of a generation system – where by the production in one year is the progenitor the next AgriExam.Com 7  Limited shelf like and loss of germination Seed replacement rate: Seed Replacement Rate is the rate at which the farmers replace the seeds instead of using their own seeds Seed Replacement Rate of Select Crops : 2005-06 Crop SRR (%) Paddy 17 Millets 7 Pulses 12.5 Cottton 10/15 Rainfed /Irrigated Groundnut 5 Gingelly 15 Sunflower 50 Castor 30 Soyabean 20 Source: Narrative notes on Plan Programme-2005-06, S.P.C, ,Chennai. In demand forecasting the first step is to calculate the existing requirement multiplied by percent bought seed, which is the amount of commercial seed purchased by farmers. In calculating seed requirement, seed multiplication rates must be taken into account. Seed Multiplication Ratio is the ratio at which the seed multiplies. In the present Indian scenario, seed production can be taken up as a small- scale industry or it can be taken up as under contract for the other seed companies. In either way, seed production has huge potential to ensure better returns. AgriExam.Com 8  SCOPE FOR SEEDS EXPORT There is lot of scope for marketing of seed by Indian seed companies in countries lying between 300 North and South latitudes, which are having similar agro-climatic situations and the varieties bred in India are suitable as well as comparable to varieties produced in European Union (EU), USA and Japan etc. In addition, wage rates and consumption pattern of those areas are comparable to Indian conditions. The seed can be exported from India to Indonesia, Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka, African countries. Central and South America and markets in developed countries. The Indian cotton hybrids are suitable for African countries, where the wage rates are low for hand picking in indeterminate types. The hybrid seeds of paddy, cotton, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, sunflower, varietal seeds of paddy, vegetables (tomato, brinjal, gourds and bhendi) can be produced more economically in AP for export purposes. Export opportunities The export opportunities can be classified into two major categories. i. Custom production of vegetable seeds (including hybrid vegetables) ii. Export of branded seeds i. Custom production of vegetable seeds (including hybrid vegetables) Hybrid vegetable seed production is highly labour intensive. As the competition is going up, most of the major global companies are outsourcing the seed production to the countries having labour cost advantage viz., China, Thailand, Vietnam, Chile, India etc. several Indian companies have established good reputation over the past 10 years by supplying good quality seed under contract production. We also have experienced and skilled manpower to take up this activity on large scale. If we look at the production capacity 70% of India’s seeds’ sales come from farmer bred seeds, 26% from those bred in publicly financed institutions, and only 4% from researched hybrids. The domestic hybrid seeds AgriExam.Com 9  market is placed at INR 4.9 Billion and is annually growing at 10% a year, against the 5% global growth rate. ii. Export of branded seeds Over the last 15-20 years, Indian seed industry has emerged as a vibrant research based industry (in vegetable as well as field crops). Several innovative superior products have been developed for widely varying agro-climatic conditions in the Indian agriculture. It is reported that Indian germplasm / seeds can adopt very well in the countries failing in the region 300 North and South on the equator. This would cover markets of several developing countries from Central / South America, Africa and Asia. Incidentally, both Africa and Asia are presently the fastest growing markets. Indian seed sector with its vast germplasm base and trained man power would become a strong technology source for such countries. Agri –export zones India has her own inherent strength in agriculture and agriculture exports. Now these have been strengthened with the liberalization, privatization polices of the government and the positive clauses in the World Trade Agreement with which India can poise to double its agro exports to Rs.200 billion by 2007. With a view to promoting agricultural exports from the country and remunerative returns to the farming community in a sustained manner, the concept of Agri Export Zones (AEZ) was floated. These zones have been set up for end-to- end development for export of specific products from a geographically contiguous area. AgriExam.Com 10 AgriExam.Com 11  SEED POLICY National Seed Policy, 2002 The Seed Act, 1966, seed control order 1983 and New Policy on Seeds Development, 1988, from the basis of promotion and regulation of the Indian Seed Industry. The “New Seed Policy” of 1988 ushered in a new area of growth and phenomenal development. Because, it allowed limited import of commercial seed, remove curbs on imports of seeds of vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants and even allowed import of seed of course cereals, pulses and oilseeds for a period of two years. The important constraints were Non existence of National Seed Policy IPR laws Restrictions and licenses on seed exports and imports Lack of incentives for the public and private seed sectors of the country India later developed the National Seed Policy in 2002. The main objectives are the provision of an appropriate climate for the seed industry to utilize available and prospective opportunities, safe guarding of the interests of Indian farmers and the conservation of agro-biodiversity. Thrust Areas 1. Varietal Development and PVP 2. Seed Production 3. Quality Assurance 4. Seed Distribution and Marketing. 5. Infrastructure facilities 6. Transgenic Plant Varieties 7. Import of seeds and planting material 8. Export of seeds AgriExam.Com 12  9. Promotion of Domestic Seed 10. Strengthening of monitoring system 1. Varietal Development and PVP To stimulate investment in research and development (R&D) new varieties an effective sui generic system for IPR will be implemented. Establishment of PVPFRA (Plant Varieties Protection and Farmers Rights Authority, to implement PVPFR Act, 2001. Under this Act, Plant Varieties will be registered based on Novelty, Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability (DUS) characters. Farmers Rights: Farmers can save, use, exchange, share or sell seeds of protected variety but not under the brand name. Researchers Rights: Seed / planting material of protected varieties can be used for research and breeding new varieties. Breeders Rights: Benefit a rising out of use of varieties upon commercialization of seeds of new variety, will be shared with the respective breeder. Community Rights: Benefit sharing with Farmers / Village communities will be ensured for contributing in evaluation of plant variety upon registration. 2. Seed Production India seed programme will adheres to generation system of multiplication namely nucleus, breeder, foundation and certified seed. Public seed sector will be restructured and will continue to have free access to breeder seed, while Private Seed Sector will have conditional access. Seed village scheme will be facilitated to upgrade the quality of farmers saved seeds. AgriExam.Com 13  Seed Replacement will be raised progressively, National Seed Map will be prepared to identify potential areas of seed production, seed banks will be established with cold storage facilities, seed minikits will be supplied for popularizing new varieties and will Seed Crop Insurance will be encouraged. 3. Quality Assurance 1. New Seed Act will be enacted. 2. National Seed Board will be established as apex body in place of existing Central Seed Committee to implement New Seed Act. 3. National Seeds Register will be maintained varieties will be registered based on “Value for Cultivation and Usage”. (VCU). 4. Farmers will retain rights to save, use, exchange, share or sell seeds of any variety but not under the brand name. 4. Seed Distribution and Marketing. 1. Seed Distribution and Marketing of any variety will be subject to registry in NSB. 2. National Seed Grid will be established as a data base on seed requirement, production, distribution and farmers preference. 3. Access to finance from commercial banks will be facilitated. 4. Availability of high quality seed will be ensured through improved distribution system and efficient marketing set up. 5. Infrastructure facilities 1. National Seed Research and Training center (NSRTC) will be set up. 2. Seed processing and storage faculties will be augmented. 3. Computerized National Seed Grid will be established to provide information on seeds marketing. 6. Transgenic Plant Varieties AgriExam.Com 14  1. All GM crops will be tested for environment and bio safety before commercial release as per EPA (1986). 2. Seeds of GM crops will be imported only through NBPGR as per the EPA (1986). 3. Required infrastructure will be developed for testing, identification and evaluation of transgenic planting material. 7. Import of seeds and planting material Provision will be made to make available best planting material from anywhere in the world to Indian farmers without any compromise on quarantine requirements. 8. Export of seeds 1. Long term policy will be evolved to exploit varied agro climatic condition of India and strong seed production system, to raise seed export from present level of less than 1% to 10% by 2020. 2. Seed export promotion zones will be established and strengthened. 3. Data Bank on International Market will be created. 9. Promotion of Domestic Seed Industry It will be facilitated by providing incentives to domestic seed industry, financial support through NABARD, commercial and co-operative banks, considering tax rebate / concessions for R&D, reduction of import duty on machines and equipment used for seed production and encouragement of membership in National and International organization related to seed. 10. Strengthening of monitoring system Strengthening of Department of Agriculture and Co-operation (DAC) will supervise the implementation of National Seed Policy. AgriExam.Com 15  National Seed Policy will be vital in doubling food production of India AgriExam.Com 16  SEED DEMAND FORECASTING AND PLANNING FOR CERTIFIED, FOUNDATION AND BREEDER SEED PRODUCTION Demand Forecasting of seed In adequate estimation of demand and the consequences of over production or under production can cause serious financial consequences for a seed company. Too many carryovers and stock write-offs will prove to be expensive, while lack of seed means a loss of revenue and a source of frustration for the sales force and the dealer network. This combination of special features in the seed industry makes the accurate assessment of demand even more critical. Some of these features are Longer period of time for the development new products from breeding programmes Seasonality of production Production subject to variables like agro climatic conditions outside the control of management Statutory controls and quality standards Existence of a generation system – where by the production in one year is the progenitor the next Limited shelf like and loss of germination Seed replacement rate: Seed Replacement Rate is the rate at which the farmers replace the seeds instead of using their own seeds Seed Replacement Rate of Select Crops : 2005-06 Crop SRR (%) Paddy 17 Milletss 7 Pulses 12.5 Cottton - Rainfed /Irrigated 10/15 Groundnut 5 Gingelly 15 AgriExam.Com 17  Sunflower 50 Castor 30 Soyabean 20 Source: Narrative notes on Plan Programme-2005-06, S.P.C, ,Chennai. In demand forecasting the first step is to calculate the existing requirement multiplied by percent bought seed, which is the amount of commercial seed purchased by farmers. In calculating seed requirement, seed multiplication rates must be taken into account. Seed Multiplication Ratio is the ratio at which the seed multiplies. In the present Indian scenario, seed production can be taken up as a small- scale industry or it can be taken up as under contract for the other seed companies. In either way, seed production has huge potential to ensure better returns. Factors which affect demand It is important to distinguish between actual demand, perceived demand and what the government expects the farmers to buy. The total amount of certified or labelled seed sold may be quite a small proportion of the total requirement. Many factors have to be considered while assessing and forecasting demand. Some of these are: Cropping pattern and intensity Type of seed used Climate Demand for crop products Market scenario Disposable farm income Rate or level of adoption of new technology Government policy Crop cycles Habits and tradition Product performance AgriExam.Com 18  Competitiveness Price Promotion The most important factors that need to be taken into account when an individual company or organization is estimating the market share that may be gained by its own products are product performance, competitive positioning, price and promotion. This will form the basis of sales forecasting and production planning. Demand forecasting techniques Forecasting is the process of making projections of demand for products by examining past and present performance levels, combined with an assessment of available products and markets. This may be carried out within the government service or by individual companies in a purely commercial context. The following approaches can be used: Target setting: This method is commonly used in developing countries where government is directly involved in planning and seed supply. In a centrally managed economy, targets are likely to be set at a national level and production plans fixed for each region. India is an example of a more open economy where both the public and private sectors coexist in a well-developed seed industry, but where the government retains a coordinating function and has the ultimate responsibility for the security of seed supply. The Ministry of Agriculture sets the targets and organizes meetings to establish the supply situation and production plans of the various organizations involved. Companies may opt to set a target for an ideal sales level while, at the same time, recognizing that this is unlikely to be achieved and budgeting for a more achievable situation. AgriExam.Com 19  Growth trends: This approach is based on the assumption that the rate of growth of seed demand as seen in past years will continue. This may give unrealistically high forecasts and will depend on the stage of market development for improved seeds. Small increases in volume in the early stages of improved seed use will represent a large increase in percentage terms, which may not be possible to sustain. Growth rates adjusted for new technology adoption: Using this approach a given region is considered on the basis of degrees of new technology uptake and the likely speed of change. Each part of the region can then be categorized as 'low' to 'medium' or 'high' growth, better reflecting the overall situation. Sampling: The accuracy of the above approaches can be improved if sample groups of farmers are questioned to gauge their anticipated demand for seed. This exercise is more reliable where there is a reasonable awareness of the benefits of using improved seeds. SEED PRODUCTION To meet the Nation's food security needs, it is important to make available to Indian farmers a wide range of seeds of superior quality, in adequate quantity on a timely basis. Public Sector Seed Institutions will be encouraged to enhance production of seed towards meeting the objective of food and nutritional security. The Indian seed programme adheres to the limited three generation system of seed multiplication, namely, breeder, foundation and certified seed. Breeder seed is the progeny of nucleus seed.  Nucleus seed is the seed produced by the breeder to develop the particular variety and is directly used for multiplication as breeder seed.  Breeder seed is the seed material directly controlled by the originating or the sponsoring breeder or Institution for the initial and recurring production of foundation seed. AgriExam.Com 20   Foundation seed is the progeny of breeder seed. Foundation seed may also be produced from foundation seed. Production of foundation seed stage-I and stage-II may thus be permitted, if supervised and approved by the Certification Agency and if the production process is so handled as to maintain specific genetic purity and identity.  Certified seed is the progeny of foundation seed or the progeny of certified seed. If the certified seed is the progeny of certified seed, then this reproduction will not exceed three generations beyond foundation stage-I and it will be ascertained by the Certification Agency that genetic identity and genetic purity has not been significantly altered. Public Sector Seed Production Agencies will continue to have free access to breeder seed under the National Agriculture Research System. The State Farms Corporation of India and National Seeds Corporation will be restructured to make productive use of these organisations in the planned growth of the Seed Sector. Private Seed Production Agencies will also have access to breeder seed subject to terms and conditions to be decided by Government of India. State Agriculture Universities/ICAR Institutes will have the primary responsibility for production of breeder seed as per the requirements of the respective States. Special attention will be given to the need to upgrade the quality of farmers’ saved seeds through interventions such as the Seed Village Scheme. Seed replacement rates will be raised progressively with the objective of expanding the use of quality seeds. DAC, in consultation with ICAR and States, will prepare a National Seed Map to identify potential, alternative and non-traditional areas for seed production of specific crops. AgriExam.Com 21  To put in place an effective seed production programme, each State will undertake advance planning and prepare a perspective plan for seed production and distribution over a rolling (five to six year) period. Seed Banks will be set up in nontraditional areas to meet demands for seeds during natural calamities. The 'Seed Village Scheme' will be promoted to facilitate production and timely availability of seed of desired crops/varieties at the local level. Special emphasis will be given to seed multiplication for building adequate stocks of certified/quality seeds by providing foundation seed to farmers. For popularising newly developed varieties and promoting seed production of these varieties, seed minikits of pioneering seed varieties will be supplied to farmers. Seed exchange among farmers and seed producers will be encouraged to popularize new/non-traditional varieties. Seeds of newly developed varieties must be made available to farmers with minimum time gap. Seed producing agencies will be encouraged to tie up with Research Institutions for popularization and commercialization of these varieties. As hybrids have the potential to improve plant vigour and increase yield, support for production of hybrid seed will be provided. Seed production will be extended to agro -climatic zones which are outside the traditional seed growing areas, in order to avoid un remunerative seed farming in unsuitable areas. Seed Banks will be established for stocking specified quantities of seed of required crops/varieties for ensuring timely and adequate supply of seeds to farmers during adverse situations such as natural calamities, shortfalls in production, etc. Seed Banks will be suitably strengthened with cold storage and pest control facilities. AgriExam.Com 22  The storage of seed at the village level will be encouraged to facilitate immediate availability of seeds in the event of natural calamities and unforeseen situations. For the storage of seeds at farm level, scientific storage structures will be popularized and techniques of scientific storage of seeds will be promoted among farmers as an extension practice. Seed growers will be encouraged to avail of Seed Crop Insurance to cover risk factors involved in production of seeds. The Seed Crop Insurance Scheme will be reviewed so as to provide effective risk cover to seed producers and will be extended to all traditional and non-traditional areas covered under the seed production programme. Recommended System of Breeder Seed Indent and Supply 1.Every State shall provide the agro-climatic zone-wise, district-wise and variety- wise quantity of certified/quality seeds sold and area covered in the previous Kharif/Rabi season along with SRR, productivity data to ICAR, DAC and SAUs by 1st December for Kharif crops and 1st May for Rabi crops. 2. ICAR shall prepare and circulate a list of State/area/agro-climatic zone-specific recommended varieties/hybrids of seeds particularly the newly released varieties/hybrids for cultivation along with relevant data regarding their yield potential, duration etc. to every State on or before 1st January for Kharif crops and 1st June for Rabi Crops with copy to Seed Division, DAC. 3. SAUs shall do a similar exercise in respect of State varieties. 4. Each State in consultation with ICAR Institutes, SAUs and Seed producing Agencies shall formulate seed plan (for Breeder, Foundation and Certified Seed) for the cropping seasons on the basis of an assessment of existing and new varieties in terms of actual or potential yield in each district/agro-climatic zone. AgriExam.Com 23  5. State Governments shall submit the seed plan and the Breeder Seeds indent to DAC, ICAR, SAUs. The Breeder Seed Indent shall be submitted to the SAUs directly for State varieties and submitted to Seeds Division DAC/ICAR for national varieties by 15th January for Kharif crops and 15th June for Rabi crops. 6. Private seed companies will also place the breeder seed indent by 15th January for Kharif crops and 15th June for Rabi crops through National Seeds Association of India (NSAI) to Seeds Division, DAC. 7. DAC shall compile all the Breeder Seed Indents of States and private seed companies and furnish them to ICAR/ concerned PDs/PCs for production of the breeder seeds. 8. The breeder seed will be allotted to all States and private seed companies for lifting from institutes of ICAR, SAUs to produce foundation and certified seed. 9. The Lifting of Breeder Seed is to be monitored every 15 days jointly by DAC and ICAR. 10. To popularise new varieties and to induce confidence among the farmers apart from Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs), each ICAR centre, SAU and KVK shall adopt 1-2 villages in a block in an agroclimatic zone of the State for demonstration in participatory mode in the farmers fields to demonstrate the productivity/potential of the new variety with an appropriate mix of inputs and practices. State Government extension staff willfully participates in the finalisation plan of FLDs-list of farmers training etc. 11. In case of hybrids of important food crops such as paddy hybrids the State Agriculture Universities shall take the responsibility in large scale production of Pure high quality parental lines (A Lines, R Lines) (Breeder and foundation seed). It would be ensured that NSC, SFCI, State Seeds Corporations will procure the foundation seeds on priority. AgriExam.Com 24  12. SAUs shall provide foundation seed to all State Seed Corporations, State Seed Farms, NSC, SFCI and Private Seed Companies for taking up large scale hybrid seed production and make it available to farmers at affordable prices. SAUs may also take up large-scale hybrid seed production in their Farms. AgriExam.Com 25  Deterioration of Crop Varieties – Causes and Maintenance Deterioration of Genetic Purity The genetic purity of a variety or trueness to its type deteriorates due to several factors during the production cycles. Kadam (1942) listed the following important factors responsible for deterioration of varieties. 1. Developmental variations 2. Mechanical mixtures 3. Mutations 4. Natural crossing 5. Minor genetic variations 6. Selected influence of pest and diseases 7. The techniques of the plant breeder 1. Developmental Variations When seed crops are grown under environments with differing soil fertility, climate, photoperiods, or at different elevations for several consecutive generation's developmental variations may set in as differential growth responses. It is therefore, preferred to grow the varieties of crops in the areas of their natural adaptation to minimize developmental shifts. 2. Mechanical Mixtures Mechanical mixtures, the most important reason for varietal deterioration, often take place at the time of sowing if more than one variety is sown with the same seed drill, through volunteer plants of the same crop in the seed field, or through different varieties grown in adjacent fields. Two varieties growing next to each other field is usually mixed during harvesting and threshing operations. The threshing equipment is often contaminated with seeds of other varieties. Similarly, the gunny bags, seed bins and elevators are also often contaminate, adding to the mechanical mixtures of varieties. AgriExam.Com 26  Roguing the seed fields critically and using utmost care during seed production and processing are necessary to avoid such mechanical contamination. 3. Mutations Mutations do not seriously deteriorate varieties. It is often difficult to identify or detect minor mutations occurring naturally. Mutants such as, 'fatuoids' in oats or 'rabbit ear' in peas may be removed by roguing from seed plots to purify the seeds. 4. Natural Crossing Natural crossing can be an important source of varietal deterioration in sexually propagated crops. The extent of contamination depends upon the magnitude of natural cross-fertilization. The deterioration sets in due to natural crossing with undesirable types, diseased plants or off types. In self-fertilized crops, natural crossing is not a serious source of contamination unless variety is male sterile and is grown in close proximity with other varieties. The natural crossing, however, can be major source of contamination due to natural crossing are the breeding system of the species, isolation distance, varietal mass and pollinating agent. The direction of prevailing winds, the numbers of insects present and their activity and mass of varieties are also important considerations in contamination by natural crossing. The isolation of seed crops is the most important factor in avoiding contamination of the cross-fertilized crops. 5. Minor Genetic Variations Minor genetic variations can occur even in varieties appearing phenotypically uniform and homogenous when released. The variations may lost during later production cycles owing to selective elimination by the nature. The yield trials of lines propagated from plants of breeder's seed to maintain the purity of self- pollinated crop varieties can overcome these minor variations. Due care during the maintenance of nucleus and breeder's seed of cross-fertilized varieties of crop is necessary. AgriExam.Com 27  6. Selected Influence of Pest and Diseases New crop varieties often are susceptible to newer races of pests and diseases caused by obligate parasites and thus selectively influence deterioration. The vegetatively propagated stock also can deteriorate quickly if infected by virus, fungi or bacteria. Seed production under strict disease free conditions is therefore essential. 7. The Techniques of the Plant Breeder: Serious instabilities may occur in varieties owing to cytogenetic irregularities in the form of improper assessments in the release of new varieties. Premature release of varieties, still segregating for resistance and susceptibility to diseases or other factors can cause significant deterioration of varieties. This failure can be attributed to the variety testing programme. In addition to these factors, other heritable variations due to recombination's and polyploidisation may also take place in varieties during seed production, which can be avoided by periodical selection during maintenance of the seed stock. Maintenance of Genetic Purity during seed Production The various steps suggested, to maintain varietal purity, are as follows. a. Use of approved seed only in seed multiplication. b. Inspection and approval of fields prior to planting. c. Field inspection and approval of growing crops at critical stages for verification of genetic purity, detection of mixtures, weeds, and for freedom from noxious weeds and seed borne diseases etc. d. Sampling and sealing of cleaned lots e. Growing of samples of potentially approved stocks for comparison with authentic stocks. AgriExam.Com 28  The various steps suggested for maintaining genetic purity are as follows: a. Providing adequate isolation to prevent contamination by natural crossing or mechanical mixtures b. Rouging of seed fields prior to the stage at which they could contaminate the seed crop. c. Periodic testing of varieties for genetic purity. d. Avoiding genetic shifts by growing crops in areas in their adaptation only. e. Certification of seed crops to maintain genetic purity and quality of seed. f. Adopting the generation system. g. Grow out tests. Genetic Purity Maintenance in Hybrid Seeds Maintenance of the genetic purity of hybrid seeds is a complicated one requiring elaborate procedures. Nucleus Seed of Inbred Lines  The nucleus seed of inbred lines can be maintained by self pollination, sib- pollination, or a combination of the two procedures (hand pollination).  Some breeders prefer 'sibbing" because it maintains vigour. "Selfing" is used to stabilize inbred lines if a change in breeding behavior is noticed.  Some parental material is preferably maintained by alternate selfing and sibbing from one generation to other.  Individually selfed or sibbed ears should be examined critically, discarding off types or inferior characteristics (texture, colour, seed size, chaff color and shape of earhead).  The uniform ears are then threshed separately and planted in ear to row method to easily detect and discard off types from individual ears if any.  Alternatively all of the ears from an individual inbred line may be composited for bulk planting in the next season.  The hand pollination seed is sown on clean, fertile soil having no previous crop of the same kind or variety during the previous year (bearing maize). AgriExam.Com 29   It is rather important to ensure that the crop is well isolated, with the requirement varying from crop to crop and depending upon the nature of the material to be protected by isolation, the nature of the contaminant, and the direction of the prevailing wind.  The isolation can be achieved either by distance or by time (maize). The inbred line may be composited for bulk planting in the next season.  Maintenance of genetic purity in inbred lines through hand pollination and adequate isolation alone is not enough to achieve perfection.  The isolated fields must be critically rogued for off types and other impure types prior to the shedding of pollen.  The nucleus seed crop is harvested after physiological maturity if artificial drying facilities exist.  Ear to harvest lines are harvested separately and piled; These are again critically examined for ear characteristics, sorting out of all off-coloured, diseased, or otherwise undesirable ears.  If the overall percentage of off types exceeds 0.1%, hand pollination should be repeated to produce the second year's breeders seed.  The uniform ears are bulked, dried in a clean dry bin at temperatures not exceeding 430C, shelled, cleaned, treated with pesticides, and stored under ideal storage conditions as breeder stock seed. This seed may be increased during the following season by paying adequate attention to isolation, roguing, etc., to maintain high genetic purity of the seed. Nucleus Seed of Non-Inbred Lines  To maintain in the genetic purity of the nucleus seed of non-inbred lines, the number of plants for hand pollination should be large enough to preserve genetic make up of the variety, narrowing the genetic base by sibbing only a few plants (about 5000 plants or more).  The sibbed ears are examined critically, discarding of colour, texture, or diseased ones.  Uniform ears are bulked, dried, shelled, cleaned, treated and stored as usual. AgriExam.Com 30   Other practices of seeding sibbed nucleus seeds are similar to those described earlier for inbred lines.  Roguing however, needs to be observed more critically by individuals with good knowledge of the material.  The breeder's stock seed thus produced from the nucleus seed can be utilized to increase the breeder's stock of non-inbred lines, paying adequate attention to land requirements, isolation, roguing, harvesting and handling of seed to achieve maximum genetic purity.  The breeder's seed of the established varieties of cross-pollinated crops can be maintained by raising breeder's seed crop in isolation and roguing the crop thoroughly at various stages.  It is often purified by mass selection.  The crop is grown in isolation and rogued carefully as described earlier.  At maturity about 20,000 - 25000 true to type plants are selected, harvested separately, and bulked after careful examination.  This constitutes the breeder's stock seed. The seed may be carried over to ensure against possible failures or unforeseen shortages AgriExam.Com 31  Seed Quality Seed is a basic input in agriculture. Strictly speaking seed is an embryo, a living organism embedded in the supporting or the food storage tissue. In seed, the importance is given to the biological existence whereas; in grain the importance is given to the supporting tissue the economic produce. Seed is defined as  A ripened ovule or a fertilized matured ovule containing embryo which has developed after fertilisation.  The dry dispersal unit or matured ovule developed after fertilization  Any part (or) organ of plant which has the capability to regenerate into a new plant  A propagule responsible for maintaining the intrinsic (or) genetic qualities of the variety / hybrid.  An ‘embryo’, a living organism embeded in the supporting (or) the food storage tissue and a protective coat.  Any propagative material.  Miniature plant.  Dormant plant  Link between two generations  Carrier of service material.  Generative part of a plant that develop into a new plant. However, the widely accepted definition for a seed is matured ovule that consisting of an embryonic plant together with a store of food, all surrounded by a protective coat. AgriExam.Com 32  As per Seed Act (1966) seed includes  Seed of food crops including edible oil seeds and seeds of fruits & vegetables.  Cotton seeds  Seeds of cattle fodder  Jute seeds  Seedlings, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings, all types of grafts and other vegetatively propagated material for food crops (or) cattle fodder. Differences between seed and grain SEED GRAIN It should be a viable one Need not be a viable one It should have maximum genetic & Not so physical purity Should satisfy minimum seed No such requirements certification standards It should be completely treated with It should never be treated with pesticide /fungicide to protect seed any chemicals, since used for against storage pests and fungi consumption Respiration rate and other No such specifications physiological and biological processes should be kept at low level during storage Should be compulsorily certified / No such condition in grain truthful labelled production AgriExam.Com 33  Should never be converted into grain Can be converted as seed unless warranted provided the situation warrants It should satisfy all the quality norms Not considered Importance of seed Seed is the vital input in crop production because through seed only the investment made on other inputs like pesticide, fertilizer, irrigation and crop maintenance can be realized. The seed required for raising the crop is quite small and its cost is also less compare to other inputs, but the greater income farmer gets depends upon the quality of the small quantity of seed he uses. In addition to above seed is the basic for the following event of agriculture. A carrier of new technologies In India for instance, the cultivation of high yielding varieties have helped to increase food production form 52 million tonnes to more than 200 million tones over a period of 50 years. A basic tool for secured food supply The successful implementation of the High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP) in India has led to a remarkable increase in production and to a new assessment of future development potential. As a result, food imports from other countries have been substantially brought down inspite of the rapid population increase. The principal means to secure crop yields in less favourable production areas The supply of good quality seeds of improved varieties suitable to these areas is one of the few important immediate contribution to secure higher crop yields. AgriExam.Com 34  A medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of natural disaster Widespread floods and droughts in various parts of the country and elsewhere have focused attention on these recurrent crises and the accompanying threats of famine and starvation. The establishment of National Seed Reserve Stocks should receive high priority for meeting such natural calamities.  This would provide improved seeds in emergency periods to production areas for rapid production of food grains.  This would supply seeds to disaster regions for resowing, as no seed would normally be available in such regions. SEED QUALITY Seed quality is the possession of seed with required genetic and physical purity that is accompanied with physiological soundness and health status. The major seed quality characters are summarized as below. 1. Physical Quality: It is the cleanliness of seed from other seeds, debris, inert matter, diseased seed and insect damaged seed. The seed with physical quality should have uniform size, weight, and colour and should be free from stones, debris, and dust, leafs, twigs, stems, flowers, fruit well without other crop seeds and inert material. It also should be devoid of shriveled, diseased mottled, moulded, discoloured, damaged and empty seeds. The seed should be easily identifiable as a species of specific category of specific species. Lack of this quality character will indirectly influence the field establishment and planting value of seed. This quality character could be obtained with seed lots by proper cleaning and grading of seed (processing) after collection and before sowing / storage. AgriExam.Com 35  2. Genetic purity: It is the true to type nature of the seed. i.e., the seedling / plant / tree from the seed should resemble its mother in all aspects. This quality character is important for achieving the desired goal of raising the crop either yield or for resistance or for desired quality factors. 3. Physiological Quality: It is the actual expression of seed in further generation / multiplication. Physiological quality characters of seed comprises of seed germination and seed vigour. The liveliness of a seed is known as viability. The extent of liveliness for production of good seedling or the ability of seed for production of seedling with normal root and shoot under favorable condition is known as germinability. Seed vigour is the energy or stamina of the seed in producing elite seedling. It is the sum total of all seed attributes that enables its regeneration of under any given conditions. Seed vigour determines the level of performance of seed or seed lot during germination and seedling emergence. Seed which perform well at sowing are termed as quality seed and based on the degree of performance in production of elite seedling it is classified as high, medium and low vigour seed. The difference in seed vigour is the differential manifestation of the deteriorative process occurring in the seed before the ultimate loss of ability to germinate. Difference in seed vigour will be expressed in rate of emergence, uniformity of emergence and loss of seed germination. Hence it is understood that all viable seeds need not be germinable but all germinable seed will be viable. Similarly all vigourous seeds will be germinable but all germinable seed need not be vigourous. Physiological quality of seed could be achieved through proper selection of seed (matured seed) used for sowing and by caring for quality characters during extraction, drying and storage. AgriExam.Com 36  Seed with good vigour is preferable for raising a good plantation as the fruits, the economic come out are to be realized after several years. Hence selection of seed based on seed vigour is important for raising perfect finalize plantation. 4. Seed Health Health status of seed is nothing but the absence of insect infestation and fungal infection, in or on the seed. Seed should not be infected with fungi or infested with insect pests as these will reduce the physiological quality of the seed and also the physical quality of the seed in long term storage. The health status of seed also includes the deterioration status of seed which also expressed through low vigour status of seed. The health status of seed influences the seed quality characters directly and warrants their soundness in seed for the production of elite seedlings at nursery / field. Hence the quality seed should have  High genetic purity  High pure seed percentage ( physical purity)  High germinability  High vigour  Higher field establishment  Free from pest and disease  Good shape, size, colour etc., according to the specification of variety  High longevity / shelf life.  Optimum moisture content for storage  High market value Characteristics of good quality seed  Higher genetically purity: Breeder /Nucleus - 100% Foundation seed - 99.5% Certified seed - 99.0% AgriExam.Com 37   Higher physical purity for certification Maize , Bhendi 99% All crops ( most) 98% Carrot 95% Sesame, soybean &jute 97 % Ground nut 96 %  Possession of good shape, size, colour, etc., according to specifications of variety  Higher physical soundness and weight  Higher germination ( 90 to 35 % depending on the crop)  Higher physiological vigour and stamina  Higher storage capacity  Free from other crop seeds ( Expressed in number /kg) Crop Designated inseparable other crop seeds Barley Wheat ,oats & gram Oats Wheat ,gram & barley Wheat Oats, gram & barley Other crop seeds are the plants of cultivated crops found in the seed field and whose seed are so similar to crop seed that is difficult to separate them economically by mechanical means. Cause physical admixture with the crop seed only when these crop mature approximately at the same time when seed crop matures. AgriExam.Com 38   It should be free from objectionable weed seeds These are plants of weed species which are harmful in one or more of the following ways.  The size and shape of their seeds are so similar to that of the crop seed that is difficult to remove their seed economically by mechanical means.  Their growth habit is detrimental to the growing seed crop due to competing effect.  Their plant parts are poisonous or injurious to human and animal beings  They serve as alternate hosts for crop pests and diseases. Objectionable Weeds of Seed Crop Plants Crop Objectionable weeds Berseem Chicory(Chicorum intybus) Cucurbits Wild Cucurbita sp. Kasuri methi Melilous sp. Lettuce Wild lettuce(Lactuca sativa) Bhendi Wild Abelmoschus sp Rape &Mustard Argemone mexicona Wheat Convolvulus arvensis (Hiran kuri) Paddy Wild paddy (Oryza sativa var. Fatua) AgriExam.Com 39   It should be free from designated diseases It refers to the diseases specified for the certification of seeds and for which certification standards are to be met with. These diseases would cause contamination, when they are present in the seed field or with in the specified isolation distance ( eg. loose smut of wheat). For this the the certification distance has been prescribed as 180 meters. Crop Designated disease Causal organism Wheat Loose smut Ustilago tritici Sorghum Grain smut Kernel smut Sphacelotheca sorghii Mustard Alternaria blight Alternaria sp Pearl millet Grain smut Tolyposporium penicillariae Green ear Sclerospora graminicola Ergot Claviceps microcephala Sesame Leaf spot Alternaria sp Brinjal Little leaf Datura virus 2 Chilies Anthracnose leaf blight Gloesporium piperatum Leaf blight Alternaria solani Cucurbits Mosaic Cucumis virus Cowpea Anthracnose Colletotricum sp Bhendi Yellow vein mosaic Hibiscus virus 1 Potato Brown rot Pseudomonas solanacearum Root knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita Tomato Early blight Alternaria solani Leaf spot Xanthomonas vesicatoria AgriExam.Com 40   It should have optimum moisture content for storage Long term storage -6-8% Short term storage - 10-13%  It should have high market value Role of good quality seed Therefore at most care must be given upon the use of quality seed and thus certification guarantees quality and ensures high and assured yield under environmental stress conditions. This emphasizes the need for increasing the area under quality seed production. So one has to take efforts to produce quality seed and boost the yield by seed to seed seedling concept. Significance of quality seed  Ensures genetic and physical purity of the crops  Gives desired plant population  Capacity to withstand the adverse conditions  Seedlings produced will be more vigourous, fast growing and can resist pest and disease incidence to certain extent  Ensures uniform growth and maturity  Development of root system will be more efficient that aids absorption of nutrients efficiently and result in higher yield.  It will respond well to added fertilizer and other inputs.  Good quality seeds of improved varieties ensures higher yield atleast 10 – 12 % SEED AND ITS MULTIPLICATION Seed multiplication ratio It is the ratio of seed yield per seed generation i.e. many seeds are produced from a single seed. AgriExam.Com 41  Seed renewal period Seeds undergo genetic deterioration on continuous usage for reproduction, due to the developmental variation, mechanical mixture mutation, natural crossing, minor genetic variation, selective influence of pest and disease and techniques of plant breeder. Hence some seed should be used for multiplication continuously. Hence selectively multiplied seed should be used after certain generation, i.e. seed should be renewed after certain generations adopting generation systems. Seed replacement rate Seed replacement rate is the quantity of quality seed that have replaced the actual seed requirement of the location that are normally produced by the farmer using their own seed. SRR = x / y x 100 Where x = Quantity of actual quality seed sown / used in an area / location Y = Quantity of quality seed (certified) required for the entire production area / location This replacement rate can give an idea on how much certified (quality) seed is being used. The seed replacement rate in India is around 15 – 20% which may vary with crop varieties. However it will be 100% for hybrid seeds. This SRR give an idea on how much certified seed is being used as a base seed for production of crops by farmers which will indirectly stresses or expose the requirement of quality seed for further production. Generation system In seed production as per Seed Act and Rules seeds are multiplied in definite system which is known as generation system of seed production. It involves three stages of multiplication known as Breeder seed, Foundation seed and certified seed. This generation system can be altered depending on pollination behaviour and demand if warranted. AgriExam.Com 42  Multiplication ratios and seed multiplication stages S.No Seed crop Multiplication Seed Seed multiplication ratio renewal stages period BS FS CS (times) 1. Paddy 152 4 1 1 2 2. Wheat 49 4 1 1 2 3. Barley 26 4 1 1 2 4. Maize hybrid 248 1 1 1 1 5. Maize variety 115 3 1 1 1 6. Jowar hybrid 179 1 1 1 1 7. Jowar variety 94 3 1 1 1 8. Bajra hybrid 380 1 1 1 1 9. Bajra variety 175 3 1 1 1 10. Ragi 420 4 1 1 2 11. Gram & Peas 24 3 1 1 2 12. Pigeon peas 150 3 1 1 1 13. Other pulses 125 3 1 1 1 14. Groundnut 18 5 1 2 2 15. Brassicas 200 3 1 1 1 16. Sesamum 200 3 1 1 1 17. Linseed 42 4 1 1 2 18. Other oil crops (73-100) 3 1 1 1 19. Cotton 46 3 1 1 1 20. Jute 120 3 1 1 1 21. Fodder 75 3 1 1 1 AgriExam.Com 43  CLASSES OF SEED The four generally recognized classes of seeds are: Breeder's seed, Foundation seed, Registered seed and Certified seed. The Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA) has defined these seed classes as follows: Breeder seed The seed or vegetatively propagated material directly controlled by the originating or the sponsoring breeder or institution which is the basic seed for recurring increase of foundation seed. Foundation seed It is the progeny of breeder seed. The seed stock handled to maintain specific identity and genetic purity, which may be designated or distributed and produced under careful supervision of an agricultural experiment station. This seed is the source of all other certified seed classes either directly or through registered seed. Registered seed The progeny of the foundation seed so handled as to maintain its genetic identity and purity and approved and certified by a certifying agency. It should be of quality suitable to produce certified seed. Certified seed It is the progeny of the foundation seed. Its production is so handled to maintain genetical identity and physical purity according to standards specified for the crop being certified. It should have the minimum genetical purity of 99%. Certified seed may be the progeny of certified seed , provided this reproduction does not exceed two generations beyond foundation seed and provided that if certification agency determines the genetic and physical purity, if not be significantly altered. In case of highly self pollinated crops certification of one further generation may be permitted. Certified seed produced from certified seed shall be eligible for further seed increase under certification, except in case of highly self-pollinated crops, where certification of one further generation may be permitted. Certification tags AgriExam.Com 44  issued once for certified seed not eligible for further seed increase under certification.  For paddy and wheat , certified seed produced from certified seed is eligible for certification by NSC up to two generations from foundation seed Foundation seed - Certified seed (I) - Certified seed (II)  For barley, garden pea ,ground nut, soyabean, certified seed produced from certified seed is eligible for certification up to 3 generations from foundation seed Foundation seed - Certified seed (I) - Certified seed (II) - Certified seed (III) Certification of certified seed produced from certified seed is not permitted for crops other than those listed above. Differences between certified seed and truthful labelled seed Certified seed Truthful labelled seed Certification is voluntary Truthful labelling is compulsory for notified kind of varieties Applicable to notified kinds only Applicable to both notified and released varieties It should satisfy both minimum field Tested for physical purity and and seed standards germination Seed certification officer ,seed Seed inspectors alone can take inspectors can take samples for samples for checking the seed inspection quality. AgriExam.Com 45  GENERATION SYSTEM OF SEED MULTIPLICATION Generation system of seed multiplication Generation system of seed multiplication is nothing but the production of a particular class of seed from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage. The choice of a proper seed multiplication model is the key to further success of a seed programme. This basically depends upon  The rate of genetic deterioration  Seed multiplication ratio and  Total seed demand Based on these factors different seed multiplication models may be derived for each crop and the seed multiplication agency should decide how quickly the farmers can be supplied with the seed of newly released varieties, after the nucleus seed stock has been handed over to the concerned agency, so that it may replace the old varieties. In view of the basic factors, the chain of seed multiplication models could be., a. Three - Generation model Breeder seed - Foundation seed - Certified seed b. Four - Generation model Breeder seed - Foundation seed (I) Foundation seed (II) - Certified seed c. Five - Generation model Breeder seed - Foundation seed (I)- Foundation seed (II) -Certified seed (I) - Certified seed (II) For most of the often cross pollinated and cross pollinated crops 3 & 4 generation models is usually suggested for seed multiplication. Ex: Castor, Redgram, Jute, Greengram, Rape, Mustard, Sesame, Sunflower and most of the vegetable crops. AgriExam.Com 46  GENERATION SYSTEM OF SEED MULTIPLICATION AND QUALITY CONTROL (NOTIFIED VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS) Agency Class of seed Quality control system Concerned NUCLEUS SEED Maintenance breeder or (no specified tag) breeding Sponsoring institution or Breeder himself Breeder seed Concerned BREEDER SEED breeder or monitoring team- (Golden yellow Sponsoring field inspection tag) institution or tocheck genetic Seed purity -(Grow out Technologist test) State FOUNDATION State Seed Department of SEED Stage I & II Certification Agrl., National (White tag) Agency- Field seeds inspection and Corporation testing to check Cooperative agencies, Central minimum required and State Seed physical purity Corporations, and other quality Private sectors stds CERTIFIED SEED (Azure blue tag) Truthful labeled FARMER seed (Opel green) AgriExam.Com 47  Nucleus and Breeders seed production The initial handful of seeds obtained from selected individual plants of a particular variety, for the purposes purifying and maintaining that variety by the originating plant breeder and its further multiplication under his own supervision, or the supervision of a qualified plant breeder, to provide Breeder’s Seed constitutes the basis for all further seed production. The varietal purity of subsequently multiplied foundation, registered and certified seed largely depend upon the quality of the nucleus/breeder’s seed. Unless the nucleus/ breeder’s seed is of highest purity and quality the seed multiplied from it cannot be regarded as of satisfactory genetic purity. Unsatisfactory genetic purity, especially in cross pollinated crops, could ultimately severely affect the performance of a variety. It is therefore, of utmost importance that the nucleus/breeder’s seed is produced in such a manner that satisfactory genetic purity, identity and the other good qualities of seed are maintained. Methods of maintenance of nucleus and breeder’s seed in self fertilized crops Methods of maintaining nucleus seed/breeder’s can be conveniently divided into the following two groups: 1. Maintenance of newly released varieties 2. Maintenance of established varieties Maintenance of Nucleus Seed of Pre-released or Newly Released Varieties The procedure outlined by Harrington (1952) for the maintenance of nucleus seed of pre-released or newly released varieties is described below: a. Sampling of the variety to obtain nucleus seed. New numbers, lines or selection which are highly promising, on the basis of performance in breeding nurseries and yield trials, should be sampled for seed purification. These samples provide a beginning for purifying new varieties and for possible AgriExam.Com 48  increase and distribution to farmers. Not more than fifteen new varieties in any one crop at a station should be sampled in one year. b. Table examination of samples: The two hundred plants of each sample should be threshed separately and the seed should be examined in piles on the table. Discard any pile appearing obviously off type, diseased or otherwise unacceptable. The seeds of each two hundred plant samples or less is now ready to be sown in a variety purification nursery called as nucleus. c. Locating and seeding of nucleus: Each nucleus seed should be grown on clean fertile land at an experiment station in the region or in area in which this new variety could be grown, in the event of its release. The land must not have had a crop of the same kind in the previous year. d. Inspection of nucleus two-row plots and removal of off types: Throughout the season of growth, from the seedling stage until maturity, the nucleus plot should be examined critically. Differences in the habit of early plant growth, leaf colour, rate of growth, time of heading, height head characteristics and diseases reactions should be looked for. If a plot differs distinctly from the average in the preheading stages of growth, it should be removed before heading. e. Harvesting and threshing of nucleus; each remaining plot, of which there should be at least 180 out of the original 200. Should be harvested individually with a sickle and tied in a bundle. The total bundles of each nucleus should be labelled and stored until the current years yield rests for trials are obtained. The nucleus bundles of any new variety should be discarded, if it is found unworthy of being continued. Later the seed should be cleaned in a fanning mill or by hand methods, the grain from each nucleus plot being placed in a pile on the seed table. The 180 or more piles of seed of one nucleus must be examined for approximate uniformity of seed appearance, and any pile, which appears to be off type discarded. All the remaining piles of the seed should be masked together in one lot. This should treated with fungicide and insecticide, bagged, labelled and stored as "Breeder’s AgriExam.Com 49  Stock Seed" for use in the next year. Breeder’s stock seed is the original purified seed stock of a new variety in the hands of the plant breeders. Maintenance of Breeder’s Seed of Pre-released or Newly Released Varieties The following steps are involved in the maintenance of breeder’s seed. a. Breeder’s stock seed from the nucleus should be sown on the clean, fertile land, which did not grow a crop of the same kind in the previous year. The space required for the seeding the breeder’s stock is about 1.2 ha in the case of wheat and as much as 3 ha in the case of transplanted rice. b. The field should properly isolated. c. The best farm procedures should be used in the sowing, raising and harvesting of breeder’s stock. d. It should be produced at the experiment station in the area in which the new variety has been bred. e. The seeding should be done in such a way as to make the best use of the limited amount of seed available and to facilitate roguing. The row spacing should be sufficient to permit examination of plants in rows for possible mixture or off types. f. Roguing: All plants not typical of the variety should be pulled and removed. There should be very few plants to rogue out if the previous years nucleus breeder’s stock seed was well protected from natural crossing and careful roguing was done and there were no impurities during cleaning etc. The rouging should be done before flowering, as was done for the nucleus/breeder’s stock seed. g. Harvesting the breeder’s stock: In the breeder’s stock is harvested and threshed, the equipment used must be scrupulously clean and free from seeds of any other varieties. This cleanliness should be extended to cards and bags as well as threshing machine it self. The seed should now be about 99.9 per cent pure as to variety. These breeder’s seed is ready now for increase of foundation seed. A portion of this breeder’s seed should be retained by the breeders to sown a continuation breeders seed of the variety. AgriExam.Com 50  Maintenance of breeder’s seed of established varieties The breeder’s seed of established varieties could be maintained satisfactorily by any one of the following methods a) By raising the crop in isolation: The breeder’s seed of local varieties could be maintained by growing them in isolated plots and by very rigorous roguing during various stages of crop growth, where the various plant characters are observable. The method of handling the breeder seed crop is the same as described earlier for breeder’s seed of newly released varieties. b) By bulk selection: The genetic purity of established varieties could be satisfactorily improved by bulk selection. In this method 2,000 to 2,500 plants typical of the variety are selected, harvested ,and threshed separately. The seeds from each plant are examined and any pile which shows any obvious off-types, or otherwise appears dissimilar, are discarded. The remaining piles of seed are bulked to constitute the breeder’s seed. The other practices of handling remains the same. Carry-over Seed The breeder must carry-over at least enough seed to safeguard against, the loss of variety if there is a complete failure during the foundation seed multiplication phase. In addition, the breeder should further safeguard variety by arranging to have a portion of the seed originally released stored under the ideal conditions. AgriExam.Com 51  SEED PRODUCTION IN MAIZE Maize is common millet of India with wider industrial and household utility. It is used a feed, food and raw material in soft drink industry. Botanically it is known as Zea mays and belongs to the family poaceae. Floral biology Botanical name : Zea mays Chromosome number : 2n=20 Botanical Family : Poaceae Inflorescence : Panicle cob, as the crop is monoceious in nature Type of flowers : Female : Cob (axillary inflorescence in the middle portion of plants) Male : Tassel (terminal inflorescence) Husk : Enlarged leaf sheaths from each node, forming a protective covering around the inflorescence. Pollination : Cross pollination Special character : Protandry Flowering pattern : Top to bottom (Tassel) Bottom to top (Cob) Anthesis : Pollen shedding begins 1 to 3 days before the silk emerge from the cob. Fertilization : Within 12 to 18 hrs after silk emergence The entire silk is receptive. Silk will be pinkish and sticky at the beginning (receptive) after fertilization it will be chocolate / brown colour. No. of pollen in tassel : 2,50,00,000 Pollen viability : 12-18h Silk receptive : 8-10 days Male flower anthesis : 6.00 am to 8.00 a.m Duration of flowering : 2-14 days AgriExam.Com 52  Tassel Cob Husk Silk Seed AgriExam.Com 53  Types and Methods of seed production in maize In maize, open pollinated varieties, synthetics, composites and hybrids are available. a. Open pollinated varieties Raise the varieties under isolation of 400 m in foundation seed stage and 200 m in certified seed stage and allow the plants to openly pollinate among themselves and set seed. b. Synthetics In cross pollinated species, a variety obtained by in mating in all possible combinations, a number of lines (>5) that combine well with each other. COBC 1 (Baby corn). c. Composite varieties These are produced by open pollination among a number of outstanding strains usually not selected for combining ability with each other e.g. K1, Jawahar, Vikram, Sona, Amber, CO 1 and Kisan. d. Inbreds It is relatively true breeding strain resulting from repeated selfing (5 times.) Varietal seed production technique Open pollination under isolation is the common method of varietal seed production. Stages of seed multiplication In maize seed (varieties composites and synthetics) is multiplied adopting three generation system, as breeder seed, foundation seed and certified seed as the crop is highly cross pollinated crop , where the chances for genetic contamination is high. Popular varieties In Tamil Nadu, CO1, K1, COH3, COH4, are the popular varieties for grain purpose, while African tall is a fodder maize.COBC1 is a variety identified for salad purpose. Season The best season for production is June - July, November- December and AgriExam.Com 54  January – February and the flowering should not coincide either with rain or