Principles of Microeconomics - Ar. PDF

CHAPTER ONE 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROECONOMICS WHAT ECONOMICS IS ALL ABOUT? Economics is about economizing; that is, about choice among alternative uses of scarce resources. Choices are made by millions of individuals, businesses, and government units. Economics examines how these choice...

CHAPTER ONE 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROECONOMICS WHAT ECONOMICS IS ALL ABOUT? Economics is about economizing; that is, about choice among alternative uses of scarce resources. Choices are made by millions of individuals, businesses, and government units. Economics examines how these choices add up to an economic system, and how this system operates. Scarcity is central to economic theory. Economic analysis is fundamentally about the maximization of something (leisure time, wealth, health, happiness—all commonly reduced to the concept of utility) subject to constraints. These constraints—or scarcity—inevitably define a tradeoff. For example, one can have more money by working harder, but less time (there are only so many hours in a day, so time is scarce). One can have more apples only at the expense of, say, fewer grapes (you only have so much land on which to grow food—land is scarce). Adam Smith considered, for example, the trade-off between time, or convenience, and money. He discussed how a person could live near town, and pay more for rent of his home, or live farther away and pay less, ―paying the difference out of his convenience‖. Economics as a subject came into being with the publication of very popular book in 1776, ―An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations‖, written by Prof. Adam Smith. At that time it was called Political economy, which remained operational at least up to the middle part of the 19th century. It is since then that the economists developed tools and principles using inductive and deductive reasoning. CHAPTER ONE ‫الفصل األول‬ INTRODUCTION TO MICROECONOMICS WHAT ECONOMICS IS ALL ABOUT? ‫مقدمة في االقتصاد الجزئي ما هو االقتصاد؟‬ Economics is about economizing; that is, about choice among alternative uses of scarce resources..‫ وهذا يعني االختيار بين االستخدامات البديلة للموارد النادرة‬.‫االقتصاد يدور حول االقتصاد‬ Choices are made by millions of individuals, businesses, and government units..‫يتم اتخاذ االختيارات بواسطة الماليين من األفراد والشركات والوحدات الحكومية‬ Economics examines how these choices add up to an economic system, and how this system operates..‫ وكيفية عمل هذا النظام‬،‫يدرس علم االقتصاد كيفية إضافة هذه االختيارات إلى النظام االقتصادي‬ Scarcity is central to economic theory..‫الندرة أمر أساسي في النظرية االقتصادية‬ Economic analysis is fundamentally about the maximization of something (leisure time, wealth, health, happiness—all commonly reduced to the concept of utility) subject to constraints. ،‫ والصحة‬،‫ والثروة‬،‫إن التحليل االقتصادي يدور في األساس حول تعظيم شيء ما (وقت الفراغ‬.‫ وكلها عادة ما يتم اختزالها في مفهوم المنفعة) الخاضع للقيود‬- ‫والسعادة‬ These constraints—or scarcity—inevitably define a tradeoff..‫ تحدد حتمًا المقايضة‬- ‫ أو الندرة‬- ‫وهذه القيود‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬1( ‫صفحة‬ For example, one can have more money by working harder, but less time (there are only so many hours in a day, so time is scarce). ‫ ولكن‬،‫ يمكن للمرء أن يحصل على المزيد من المال من خالل العمل بجدية أكبر‬،‫على سبيل المثال‬.)‫ وبالتالي فإن الوقت نادر‬،‫بوقت أقل (ال يوجد سوى عدد كبير من الساعات في اليوم‬ One can have more apples only at the expense of, say, fewer grapes (you only have so much land on which to grow food—land is scarce). ‫ على سبيل المثال‬،‫ال يمكن للمرء أن يحصل على المزيد من التفاح إال على حساب عدد أقل من العنب‬.)‫ فاألراضي نادرة‬،‫(ليس لديك سوى مساحة كبيرة من األرض لزراعة الغذاء‬ Adam Smith considered, for example, the trade-off between time, or convenience, and money..‫ والمال‬،‫ أو الراحة‬،‫ في المقايضة بين الوقت‬،‫ على سبيل المثال‬،‫لقد نظر آدم سميث‬ He discussed how a person could live near town, and pay more for rent of his home, or live farther away and pay less, ―paying the difference out of his convenience‖. ‫ أو يعيش‬،‫ ويدفع أكثر مقابل إيجار منزله‬،‫وناقش كيف يمكن ألي شخص أن يعيش بالقرب من المدينة‬."‫ "ويدفع الفرق حسب راحته‬،‫بعيًد ا ويدفع أقل‬ Economics as a subject came into being with the publication of very popular book in 1776, ―An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations‖, written by Prof. Adam Smith. ‫ بعنوان‬1776 ‫ظهر االقتصاد كموضوع إلى الوجود مع نشر كتاب يحظى بشعبية كبيرة في عام‬.‫"تحقيق في طبيعة وأسباب ثروة األمم" من تأليف البروفيسور آدم سميث‬ At that time it was called Political economy, which remained operational at least up to the middle part of the 19th century. ‫ والذي ظل فعاًال على األقل حتى منتصف القرن التاسع‬،‫في ذلك الوقت كان يسمى االقتصاد السياسي‬.‫عشر‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬1( ‫صفحة‬ It is since then that the economists developed tools and principles using inductive and deductive reasoning..‫ومنذ ذلك الحين طور االقتصاديون أدوات ومبادئ باستخدام المنطق االستقرائي واالستنتاجي‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬1( ‫صفحة‬ In fact, the ‗Wealth of Nations‘ is a landmark in the history of economic thought that separated economics from other social sciences. The word ‗Economics‘ was derived from the Greek words ‗Oikos‘ (a house) and ‗Nemein‘ (to manage), which meant managing a household, using the limited money or resources a household has. Let us explain a few important definitions frequently referred to in the economic theory. Wealth Definition The early economists like J.E. Cairnes, J.B.Say, and F.A.Walker have defined economics as a science of wealth. Adam Smith, who is also regarded as father of economics, stated that economics is a science concerned with the nature and causes of wealth of nations. That is, economics deal with the question as to how to acquire more and more wealth by a nation. J.S.Mill opined that it is the practical science dealing with the production and distribution of wealth. The American economist F.A.Walker says that economics is that body of knowledge, which relates to wealth. Thus, all these definitions relate to wealth. However, the above definitions have been criticized on various grounds. As a result, economists like Marshall, Robbins and Samuelson have put forward more comprehensive and scientific definitions. Emphasis has been gradually shifted from wealth to man. As Marshall puts, it is ―on the one side a study of wealth; and on the other, and more important side, a part of the study of man.‖ Welfare Definition Thus according to Marshall, economics not only analysis the aspect of how to acquire wealth but also how to utilize this wealth for obtaining material gains of human life. In fact, wealth has no meaning in itself unless it is used to purchase all those things which are required for our sustenance as well as for the comforts necessary for life. Marshall, thus, opined that wealth is a means to achieve certain ends. In fact, the ‗Wealth of Nations‘ is a landmark in the history of economic thought that separated economics from other social sciences. ‫ يعد كتاب "ثروة األمم" عالمة بارزة في تاريخ الفكر االقتصادي الذي فصل االقتصاد‬،‫وفي الواقع‬.‫عن العلوم االجتماعية األخرى‬ The word ‗Economics‘ was derived from the Greek words ‗Oikos‘ (a house) and ‗Nemein‘ (to manage), which meant managing a household, using the limited money or resources a household has. ‫ والتي تعني‬،)‫كلمة "اقتصاد" مشتقة من الكلمتين اليونانيتين "أويكوس" (منزل) و"نيمين" (إلدارة‬.‫إدارة األسرة باستخدام األموال أو الموارد المحدودة التي تمتلكها األسرة‬ Let us explain a few important definitions frequently referred to in the economic theory..‫دعونا نشرح بعض التعريفات الهامة التي يشار إليها بشكل متكرر في النظرية االقتصادية‬ Wealth Definition The early economists like J.E..‫إي‬.‫تعريف الثروة االقتصاديون األوائل مثل ج‬ Cairnes, J.B.Say, and F.A.Walker have defined economics as a science of wealth..‫ وإف إيه ووكر االقتصاد على أنه علم الثروة‬،‫ وجي بي ساي‬،‫لقد عَّر ف كيرنز‬ Adam Smith, who is also regarded as father of economics, stated that economics is a science concerned with the nature and causes of wealth of nations. ‫ أن االقتصاد علم يهتم بطبيعة ثروة األمم‬،‫ الذي يعتبر أيًض ا أبو االقتصاد‬،‫وقد ذكر آدم سميث‬.‫وأسبابها‬ That is, economics deal with the question as to how to acquire more and more wealth by a nation..‫أي أن االقتصاد يتعامل مع مسألة كيفية اكتساب المزيد والمزيد من الثروة لألمة‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬2( ‫صفحة‬ J.S.Mill opined that it is the practical science dealing with the production and distribution of wealth..‫ورأى جي إس ميل أنه العلم العملي الذي يتعامل مع إنتاج وتوزيع الثروة‬ The American economist F.A.Walker says that economics is that body of knowledge, which relates to wealth. ‫يقول االقتصادي األمريكي إف إيه ووكر إن االقتصاد هو تلك المجموعة من المعرفة التي تتعلق‬.‫بالثروة‬ Thus, all these definitions relate to wealth..‫ فإن كل هذه التعريفات تتعلق بالثروة‬،‫وبالتالي‬ However, the above definitions have been criticized on various grounds..‫ فقد تم انتقاد التعريفات المذكورة أعاله ألسباب مختلفة‬،‫ومع ذلك‬ As a result, economists like Marshall, Robbins and Samuelson have put forward more comprehensive and scientific definitions..‫ طرح االقتصاديون مثل مارشال وروبنز وصامويلسون تعريفات أكثر شموًال وعلمية‬،‫ونتيجة لذلك‬ Emphasis has been gradually shifted from wealth to man..‫وقد تحول التركيز تدريجيًا من الثروة إلى اإلنسان‬ As Marshall puts, it is ―on the one side a study of wealth; and on the other, and more important side, a part of the study of man.‖ Welfare Definition Thus according to Marshall, economics not only analysis the aspect of how to acquire wealth but also how to utilize this wealth for obtaining material gains of human life. ‫ جزء من‬،‫ وهو األهم‬،‫ فهي «من ناحية دراسة للثروة؛ وعلى الجانب اآلخر‬،‫وكما يقول مارشال‬ ‫ فإن االقتصاد ال يحلل الجانب المتعلق بكيفية‬،‫ وفقا لمارشال‬،‫ تعريف الرفاهية وهكذا‬.‫دراسة اإلنسان‬ ‫ بل يحلل أيضا كيفية االستفادة من هذه الثروة للحصول على مكاسب‬،‫الحصول على الثروة فحسب‬.‫ حياة‬.‫مادية لإلنسان‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬2( ‫صفحة‬ In fact, wealth has no meaning in itself unless it is used to purchase all those things which are required for our sustenance as well as for the comforts necessary for life. ‫ ليس للثروة أي معنى في حد ذاتها ما لم يتم استخدامها لشراء كل األشياء الالزمة لقوتنا‬،‫في الواقع‬.‫وكذلك وسائل الراحة الضرورية للحياة‬ Marshall, thus, opined that wealth is a means to achieve certain ends..‫وهكذا رأى مارشال أن الثروة وسيلة لتحقيق أهداف معينة‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬2( ‫صفحة‬ Scarcity Definition Lionel Robbins challenged the traditional view of the nature of economic science. His book, ―Nature and Significance of Economic Science‖, published in 1932 gave a new idea of thinking about what economics is. He called all the earlier definitions as classificatory and unscientific. According to him, ―Economics is the science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.‖ This definition focused its attention on a particular aspect of human behaviour, that is, behaviour associated with the utilization of scarce resources to achieve unlimited ends (wants). Robbins definition, thus, laid emphasis on the following points: (a) ‗Ends‘ are the wants, which every human being desires to satisfy. Want is an effective desire for a thing, which can be satisfied by making an effort for obtaining it. We have unlimited wants and as one want gets satisfied another arises. For instance, one may have the desire to buy a car or a flat. Once the car or the flat is purchased, the person wishes to buy a more spacious and designable car and the list of his wants does not stop here but goes on one after another. As human wants are unlimited, we have to make a choice between the most urgent want and less urgent wants. Thus the problem of choice arises. That is why economics is also called as a science of choice. If wants had been limited, they would have been satisfied and there would have been no economic problem. (b) ‗Means ‘or resources are limited. Means are required to be used for the satisfaction of various wants. For instance, money is an important means to satisfy many of our wants. As stated, means are scarce (short in supply in relation to demand) and as such these are to be used optimally. In other words, scarce or limited means/resources are to be economized. We should not make waste of the limited resources but utilize them very judiciously to get the maximum satisfaction. (c) Robbins also said that, the scarce means have alternative uses. It means that a commodity or resource can be put to different uses. Hence, the demand in the aggregate for that commodity or resource is almost Scarcity Definition Lionel Robbins challenged the traditional view of the nature of economic science..‫تعريف الندرة تحدى ليونيل روبنز وجهة النظر التقليدية لطبيعة العلوم االقتصادية‬ His book, ―Nature and Significance of Economic Science‖, published in 1932 gave a new idea of thinking about what economics is. ‫ فكرة جديدة عن التفكير في‬1932 ‫وقد أعطى كتابه «طبيعة وأهمية العلوم االقتصادية» الذي نشر عام‬.‫ماهية االقتصاد‬ He called all the earlier definitions as classificatory and unscientific..‫ووصف جميع التعاريف السابقة بأنها تصنيفية وغير علمية‬ According to him, ―Economics is the science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.‖ This definition focused its attention on a particular aspect of human behaviour, that is, behaviour associated with the utilization of scarce resources to achieve unlimited ends (wants). ‫ووفقًا له فإن "االقتصاد هو العلم الذي يدرس السلوك اإلنساني كعالقة بين الغايات والوسائل النادرة‬ ،‫ وقد ركز هذا التعريف اهتمامه على جانب معين من السلوك اإلنساني‬."‫التي لها استخدامات بديلة‬.)‫ الموارد لتحقيق أهداف غير محدودة (يريد‬.‫وهو السلوك المرتبط باستغالل الموارد النادرة‬ Robbins definition, thus, laid emphasis on the following points: (a) ‗Ends‘ are the wants, which every human being desires to satisfy. ‫ (أ) "الغايات" هي الرغبات التي يرغب كل إنسان‬:‫ ركز تعريف روبنز على النقاط التالية‬،‫وبالتالي‬.‫في إشباعها‬ Want is an effective desire for a thing, which can be satisfied by making an effort for obtaining it..‫ والتي يمكن إشباعها ببذل جهد للحصول عليها‬،‫الرغبة هي الرغبة الفعالة في شيء ما‬ We have unlimited wants and as one want gets satisfied another arises..‫لدينا رغبات غير محدودة وكلما تم إشباع رغبة واحدة تظهر أخرى‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬3( ‫صفحة‬ For instance, one may have the desire to buy a car or a flat..‫ قد يكون لدى المرء الرغبة في شراء سيارة أو شقة‬،‫على سبيل المثال‬ Once the car or the flat is purchased, the person wishes to buy a more spacious and designable car and the list of his wants does not stop here but goes on one after another. ‫ يرغب الشخص في شراء سيارة أكثر اتساًع ا وتصميًم ا وال تتوقف‬،‫بمجرد شراء السيارة أو الشقة‬.‫ بل تطول واحدة تلو األخرى‬،‫قائمة رغباته هنا‬ As human wants are unlimited, we have to make a choice between the most urgent want and less urgent wants. ‫ فعلينا أن نختار بين الحاجات األكثر إلحاًح ا والرغبات األقل‬،‫وبما أن احتياجات اإلنسان غير محدودة‬.‫إلحاًح ا‬ Thus the problem of choice arises..‫وهكذا تنشأ مشكلة االختيار‬ That is why economics is also called as a science of choice..‫ولهذا السبب ُيطلق على االقتصاد أيًض ا اسم علم االختيار‬ If wants had been limited, they would have been satisfied and there would have been no economic problem..‫ولو كانت الرغبات محدودة لتم إشباعها ولما كانت هناك مشكلة اقتصادية‬ (b) ‗Means ‘or resources are limited..‫(ب) "الوسائل" أو الموارد محدودة‬ Means are required to be used for the satisfaction of various wants..‫الوسائل مطلوبة الستخدامها لتلبية الرغبات المختلفة‬ For instance, money is an important means to satisfy many of our wants..‫ يعد المال وسيلة مهمة لتلبية العديد من رغباتنا‬،‫على سبيل المثال‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬3( ‫صفحة‬ As stated, means are scarce (short in supply in relation to demand) and as such these are to be used optimally. ‫ فإن الوسائل نادرة (نقص العرض مقارنة بالطلب) وبالتالي يجب استخدامها على النحو‬،‫وكما ذكرنا‬.‫األمثل‬ In other words, scarce or limited means/resources are to be economized..‫الموارد النادرة أو المحدودة‬/‫ يجب اقتصاد الوسائل‬،‫وبعبارة أخرى‬ We should not make waste of the limited resources but utilize them very judiciously to get the maximum satisfaction. ‫ بل يجب أن نستخدمها بحكمة شديدة للحصول على أقصى قدر‬،‫ال ينبغي لنا أن نهدر الموارد المحدودة‬.‫من الرضا‬ (c) Robbins also said that, the scarce means have alternative uses..‫(ج) قال روبنز أيضًا إن الوسائل النادرة لها استخدامات بديلة‬ It means that a commodity or resource can be put to different uses..‫وهذا يعني أنه يمكن استخدام سلعة أو مورد الستخدامات مختلفة‬ Hence, the demand in the aggregate for that commodity or resource is almost ‫ومن ثم فإن الطلب اإلجمالي على تلك السلعة أو المورد يكاد يكون‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬3( ‫صفحة‬ insatiable. For instance, if we have a hundred rupee note, we can use it either to purchase a book or a fashionable clothe. We may use it in other unlimited ways as we like. Let us now turn our attention to the definitions put forward by modern economists. J.M.Keynes defined economics as the study of the management of scarce resources and of the determination of income and employment in the economy. Thus his study centered on the causes of economic fluctuations to see how economic stability could be established. According to F. Benham, economics is, ―a study of the factors affecting the size, distribution and stability of a country‘s national income.‖ Recently, economic growth and development has taken an important place in the study of economics. Prof. Samuelson has given a growth oriented definition of economics. According to him, economics is the study and use of scarce productive resources overtime and distribute these for present and future consumption. In short, economics is a social science concerned with the use of scarce resources in an optimum manner and in attainment of desired level of income, output, employment and economic growth. Note: Scarcity refers to the fact that all economic resources that a society needs to produce goods and services are finite or limited in supply. But their being limited should be expressed in relation to human wants. Thus, the term scarcity reflects the imbalance between our wants and the means to satisfy those wants. Free resources: A resource is said to be free if the amount available to a society is greater than the amount people desire at zero price. E.g. sunshine. Resources Scarce (economic) resources: A resource is said to be scarce or economic resource when the amount available to a society is less than what people want to have at zero price. insatiable..‫ال يشبع‬ For instance, if we have a hundred rupee note, we can use it either to purchase a book or a fashionable clothe. ‫ فيمكننا استخدامها إما لشراء كتاب أو‬،‫ إذا كان لدينا ورقة نقدية بقيمة مائة روبية‬،‫على سبيل المثال‬.‫مالبس عصرية‬ We may use it in other unlimited ways as we like..‫وقد نستخدمها بطرق أخرى غير محدودة كما نحب‬ Let us now turn our attention to the definitions put forward by modern economists..‫دعونا اآلن نوجه انتباهنا إلى التعريفات التي طرحها االقتصاديون المعاصرون‬ J.M.Keynes defined economics as the study of the management of scarce resources and of the determination of income and employment in the economy. ‫عّر ف جون ماينارد كينز االقتصاد بأنه دراسة إدارة الموارد النادرة وتحديد الدخل والعمالة في‬.‫االقتصاد‬ Thus his study centered on the causes of economic fluctuations to see how economic stability could be established..‫ولذلك ركزت دراسته على أسباب التقلبات االقتصادية لمعرفة كيفية تحقيق االستقرار االقتصادي‬ According to F. Benham, economics is, ―a study of the factors affecting the size, distribution and stability of a country‘s national income.‖ Recently, economic growth and development has taken an important place in the study of economics. ‫ فإن االقتصاد هو "دراسة العوامل التي تؤثر على حجم وتوزيع واستقرار‬،F. Benham ‫وفًقا لـ‬ ‫ احتل النمو االقتصادي والتنمية مكاًنا مهًم ا في دراسة‬،‫ وفي اآلونة األخيرة‬."‫الدخل القومي لبلد ما‬.‫االقتصاد‬ Prof. Samuelson has given a growth oriented definition of economics..‫قدم البروفيسور سامويلسون تعريًفا موجًه ا نحو النمو لالقتصاد‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬4( ‫صفحة‬ According to him, economics is the study and use of scarce productive resources overtime and distribute these for present and future consumption. ‫ فإن االقتصاد هو دراسة واستخدام الموارد اإلنتاجية النادرة العمل اإلضافي وتوزيعها على‬،‫ووفقا له‬.‫االستهالك الحالي والمستقبلي‬ In short, economics is a social science concerned with the use of scarce resources in an optimum manner and in attainment of desired level of income, output, employment and economic growth. ‫ االقتصاد هو علم اجتماعي يهتم باستخدام الموارد النادرة على النحو األمثل وتحقيق‬،‫باختصار‬.‫المستوى المطلوب من الدخل واإلنتاج والتوظيف والنمو االقتصادي‬ Note: Scarcity refers to the fact that all economic resources that a society needs to produce goods and services are finite or limited in supply. ‫ تشير الندرة إلى حقيقة أن جميع الموارد االقتصادية التي يحتاجها المجتمع إلنتاج السلع‬:‫مالحظة‬.‫والخدمات محدودة أو محدودة العرض‬ But their being limited should be expressed in relation to human wants..‫ولكن ينبغي التعبير عن كونها محدودة فيما يتعلق بالرغبات اإلنسانية‬ Thus, the term scarcity reflects the imbalance between our wants and the means to satisfy those wants..‫ فإن مصطلح الندرة يعكس عدم التوازن بين رغباتنا ووسائل تلبية تلك الرغبات‬،‫وبالتالي‬ Resources Free resources: A resource is said to be free if the amount available to a society is greater than the amount people desire at zero price. ‫ يقال أن المورد مجاني إذا كانت الكمية المتاحة للمجتمع أكبر من الكمية التي‬:‫الموارد الموارد الحرة‬.‫يرغب فيها الناس بسعر صفر‬ E.g. ‫على سبيل المثال‬ sunshine..‫شروق الشمس‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬4( ‫صفحة‬ Scarce (economic) resources: A resource is said to be scarce or economic resource when the amount available to a society is less than what people want to have at zero price. ‫ ُيقال عن المورد أنه نادر أو مورد اقتصادي عندما تكون الكمية المتاحة‬:‫الموارد (االقتصادية) النادرة‬.‫للمجتمع أقل مما يريد الناس الحصول عليه بسعر الصفر‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬4( ‫صفحة‬ The following are examples of scarce resources: -All types of human resources: manual, intellectual, skilled, and specialized labor. -Most natural resources like land (especially fertile land), minerals, clean water, forests and wild – animals. -All types of capital resources (like machines, intermediate goods, infrastructure. -All types of entrepreneurial resources. Economic resources are usually classified into four categories: ▪ Labour: refers to the physical as well as mental efforts of human beings in the production and distribution of goods and services. The reward for labour is called wage. ▪ Land: refers to the natural resources or all the free gifts of nature usable in the production of goods and services. The reward for the services of land is known as rent. ▪ Capital: refers to all the manufactured inputs that can be used to produce other goods and services. Example: equipment, machinery, transport, and communication facilities, etc. The reward for the services of capital is called interest. ▪ Entrepreneurship: refers to a special type of human talent that helps to organize and manage other factors of production to produce goods and services and takes the risk of making loses. The reward for entrepreneurship is called profit. Entrepreneurs are individuals who: The following are examples of scarce resources: -All types of human resources: manual, intellectual, skilled, and specialized labor. ،‫ والماهرة‬،‫ والفكرية‬،‫ العمالة اليدوية‬:‫ الموارد البشرية بأنواعها‬- :‫وفيما يلي أمثلة على الموارد النادرة‬.‫والمتخصصة‬ -Most natural resources like land (especially fertile land), minerals, clean water, forests and wild – animals. ‫معظم الموارد الطبيعية مثل األراضي (خاصة األراضي الخصبة) والمعادن والمياه النظيفة والغابات‬-.‫والحيوانات البرية‬ -All types of capital resources (like machines, intermediate goods, infrastructure..‫ جميع أنواع الموارد الرأسمالية (مثل اآلالت والسلع الوسيطة والبنية التحتية‬- -All types of entrepreneurial resources..‫جميع أنواع الموارد الريادية‬- Economic resources are usually classified into four categories: ▪ Labour: refers to the physical as well as mental efforts of human beings in the production and distribution of goods and services. ‫ يشير إلى الجهود البدنية والعقلية التي‬:‫ العمل‬ :‫تصنف الموارد االقتصادية عادة إلى أربع فئات‬.‫يبذلها اإلنسان في إنتاج وتوزيع السلع والخدمات‬ The reward for labour is called wage..‫المكافأة على العمل تسمى األجر‬ ▪ Land: refers to the natural resources or all the free gifts of nature usable in the production of goods and services. ‫ تشير إلى الموارد الطبيعية أو جميع هبات الطبيعة المجانية القابلة لالستخدام في إنتاج‬:‫ األرض‬.‫السلع والخدمات‬ The reward for the services of land is known as rent..‫وتعرف المكافأة مقابل خدمات األرض باإليجار‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬5( ‫صفحة‬ ▪ Capital: refers to all the manufactured inputs that can be used to produce other goods and services..‫ يشير إلى جميع المدخالت المصنعة التي يمكن استخدامها إلنتاج سلع وخدمات أخرى‬:‫ رأس المال‬ Example: equipment, machinery, transport, and communication facilities, etc..‫ وما إلى ذلك‬،‫ المعدات واآلالت ومرافق النقل واالتصاالت‬:‫مثال‬ The reward for the services of capital is called interest..‫تسمى المكافأة مقابل خدمات رأس المال بالفائدة‬ ▪ Entrepreneurship: refers to a special type of human talent that helps to organize and manage other factors of production to produce goods and services and takes the risk of making loses. ‫ تشير إلى نوع خاص من المواهب البشرية التي تساعد على تنظيم وإدارة عوامل‬:‫ ريادة األعمال‬.‫اإلنتاج األخرى إلنتاج السلع والخدمات وتتحمل مخاطر تحقيق الخسائر‬ The reward for entrepreneurship is called profit..‫المكافأة على ريادة األعمال تسمى الربح‬ Entrepreneurs are individuals who: :‫رواد األعمال هم األفراد الذين‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬5( ‫صفحة‬ - Organize factors of production to produce goods and services. - Make basic business policy decisions. - Introduce new inventions and technologies into business practice. - Look for new business opportunities. - Take risks of making losses. Note: Scarcity does not mean shortage. We have already said that a good is said to be scarce if the amount available is less t han the amount people wish to have at zero price. But we say that there is shortage of goods and services when people are unable to get the amount they want at the prevailing or on-going price. Shortage is a specific and short-term problem, but scarcity is a universal and everlasting problem. SUBJECT MATTER OF ECONOMICS Economics is divided into two major branches. These are: Microeconomics and Macroeconomics. Microeconomics is the study of the behavior and the relationship among the individual parts of the economy such as consumers, producers, buyers and sellers and how their interaction both determines and are determined by a system of market prices. Microeconomics examines the factors that affect individual economic choices, how changes in these factors affect such choices, and how markets coordinate the choices of various decision makers. On the other hand, Macroeconomics is the study of the entire economy in terms of the total amount of goods and services produced, total income earned, the level of employment of productive resources, and the general behavior of prices. Macroeconomics can be used to analyze how best to influence policy goals such as economic growth, price stability, - Organize factors of production to produce goods and services..‫ تنظيم عوامل اإلنتاج إلنتاج السلع والخدمات‬- - Make basic business policy decisions..‫ اتخاذ قرارات سياسة العمل األساسية‬- - Introduce new inventions and technologies into business practice..‫ إدخال االختراعات والتقنيات الجديدة في ممارسة األعمال‬- - Look for new business opportunities..‫ ابحث عن فرص عمل جديدة‬- - Take risks of making losses..‫ تحمل مخاطر التعرض للخسائر‬- Note:Scarcity does not mean shortage..‫ الندرة ال تعني النقص‬:‫مالحظة‬ We have already said that a good is said to be scarce if the amount available is less t han the amount people wish to have at zero price. ‫لقد قلنا بالفعل أنه يقال إن السلعة نادرة إذا كان المبلغ المتاح أقل من المبلغ الذي يرغب الناس في‬.‫الحصول عليه بسعر صفر‬ But we say that there is shortage of goods and services when people are unable to get the amount they want at the prevailing or on-going price. ‫لكننا نقول أن هناك نقًص ا في السلع والخدمات عندما ال يتمكن الناس من الحصول على الكمية التي‬.‫يريدونها بالسعر السائد أو المستمر‬ Shortage is a specific and short-term problem, but scarcity is a universal and everlasting problem..‫ لكن الندرة مشكلة عالمية وأبدية‬،‫إن النقص مشكلة محددة وقصيرة المدى‬ SUBJECT MATTER OF ECONOMICS ‫موضوع االقتصاد‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬6( ‫صفحة‬ Economics is divided into two major branches..‫ينقسم االقتصاد إلى فرعين رئيسيين‬ These are: Microeconomicsand Macroeconomics..‫ االقتصاد الجزئي واالقتصاد الكلي‬:‫وهي‬ Microeconomics is the study of the behavior and the relationship among the individual parts of the economy such as consumers, producers, buyers and sellers and how their interaction both determines and are determinedby a system of market prices. ‫االقتصاد الجزئي هو دراسة السلوك والعالقة بين األجزاء الفردية لالقتصاد مثل المستهلكين‬.‫والمنتجين والمشترين والبائعين وكيف يحدد تفاعلهم نظام أسعار السوق‬ Microeconomics examines the factors that affect individual economic choices, how changes in these factors affect such choices, and how markets coordinate the choices of various decision makers. ‫ وكيف تؤثر‬،‫يدرس االقتصاد الجزئي العوامل التي تؤثر على االختيارات االقتصادية الفردية‬ ‫ وكيف تقوم األسواق بتنسيق اختيارات مختلف صناع‬،‫التغيرات في هذه العوامل على هذه االختيارات‬.‫القرار‬ On the other hand, Macroeconomics is the study of the entire economy in terms of the total amount of goods and services produced, total income earned, the level of employment of productive resources, and the general behavior of prices. ‫ االقتصاد الكلي هو دراسة االقتصاد بأكمله من حيث إجمالي كمية السلع والخدمات‬،‫من ناحية أخرى‬.‫ والسلوك العام لألسعار‬،‫ ومستوى توظيف الموارد اإلنتاجية‬،‫ وإجمالي الدخل المكتسب‬،‫المنتجة‬ Macroeconomics can be used to analyze how best to influence policy goals such as economic growth, price stability, ‫يمكن استخدام االقتصاد الكلي لتحليل أفضل السبل للتأثير على أهداف السياسة مثل النمو االقتصادي‬ ،‫واستقرار األسعار‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬6( ‫صفحة‬ full employment, interest rate and the attainment of a sustainable balance of payments. It is important to note that the boundary between Microeconomics and Macroeconomics has increasingly become narrow in recent years. The reason is that, just like Microeconomics, Macroeconomics also involves the analysis of aggregate markets for goods, services and factors of production. To understand how these aggregate markets operate, one must first understand the behavior of the firms, consumers, and investors who make up those aggregate markets. Thus, Macroeconomic analysis has become increasingly concerned with the Microeconomic foundations of aggregate economic phenomenon, and much of Macroeconomics is actually an extension of Microeconomic analysis. Note: Both microeconomics and macroeconomics are complementary to each other. That is, macroeconomics cannot be studied in isolation from microeconomics. Positive and Normative Economics Because of scientific nature of economic analysis, it is important to understand the difference between positive Economics and normative Economics. Positive Economics is the Economics of model building and deals with what will occur assuming the model is properly constructed. Positive Economics is concerned with the investigation of the ways in which different economic agents in society seek to achieve their goals. For example positive economists may analyze how a firm behaves in trying to make as much profit as it can or how a household behaves in trying to reach the highest attainable level of satisfaction from the consumption. Normative Economics on the other hand, is concerned with making suggestions about the ways in which the society‘s goals might be more efficiently realized. From the standpoint of policy recommendations, this full employment, interest rate and the attainment of a sustainable balance of payments..‫العمالة الكاملة وسعر الفائدة وتحقيق ميزان المدفوعات المستدام‬ It is important to note that the boundary between Microeconomics and Macroeconomics has increasingly become narrow in recent years. ‫ومن المهم أن نالحظ أن الحدود بين االقتصاد الجزئي واالقتصاد الكلي أصبحت ضيقة بشكل متزايد‬.‫في السنوات األخيرة‬ The reason is that, just like Microeconomics, Macroeconomics also involves the analysis of aggregate markets for goods, services and factors of production. ‫ يتضمن االقتصاد الكلي أيًض ا تحليل األسواق اإلجمالية‬،‫ تماًم ا مثل االقتصاد الجزئي‬،‫والسبب هو أنه‬.‫للسلع والخدمات وعوامل اإلنتاج‬ To understand how these aggregate markets operate, one must first understand the behavior of the firms, consumers, and investors who make up those aggregate markets. ‫ يجب على المرء أوال أن يفهم سلوك الشركات والمستهلكين‬،‫لفهم كيفية عمل هذه األسواق اإلجمالية‬.‫والمستثمرين الذين يشكلون تلك األسواق اإلجمالية‬ Thus, Macroeconomic analysis has become increasingly concerned with the Microeconomic foundations of aggregate economic phenomenon, and much of Macroeconomics is actually an extension of Microeconomic analysis. ‫ أصبح تحليل االقتصاد الكلي يهتم بشكل متزايد بأسس االقتصاد الجزئي للظاهرة االقتصادية‬،‫وهكذا‬.‫ ومعظم االقتصاد الكلي هو في الواقع امتداد لتحليل االقتصاد الجزئي‬،‫الكلية‬ Note: Both microeconomics and macroeconomics are complementary to each other..‫ كال من االقتصاد الجزئي واالقتصاد الكلي مكمالن لبعضهما البعض‬:‫مالحظة‬ That is, macroeconomics cannot be studied in isolation from microeconomics..‫أي أنه ال يمكن دراسة االقتصاد الكلي بمعزل عن االقتصاد الجزئي‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬7( ‫صفحة‬ Positive and Normative Economics ‫االقتصاد اإليجابي والمعياري‬ Because of scientific nature of economic analysis, it is important to understand the difference between positive Economics and normative Economics. ‫ من المهم فهم الفرق بين االقتصاد اإليجابي واالقتصاد‬،‫بسبب الطبيعة العلمية للتحليل االقتصادي‬.‫المعياري‬ Positive Economics is the Economics of model building and deals with what will occur assuming the model is properly constructed. ‫االقتصاد اإليجابي هو اقتصاديات بناء النموذج ويتعامل مع ما سيحدث بافتراض أن النموذج تم بناؤه‬.‫بشكل صحيح‬ Positive Economics is concerned with the investigation of the ways in which different economic agents in society seek to achieve their goals. ‫يهتم االقتصاد اإليجابي بدراسة الطرق التي يسعى بها الوكالء االقتصاديون المختلفون في المجتمع‬.‫لتحقيق أهدافهم‬ For example positive economists may analyze how a firm behaves in trying to make as much profit as it can or how a household behaves in trying to reach the highest attainable level of satisfaction from the consumption. ‫ قد يقوم االقتصاديون اإليجابيون بتحليل كيفية تصرف الشركة في محاولة تحقيق‬،‫على سبيل المثال‬ ‫أكبر قدر ممكن من الربح أو كيف تتصرف األسرة في محاولة الوصول إلى أعلى مستوى يمكن‬.‫تحقيقه من الرضا من االستهالك‬ Normative Economics on the other hand, is concerned with making suggestions about the ways in which the society‘s goals might be more efficiently realized. ‫ يهتم االقتصاد المعياري بتقديم اقتراحات حول الطرق التي يمكن من خاللها تحقيق‬،‫ومن ناحية أخرى‬.‫أهداف المجتمع بشكل أكثر كفاءة‬ From the standpoint of policy recommendations, this ‫ هذا‬،‫من وجهة نظر التوصيات السياسية‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬7( ‫صفحة‬ approach involves economists in ethical question of what should or ought to be, so much so that they may take up strong moral positions. For example, the present high level of unemployment in Egypt ought to be reduced is a normative statement. In general, the chapters that follow will be concerned with positive Economics. Note : While discussing the scope of economics, we also think of whether economics is a positive or normative science. A positive science describes ‗what is‘ and normative science explains ‗what ought to be‘. Thus a positive science describes a situation as it is, whereas normative science analysis the situation and suggests/comments on wrongness or rightness of a thing/state. For example, ‗population in India is rising‘, is a positive statement and ‗Rising population is an obstacle in the way of development‘ is a normative statement. Choice and Opportunity Cost Choices are necessary because resources are scarce. Since we cannot produce every thing we would like to consume or spend, there must be some mechanism to determine what goods and services should be produced and what should be left out; whose wants should be satisfied and whose should remain unsatisfied. A decision to satisfy one set of wants necessarily means sacrificing some other sets. We usually call this sacrifice the opportunity cost. Opportunity cost is a term which means the cost of something in terms of an opportunity foregone (and the benefits that could be received from that opportunity), or the most valuable foregone alternative. In other words, the opportunity cost of a given commodity is the next best alternative cost or transfer costs. As we know that productive resources are scarce, therefore, the production of one commodity means not producing another commodity. The commodity that is sacrificed is the real cost of the commodity that is produced. This is the opportunity cost. Let us explain this with an example. Suppose a producer can produce a approach involves economists in ethical question of what should or ought to be, so much so that they may take up strong moral positions. ‫ لدرجة أنهم‬،‫ينطوي هذا النهج على االقتصاديين في مسألة أخالقية حول ما ينبغي أو ينبغي أن يكون‬.‫قد يتخذون مواقف أخالقية قوية‬ For example, the present high level of unemployment in Egypt ought to be reduced is a normative statement..‫ وهو بيان معياري‬،‫ ينبغي خفض مستوى البطالة المرتفع الحالي في مصر‬،‫على سبيل المثال‬ In general, the chapters that follow will be concerned with positive Economics..‫ الفصول التالية سوف تهتم باالقتصاد اإليجابي‬،‫بشكل عام‬ Note : While discussing the scope of economics, we also think of whether economics is a positive or normative science..‫ نفكر أيًض ا فيما إذا كان االقتصاد علًم ا إيجابًيا أم معيارًيا‬،‫ أثناء مناقشة نطاق علم االقتصاد‬:‫ملحوظة‬ A positive science describes ‗what is‘ and normative science explains ‗what ought to be‘.."‫يصف العلم اإليجابي "ما هو موجود" ويشرح العلم المعياري "ما يجب أن يكون‬ Thus a positive science describes a situation as it is, whereas normative science analysis the situation and suggests/comments on wrongness or rightness of a thing/state. /‫ في حين أن العلم المعياري يحلل الموقف ويقترح‬،‫وهكذا فإن العلم اإليجابي يصف الموقف كما هو‬.‫حالة‬/‫يعلق على الخطأ أو الصواب في شيء‬ For example, ‗population in India is rising‘, is a positive statement and ‗Rising population is an obstacle in the way of development‘ is a normative statement. ‫ عبارة "عدد السكان في الهند آخذ في االرتفاع" هي عبارة إيجابية وعبارة "ارتفاع‬،‫على سبيل المثال‬.‫عدد السكان عقبة في طريق التنمية" هي عبارة معيارية‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬8( ‫صفحة‬ Choice and Opportunity Cost ‫تكلفة االختيار والفرصة‬ Choices are necessary because resources are scarce..‫االختيارات ضرورية ألن الموارد شحيحة‬ Since we cannot produce every thing we would like to consume or spend, there must be some mechanism to determine what goods and services should be produced and what should be left out; whose wants should be satisfied and whose should remain unsatisfied. ‫ فيجب أن تكون هناك آلية ما لتحديد‬،‫وبما أننا ال نستطيع إنتاج كل ما نرغب في استهالكه أو إنفاقه‬ ‫السلع والخدمات التي يجب إنتاجها وما يجب استبعاده؛ من يجب أن ُترضي رغباته ومن يجب أن يظل‬.‫غير ُم رضي‬ A decision to satisfy one set of wants necessarily means sacrificing some other sets. ‫إن القرار بإشباع مجموعة واحدة من الرغبات يعني بالضرورة التضحية ببعض المجموعات‬.‫األخرى‬ We usually call this sacrifice the opportunity cost..‫نحن عادة نسمي هذه التضحية تكلفة الفرصة البديلة‬ Opportunity cost is a term which means the cost of something in terms of an opportunity foregone (and the benefits that could be received from that opportunity), or the most valuable foregone alternative. ‫تكلفة الفرصة البديلة هي مصطلح يعني تكلفة شيء ما من حيث الفرصة الضائعة (والفوائد التي يمكن‬.‫ أو البديل األكثر قيمة الضائعة‬،)‫الحصول عليها من تلك الفرصة‬ In other words, the opportunity cost of a given commodity is the next best alternative cost or transfer costs..‫ فإن تكلفة الفرصة البديلة لسلعة معينة هي ثاني أفضل تكلفة بديلة أو تكاليف التحويل‬،‫وبعبارة أخرى‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬8( ‫صفحة‬ As we know that productive resources are scarce, therefore, the production of one commodity means not producing another commodity..‫ فإن إنتاج سلعة واحدة يعني عدم إنتاج سلعة أخرى‬،‫وكما نعلم أن الموارد اإلنتاجية نادرة‬ The commodity that is sacrificed is the real cost of the commodity that is produced..‫فالسلعة التي يتم التضحية بها هي التكلفة الحقيقية للسلعة التي يتم إنتاجها‬ This is the opportunity cost..‫هذه هي تكلفة الفرصة البديلة‬ Let us explain this with an example..‫دعونا نشرح هذا بمثال‬ Suppose a producer can produce a ‫لنفترض أن المنتج يمكنه إنتاج أ‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬8( ‫صفحة‬ car or a computer with the money at his disposal. If the producer decides to produce car and not computer, then the real cost of the car is equal to the cost of computer, i.e., the alternative foregone. Let us take another example to explain the concept. For example, if a company decides to build hotels on vacant land that it owns, the opportunity cost is some other thing that might have been done with the land and construction funds instead. In building the hotels, the company has forgone the opportunity to build, say, a sporting center on that land, or a parking lot, or a housing complex, and so on. In simpler terms, the opportunity cost of spending a day for picnic with your friends could be the amount of money you could have earned if you had devoted that time to working overtime. Opportunity cost need not be assessed in monetary terms, but rather, is assessed in terms of anything that is of value to the person or persons doing the assessing. The consideration of opportunity costs is one of the key differences between the concepts of economic cost and accounting cost. Assessing opportunity costs is fundamental to assessing the true cost of any course of action. The simplest way to estimate the opportunity cost of any single economic decision is to consider, ―What is the next best alternative choice that could be made?‖ The opportunity cost of paying for college fee could be the ability to buy some clothes. The opportunity cost of a vacation in the Goa could be the payment for buying a motorbike. It is to be noted that opportunity cost is not the sum of the available alternatives, but rather of benefit of the best alternative of them. The concept of opportunity cost can be explained with a diagram that depicts opportunity cost between any two given items produced by a given economy. It is known in economics as the production possibility curve. In the imaginary economy discussed above which produces only cars and computers, the economy will be operating on the PPC if all resources (inputs) are fully utilized and used most appropriately (efficiently). The exact combination of cars and computers produced depends on the mechanisms used to decide the allocation of resources car or a computer with the money at his disposal..‫سيارة أو جهاز كمبيوتر مع األموال الموجودة تحت تصرفه‬ If the producer decides to produce car and not computer, then the real cost of the car is equal to the cost of computer, i.e., the alternative foregone. ‫ أي‬،‫ فإن التكلفة الحقيقية للسيارة تساوي تكلفة الكمبيوتر‬،‫فإذا قرر المنتج إنتاج سيارة وليس كمبيوتر‬.‫البديل الضائع‬ Let us take another example to explain the concept..‫ولنأخذ مثاال آخر لشرح المفهوم‬ For example, if a company decides to build hotels on vacant land that it owns, the opportunity cost is some other thing that might have been done with the land and construction funds instead. ‫ فإن تكلفة‬،‫ إذا قررت إحدى الشركات بناء فنادق على أرض شاغرة تمتلكها‬،‫على سبيل المثال‬.‫الفرصة البديلة هي شيء آخر ربما تم القيام به باستخدام أموال األرض والبناء بدًال من ذلك‬ In building the hotels, the company has forgone the opportunity to build, say, a sporting center on that land, or a parking lot, or a housing complex, and so on. ،‫ مركز رياضي على تلك األرض‬،‫ على سبيل المثال‬،‫ أضاعت الشركة فرصة بناء‬،‫وفي بناء الفنادق‬.‫ وما إلى ذلك‬،‫ أو مجمع سكني‬،‫أو موقف للسيارات‬ In simpler terms, the opportunity cost of spending a day for picnic with your friends could be the amount of money you could have earned if you had devoted that time to working overtime. ‫ تكلفة الفرصة البديلة لقضاء يوم في نزهة مع أصدقائك يمكن أن تكون مقدار المال‬،‫بعبارات أبسط‬.‫الذي كان من الممكن أن تكسبه إذا خصصت هذا الوقت للعمل اإلضافي‬ Opportunity cost need not be assessed in monetary terms, but rather, is assessed in terms of anything that is of value to the person or persons doing the assessing. ‫ بل يتم تقييمها من حيث أي شيء ذي قيمة‬،‫ال يلزم تقييم تكلفة الفرصة البديلة من الناحية النقدية‬.‫للشخص أو األشخاص الذين يقومون بالتقييم‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬9( ‫صفحة‬ The consideration of opportunity costs is one of the key differences between the concepts of economic cost and accounting cost. ‫يعد النظر في تكاليف الفرصة البديلة أحد االختالفات الرئيسية بين مفهومي التكلفة االقتصادية والتكلفة‬.‫المحاسبية‬ Assessing opportunity costs is fundamental to assessing the true cost of any course of action..‫يعد تقييم تكاليف الفرصة البديلة أمًر ا أساسًيا لتقييم التكلفة الحقيقية ألي مسار عمل‬ The simplest way to estimate the opportunity cost of any single economic decision is to consider, ―What is the next best alternative choice that could be made?‖ The opportunity cost of paying for college fee could be the ability to buy some clothes. ‫إن أبسط طريقة لتقدير تكلفة الفرصة البديلة ألي قرار اقتصادي منفرد هي أن نأخذ في االعتبار "ما‬ ‫هو الخيار البديل التالي األفضل الذي يمكن اتخاذه؟" وقد تكون تكلفة الفرصة البديلة لدفع رسوم الكلية‬.‫هي القدرة على شراء بعض المالبس‬ The opportunity cost of a vacation in the Goa could be the payment for buying a motorbike..‫يمكن أن تكون تكلفة الفرصة البديلة لقضاء إجازة في جوا هي المبلغ المدفوع لشراء دراجة نارية‬ It is to be noted that opportunity cost is not the sum of the available alternatives, but rather of benefit of the best alternative of them. ‫ بل هي االستفادة من البديل‬،‫وتجدر اإلشارة إلى أن تكلفة الفرصة البديلة ليست مجموع البدائل المتاحة‬.‫األفضل منها‬ The concept of opportunity cost can be explained with a diagram that depicts opportunity cost between any two given items produced by a given economy. ‫يمكن شرح مفهوم تكلفة الفرصة البديلة من خالل رسم تخطيطي يصور تكلفة الفرصة البديلة بين أي‬.‫عنصرين محددين ينتجهما اقتصاد معين‬ It is known in economics as the production possibility curve..‫ويعرف في االقتصاد بمنحنى إمكانية اإلنتاج‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬9( ‫صفحة‬ In the imaginary economy discussed above which produces only cars and computers, the economy will be operating on the PPC if all resources (inputs) are fully utilized and used most appropriately (efficiently). ‫ سيعمل‬،‫في االقتصاد الخيالي الذي تمت مناقشته أعاله والذي ينتج السيارات وأجهزة الكمبيوتر فقط‬ ‫) إذا تم استخدام جميع الموارد (المدخالت) بالكامل‬PPC( ‫االقتصاد على قدرة الدفع لكل نقرة‬.)‫واستخدامها بشكل مناسب (بكفاءة‬ The exact combination of cars and computers produced depends on the mechanisms used to decide the allocation of resources ‫ويعتمد المزيج الدقيق من السيارات وأجهزة الكمبيوتر المنتجة على اآلليات المستخدمة لتحديد‬ ‫تخصيص الموارد‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬9( ‫صفحة‬ (i.e., some combination of markets, government, tradition, and community democracy). The concept of opportunity cost has become very popular in the recent years. The modern analysis of cost-benefit analysis is based on the theory of opportunity cost only. The cost-benefit analysis is a guiding tool for entrepreneurial decisions in the modern economy. Although opportunity cost can be hard to quantify, its effect is universal and very real on the individual level. The principle behind the economic concept of opportunity cost applies to all decisions, not just economic. 2. CENTRAL PROBLEMS OF AN ECONOMY Scarcity is the root cause of all economic problems. We know that resources are scarce or short in supply in relation to demand; but wants or ends are unlimited. As a consequence, we face the problem of choice among so many of our wants. This is because scarce means have alternative uses. Thus, we have to choose among the most urgent and less urgent wants. In fact, the basic problem of an economy is the problem of choice. More precisely, problem before us is to take right decisions in regard to the goals or ends to be attained and the way, the scarce means to be utilized for this purpose. Every economy faces some fundamental problems called as central problems of an economy. These are the following: (1) What goods and services are to be produced? The first major problem faced by an economy is what types of goods and services to be produced. As resources are limited, we must choose between different alternative collection of goods and services that may be produced. It may also imply whether to produce capital/producer goods or consumer goods. Moreover, we have to decide about the quantity of the goods to be produced in the economy. (i.e., some combination of markets, government, tradition, and community democracy)..)‫(أي مزيج من األسواق والحكومة والتقاليد والديمقراطية المجتمعية‬ The concept of opportunity cost has become very popular in the recent years..‫أصبح مفهوم تكلفة الفرصة البديلة شائًع ا جًد ا في السنوات األخيرة‬ The modern analysis of cost-benefit analysis is based on the theory of opportunity cost only..‫يعتمد التحليل الحديث لتحليل التكلفة والعائد على نظرية تكلفة الفرصة البديلة فقط‬ The cost-benefit analysis is a guiding tool for entrepreneurial decisions in the modern economy..‫يعد تحليل التكلفة والعائد أداة توجيهية التخاذ قرارات ريادة األعمال في االقتصاد الحديث‬ Although opportunity cost can be hard to quantify, its effect is universal and very real on the individual level. ‫ إال أن تأثيرها عالمي وحقيقي للغاية على المستوى‬،‫على الرغم من صعوبة قياس تكلفة الفرصة البديلة‬.‫الفردي‬ The principle behind the economic concept of opportunity cost applies to all decisions, not just economic. ‫ وليس فقط‬،‫وينطبق المبدأ الكامن وراء المفهوم االقتصادي لتكلفة الفرصة البديلة على جميع القرارات‬.‫االقتصادية‬ CENTRAL PROBLEMS OF AN ECONOMY ‫المشاكل المركزية لالقتصاد‬ Scarcity is the root cause of all economic problems..‫الندرة هي السبب الجذري لجميع المشاكل االقتصادية‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬10( ‫صفحة‬ We know that resources are scarce or short in supply in relation to demand; but wants or ends are unlimited. ‫نحن نعلم أن الموارد شحيحة أو تعاني من نقص في العرض مقارنة بالطلب؛ لكن الرغبات أو الغايات‬.‫غير محدودة‬ As a consequence, we face the problem of choice among so many of our wants..‫ فإننا نواجه مشكلة االختيار بين العديد من رغباتنا‬،‫ونتيجة لذلك‬ This is because scarce means have alternative uses..‫وذلك ألن الوسائل النادرة لها استخدامات بديلة‬ Thus, we have to choose among the most urgent and less urgent wants..‫ علينا أن نختار بين الرغبات األكثر إلحاحا واألقل إلحاحا‬،‫وبالتالي‬ In fact, the basic problem of an economy is the problem of choice..‫ المشكلة األساسية لالقتصاد هي مشكلة االختيار‬،‫في الواقع‬ More precisely, problem before us is to take right decisions in regard to the goals or ends to be attained and the way, the scarce means to be utilized for this purpose. ‫ فإن المشكلة التي تواجهنا هي اتخاذ القرارات الصحيحة فيما يتعلق باألهداف أو الغايات‬،‫وبتعبير أدق‬.‫المراد تحقيقها والطريقة والوسائل النادرة التي يمكن استخدامها لهذا الغرض‬ Every economy faces some fundamental problems called as central problems of an economy..‫يواجه كل اقتصاد بعض المشاكل األساسية التي تسمى المشاكل المركزية لالقتصاد‬ These are the following: (1) What goods and services are to be produced? ‫) ما هي السلع والخدمات التي سيتم إنتاجها؟‬1( :‫وهي ما يلي‬ The first major problem faced by an economy is what types of goods and services to be produced..‫المشكلة الرئيسية األولى التي يواجهها االقتصاد هي أنواع السلع والخدمات التي سيتم إنتاجها‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬10( ‫صفحة‬ As resources are limited, we must choose between different alternative collection of goods and services that may be produced. ‫ يجب علينا االختيار بين مجموعة بديلة مختلفة من السلع والخدمات التي قد‬،‫وبما أن الموارد محدودة‬.‫يتم إنتاجها‬ It may also imply whether to produce capital/producer goods or consumer goods..‫منتجة أو سلع استهالكية‬/‫وقد يعني أيًض ا ما إذا كان سيتم إنتاج سلع رأسمالية‬ Moreover, we have to decide about the quantity of the goods to be produced in the economy..‫ علينا أن نقرر كمية السلع التي سيتم إنتاجها في االقتصاد‬،‫عالوة على ذلك‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬10( ‫صفحة‬ (2) How to produce these goods and services? The next problem we have to tackle is the problem of how to produce the desired goods in the economy. Thus the question of techniques to be used in the production comes in the mind. Whether we should use labour-intensive technique or capital – intensive technique. Labour-intensive method of production implies more use of labour per unit than capital whereas; capital- intensive technique indicates more use of capital per unit than labour. The choice depends on the availability of resources. A labour surplus economy can well use the labour–intensive technology. (3) For whom these goods and services are to be produced? Once we have decided what goods to be produced and what techniques to be used in the production of goods, we are encountered with another problem, i.e., the problem of distribution of goods in the economy. This is the problem of sharing of national income. (4) Are the resources efficiently used? We have also to see that scarce resources are efficiently utilized. This is the problem of economic efficiency or welfare maximization. (5) Are the resources fully employed? An economy must also try to achieve full employment of all its resources. (6) How to attain growth in the economy? An economy is to ensure that it is attaining sufficient growth rate so that it is able to grow larger and larger and develop at faster rate. It should be able not only to make a structural change from agrarian to industrial sector but also to increase per capita and national income of the country. An economy must not remain static. Its productive capacity must increase continuously. It is clear that the basic problem of an economy is the economizing of resources. The economizing problem arises in every type of economic society owing to the fact that resources are scarce in relation to multiple wants/ends. (2) How to produce these goods and services? ‫) كيف يتم إنتاج هذه السلع والخدمات؟‬2( The next problem we have to tackle is the problem of how to produce the desired goods in the economy..‫المشكلة التالية التي يتعين علينا معالجتها هي مشكلة كيفية إنتاج السلع المرغوبة في االقتصاد‬ Thus the question of techniques to be used in the production comes in the mind..‫ومن هنا يتبادر إلى األذهان مسألة التقنيات التي سيتم استخدامها في اإلنتاج‬ Whether we should use labour-intensive technique or capital – intensive technique..‫ما إذا كان ينبغي لنا استخدام تقنية كثيفة العمالة أو تقنية كثيفة رأس المال‬ Labour-intensive method of production implies more use of labour per unit than capital whereas; capital-intensive technique indicates more use of capital per unit than labour. ‫تتضمن طريقة اإلنتاج كثيفة العمالة استخداًم ا أكبر للعمالة لكل وحدة مقارنة برأس المال؛ تشير التقنية‬.‫كثيفة رأس المال إلى استخدام رأس المال لكل وحدة أكثر من استخدام العمالة‬ The choice depends on the availability of resources..‫يعتمد االختيار على توافر الموارد‬ A labour surplus economy can well use the labour–intensive technology..‫يمكن القتصاد فائض العمالة أن يستخدم التكنولوجيا كثيفة العمالة‬ (3) For whom these goods and services are to be produced? ‫) لمن سيتم إنتاج هذه السلع والخدمات؟‬3( @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬11( ‫صفحة‬ Once we have decided what goods to be produced and what techniques to be used in the production of goods, we are encountered with another problem, i.e., the problem of distribution of goods in the economy. ،‫بمجرد أن نقرر ما هي السلع التي سيتم إنتاجها وما هي التقنيات التي سيتم استخدامها في إنتاج السلع‬.‫ أي مشكلة توزيع البضائع في االقتصاد‬،‫فإننا نواجه مشكلة أخرى‬ This is the problem of sharing of national income..‫هذه هي مشكلة تقاسم الدخل القومي‬ (4) Are the resources efficiently used? ‫) هل يتم استخدام الموارد بكفاءة؟‬4( We have also to see that scarce resources are efficiently utilized..‫وعلينا أيًض ا أن نتأكد من استخدام الموارد النادرة بكفاءة‬ This is the problem of economic efficiency or welfare maximization..‫هذه هي مشكلة الكفاءة االقتصادية أو تعظيم الرفاهية‬ (5) Are the resources fully employed? ‫) هل الموارد مستخدمة بالكامل؟‬5( An economy must also try to achieve full employment of all its resources..‫ويجب على االقتصاد أيًض ا أن يحاول تحقيق التوظيف الكامل لجميع موارده‬ (6) How to attain growth in the economy? ‫) كيف يمكن تحقيق النمو في االقتصاد؟‬6( An economy is to ensure that it is attaining sufficient growth rate so that it is able to grow larger and larger and develop at faster rate. ‫يجب على االقتصاد التأكد من أنه يحقق معدل نمو كاٍف حتى يتمكن من النمو بشكل أكبر وأكبر‬.‫ويتطور بمعدل أسرع‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬11( ‫صفحة‬ It should be able not only to make a structural change from agrarian to industrial sector but also to increase per capita and national income of the country. ،‫وينبغي أن تكون قادرة ليس فقط على إجراء تغيير هيكلي من القطاع الزراعي إلى القطاع الصناعي‬.‫ولكن أيضا على زيادة نصيب الفرد والدخل القومي للبلد‬ An economy must not remain static..‫ال ينبغي لالقتصاد أن يظل ثابتا‬ Its productive capacity must increase continuously..‫ويجب أن تتزايد قدرتها اإلنتاجية بشكل مستمر‬ It is clear that the basic problem of an economy is the economizing of resources..‫من الواضح أن المشكلة األساسية لالقتصاد هي االقتصاد في الموارد‬ The economizing problem arises in every type of economic society owing to the fact that resources are scarce in relation to multiple wants/ends. /‫تنشأ مشكلة االقتصاد في كل أنواع المجتمعات االقتصادية بسبب ندرة الموارد فيما يتعلق بالرغبات‬.‫األهداف المتعددة‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬11( ‫صفحة‬ Production Possibility Frontier or Curve (PPF/ PPC): Just as individuals cannot have everything they want and must instead make choices, society as a whole cannot have everything it might want, either. This section will explain the constraints society faces, using a model called the production possibilities frontier (PPF). There are more similarities than differences between individual choice and social choice. Because society has limited resources (e.g., labor, land, capital, raw materials) at any point in time, there is a limit to the quantities of goods and services it can produce. Suppose a society desires two products, healthcare and education. The production possibilities frontier in the next Figure illustrates this situation. In the previous figure A Healthcare vs. Education Production Possibilities Frontier This production possibilities frontier shows a tradeoff between devoting social resources to healthcare and devoting them to education. At A all resources go to healthcare and at B, most go to healthcare. At D most resources go to education, and at F, all go to education. Production Possibility Frontier or Curve (PPF/ PPC): Just as individuals cannot have everything they want and must instead make choices, society as a whole cannot have everything it might want, either. ‫ تماًم ا كما ال يستطيع األفراد الحصول على كل ما‬:)PPF/ PPC( ‫حدود أو منحنى إمكانية اإلنتاج‬ ‫ فإن المجتمع ككل ال يمكن أن يحصل على كل ما قد يريده‬،‫يريدون ويجب عليهم بدًال من ذلك االختيار‬.‫أيًض ا‬ This section will explain the constraints society faces, using a model called the production possibilities frontier (PPF). ‫ باستخدام نموذج يسمى حدود إمكانيات اإلنتاج‬،‫سيشرح هذا القسم القيود التي يواجهها المجتمع‬.)PPF( There are more similarities than differences between individual choice and social choice..‫هناك أوجه تشابه أكثر من االختالفات بين االختيار الفردي واالختيار االجتماعي‬ Because society has limited resources (e.g., labor, land, capital, raw materials) at any point in time, there is a limit to the quantities of goods and services it can produce. ‫نظًر ا ألن المجتمع لديه موارد محدودة (مثل العمالة واألرض ورأس المال والمواد الخام) في أي وقت‬.‫ فهناك حد لكميات السلع والخدمات التي يمكن أن ينتجها‬،‫من األوقات‬ Suppose a society desires two products, healthcare and education..‫ الرعاية الصحية والتعليم‬،‫لنفترض أن المجتمع يرغب في منتجين‬ The production possibilities frontier in the next Figure illustrates this situation..‫وتوضح حدود إمكانيات اإلنتاج في الشكل التالي هذا الوضع‬ In the previous figure A Healthcare vs. Education Production Possibilities Frontier This production possibilities frontier shows a tradeoff between devoting social resources to healthcare and devoting them to education. ‫ حدود إمكانيات اإلنتاج تظهر حدود إمكانيات اإلنتاج‬،‫ الرعاية الصحية مقابل التعليم‬،‫في الشكل السابق‬.‫هذه مقايضة بين تخصيص الموارد االجتماعية للرعاية الصحية وتخصيصها للتعليم‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬12( ‫صفحة‬ ‫‪At A all resources go to healthcare and at B, most go to healthcare.‬‬ ‫في النقطة (أ)‪ ،‬تذهب جميع الموارد إلى الرعاية الصحية وفي النقطة (ب)‪ ،‬تذهب معظم الموارد إلى‬ ‫الرعاية الصحية‪.‬‬ ‫‪At D most resources go to education, and at F, all go to education.‬‬ ‫في ‪ ،D‬تذهب معظم الموارد إلى التعليم‪ ،‬وفي ‪ ،F‬تذهب جميع الموارد إلى التعليم‪.‬‬ ‫صفحة (‪ُ | )12‬ترجمت بواسطة ‪@xFxBot‬‬ The figure shows healthcare on the vertical axis and education on the horizontal axis. If the society were to allocate all of its resources to healthcare, it could produce at point A. However, it would not have any resources to produce education. If it were to allocate all of its resources to education, it could produce at point F. Alternatively, the society could choose to produce any combination of healthcare and education on the production possibilities frontier. Society can choose any combination of the two goods on or inside the PPF. However, it does not have enough resources to produce outside the PPF. Most importantly, the production possibilities frontier clearly shows the tradeoff between healthcare and education. Suppose society has chosen to operate at point B, and it is considering producing more education. Because the PPF is downward sloping from left to right, the only way society can obtain more education is by giving up some healthcare. That is the tradeoff society faces. Suppose it considers moving from point B to point C. What would the opportunity cost be for the additional education? The opportunity cost would be the healthcare society has to forgo. The slope of the production possibilities frontier shows the opportunity cost. The PPF or PPC describes three important concepts: -The concept of scarcity: the society cannot have unlimited quantity of outputs even if it employs all its resources and utilizes them in the best possible way. -The concept of choice: any movement along the curve indicates the change in choice. -The concept of opportunity cost: when the economy produces on the PPF or PPC, production of more of one good requires sacrificing some of another product which is reflected by the downward sloping PPF or PPC. The figure shows healthcare on the vertical axis and education on the horizontal axis..‫ويوضح الشكل الرعاية الصحية على المحور الرأسي والتعليم على المحور األفقي‬ If the society were to allocate all of its resources to healthcare, it could produce at point A..‫ فإنه يمكن أن ينتج عند النقطة أ‬،‫إذا خصص المجتمع كل موارده للرعاية الصحية‬ However, it would not have any resources to produce education..‫ لن يكون لديها أي موارد إلنتاج التعليم‬،‫ومع ذلك‬ If it were to allocate all of its resources to education, it could produce at point F. Alternatively, the society could choose to produce any combination of healthcare and education on the production possibilities frontier. ‫ يمكن للمجتمع‬،‫ وبدًال من ذلك‬.F ‫ فيمكنه اإلنتاج عند النقطة‬،‫إذا خصص المجتمع كل موارده للتعليم‬.‫أن يختار إنتاج أي مزيج من الرعاية الصحية والتعليم على حدود إمكانيات اإلنتاج‬ Society can choose any combination of the two goods on or inside the PPF..‫ أو داخله‬PPF ‫يمكن للمجتمع اختيار أي مجموعة من السلعتين في‬ However, it does not have enough resources to produce outside the PPF..PPF ‫ ليس لديها ما يكفي من الموارد لإلنتاج خارج‬،‫ومع ذلك‬ Most importantly, the production possibilities frontier clearly shows the tradeoff between healthcare and education..‫ أن حدود إمكانيات اإلنتاج تظهر بوضوح المقايضة بين الرعاية الصحية والتعليم‬،‫واألهم من ذلك‬ Suppose society has chosen to operate at point B, and it is considering producing more education..‫ وأنه يفكر في إنتاج المزيد من التعليم‬،‫لنفترض أن المجتمع قد اختار العمل عند النقطة ب‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬13( ‫صفحة‬ Because the PPF is downward sloping from left to right, the only way society can obtain more education is by giving up some healthcare. ‫ فإن الطريقة الوحيدة التي يمكن للمجتمع‬،‫ ينحدر نحو األسفل من اليسار إلى اليمين‬PPF ‫ونظًر ا ألن‬.‫من خاللها الحصول على المزيد من التعليم هي التخلي عن بعض الرعاية الصحية‬ That is the tradeoff society faces..‫هذه هي المقايضة التي يواجهها المجتمع‬ Suppose it considers moving from point B to point C. What would the opportunity cost be for the additional education? ‫ ما هي تكلفة الفرصة البديلة للتعليم‬.‫لنفترض أنها تفكر في االنتقال من النقطة ب إلى النقطة ج‬ ‫اإلضافي؟‬ The opportunity cost would be the healthcare society has to forgo.The slope of the production possibilities frontier shows the opportunity cost. ‫ يظهر منحدر حدود‬.‫تكلفة الفرصة البديلة هي التي يجب على مجتمع الرعاية الصحية أن يتخلى عنها‬.‫إمكانيات اإلنتاج تكلفة الفرصة البديلة‬ The PPF or PPC describes three important concepts: -The concept of scarcity: the society cannot have unlimited quantity of outputs even if it employs all its resources and utilizes them in the best possible way. ‫ ال يمكن للمجتمع أن يحصل على كمية غير‬:‫ مفهوم الندرة‬- :‫ ثالثة مفاهيم مهمة‬PPC ‫ أو‬PPF ‫يصف‬.‫محدودة من المخرجات حتى لو قام بتوظيف جميع موارده واستغاللها بأفضل طريقة ممكنة‬ -The concept of choice: any movement along the curve indicates the change in choice..‫ أي حركة على طول المنحنى تشير إلى التغير في االختيار‬:‫ مفهوم االختيار‬- @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬13( ‫صفحة‬ -The concept of opportunity cost: when the economy produces on the PPF or PPC, production of more of one good requires sacrificing some of another product which is reflected by the downward sloping PPF or PPC. ‫ فإن إنتاج أكثر من سلعة‬،PPC ‫ أو‬PPF ‫ عندما ينتج االقتصاد على‬:‫ مفهوم تكلفة الفرصة البديلة‬- ‫ أو‬PPF ‫واحدة يتطلب التضحية ببعض المنتجات األخرى وهو ما ينعكس في االنحدار الهبوطي‬.PPC @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬13( ‫صفحة‬ - All points on the PPF or PPC are attainable and efficient. - All points inside PPF or PPC is attainable but inefficient. - All point outside PPF or PPC is unattainable. Why Society Must Choose We learned that every society faces the problem of scarcity, where limited resources conflict with unlimited needs and wants. The production possibilities curve illustrates the choices involved in this dilemma. Every economy faces two situations in which it may be able to expand consumption of all goods. In the first case, a society may discover that it has been using its resources inefficiently, in which case by improving efficiency and producing on the production possibilities frontier, it can have more of all goods (or at least more of some and less of none). In the second case, as resources grow over a period of years (e.g., more labor and more capital), the economy grows. As it does, the production possibilities frontier for a society will tend to shift outward and society will be able to afford more of all goods. In addition, over time, improvements in technology can increase the level of production with given resources, and hence push out the PPF. Economic growth is represented by outward shift of the PPF or PPC. Figure shows Economic growths with a new PPF or PPC Shirts New PPF or PPC Old PPF or PPC All points on the PPF or PPC are attainable and efficient..‫ قابلة للتحقيق وفعالة‬PPC ‫ أو‬PPF ‫جميع النقاط الموجودة في‬ All points inside PPF or PPC is attainable but inefficient..‫ يمكن تحقيقها ولكنها غير فعالة‬PPC ‫ أو‬PPF ‫جميع النقاط داخل‬ All point outside PPF or PPC is unattainable..‫ ال يمكن الوصول إليها‬PPC ‫ أو‬PPF ‫كل نقطة خارج‬ Why Society Must Choose ‫لماذا يجب على المجتمع أن يختار‬ We learned that every society faces the problem of scarcity, where limited resources conflict with unlimited needs and wants. ‫ حيث تتعارض الموارد المحدودة مع االحتياجات‬،‫وتعلمنا أن كل مجتمع يواجه مشكلة الندرة‬.‫والرغبات غير المحدودة‬ The production possibilities curve illustrates the choices involved in this dilemma..‫يوضح منحنى إمكانيات اإلنتاج االختيارات المتضمنة في هذه المعضلة‬ Every economy faces two situations in which it may be able to expand consumption of all goods..‫يواجه كل اقتصاد حالتين قد يتمكن فيهما من توسيع استهالك جميع السلع‬ In the first case, a society may discover that it has been using its resources inefficiently, in which case by improving efficiency and producing on the production possibilities frontier, it can have more of all goods (or at least more of some and less of none). ‫ من‬،‫ وفي هذه الحالة‬،‫ قد يكتشف المجتمع أنه كان يستخدم موارده بشكل غير فعال‬،‫في الحالة األولى‬ ‫ يمكن أن يحصل على المزيد من جميع‬،‫خالل تحسين الكفاءة واإلنتاج على حدود إمكانيات اإلنتاج‬.).)‫السلع (أو على األقل أكثر من بعضها وأقل من ال شيء‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬14( ‫صفحة‬ In the second case, as resources grow over a period of years (e.g., more labor and more capital), the economy grows. ‫ المزيد من العمالة‬،‫ مع نمو الموارد على مدى فترة من السنوات (على سبيل المثال‬،‫وفي الحالة الثانية‬.‫ ينمو االقتصاد‬،)‫والمزيد من رأس المال‬ As it does, the production possibilities frontier for a society will tend to shift outward and society will be able to afford more of all goods. ‫ وسيكون‬،‫ فإن حدود إمكانيات اإلنتاج للمجتمع سوف تميل إلى التحول إلى الخارج‬،‫وبينما يحدث ذلك‬.‫المجتمع قادًر ا على تحمل المزيد من جميع السلع‬ In addition, over time, improvements in technology can increase the level of production with given resources, and hence push out the PPF. ‫ يمكن للتحسينات في التكنولوجيا أن تزيد من مستوى اإلنتاج‬،‫ مع مرور الوقت‬،‫باإلضافة إلى ذلك‬.‫ إلى الخارج‬PPF ‫ وبالتالي دفع‬،‫بموارد معينة‬ Economic growth is represented by outward shift of the PPF or PPC..PPC ‫ أو‬PPF ‫يتم تمثيل النمو االقتصادي من خالل التحول الخارجي لـ‬ Figure shows Economic growths with a new PPF or PPC ‫ الجديد‬PPC ‫ أو‬PPF ‫يوضح الشكل النمو االقتصادي باستخدام‬ Shirts ‫قمصان‬ New PPF or PPC PPC ‫ جديد أو‬PPF Old PPF or PPC PPC ‫ القديم أو‬PPF @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬14( ‫صفحة‬ However, improvements in productive efficiency take time to discover and implement, and economic growth happens only gradually. Thus, a society must choose between tradeoffs in the present. For government, this process often involves trying to identify where additional spending could do the most good and where reductions in spending would do the least harm. At the individual and firm level, the market economy coordinates a process in which firms seek to produce goods and services in the quantity, quality, and price that people want. However, for both the government and the market economy in the short term, increases in production of one good typically mean offsetting decreases somewhere else in the economy. *The Major Economic Problems Economic problems arise because human wants are unlimited whilst the resources available to satisfy such wants are limited. If an economy were to have unlimited wants and unlimited resources, there would be no need to study Economics! Moreover, there would be no economic problems because the economy would be able to satisfy all its wants from the available resources. Economic resources are not only limited but also have many competing ends. Consequently, every economy is faced with three core problems: what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce. Let us look at each problem in turn. 1. What to Produce? What to produce refers to those goods and services and the quantity of each that the economy should produce. Since resources are scarce or limited, no economy can produce as much of every goods or services desired by all members of the society. More of goods or services usually However, improvements in productive efficiency take time to discover and implement, and economic growth happens only gradually. ‫ وال يحدث النمو‬،‫ فإن اكتشاف التحسينات في الكفاءة اإلنتاجية وتنفيذها يستغرق وقًتا‬،‫ومع ذلك‬.‫االقتصادي إال بشكل تدريجي‬ Thus, a society must choose between tradeoffs in the present..‫ يجب على المجتمع أن يختار بين المفاضالت في الوقت الحاضر‬،‫وبالتالي‬ For government, this process often involves trying to identify where additional spending could do the most good and where reductions in spending would do the least harm. ‫ غالًبا ما تتضمن هذه العملية محاولة تحديد المواضع التي يمكن أن يحقق فيها اإلنفاق‬،‫بالنسبة للحكومة‬.‫ والمجاالت التي قد يؤدي فيها خفض اإلنفاق إلى أقل قدر من الضرر‬،‫اإلضافي أكبر قدر من الفائدة‬ At the individual and firm level, the market economy coordinates a process in which firms seek to produce goods and services in the quantity, quality, and price that people want. ‫ يقوم اقتصاد السوق بتنسيق العملية التي تسعى الشركات من خاللها‬،‫وعلى مستوى األفراد والشركات‬.‫إلى إنتاج السلع والخدمات بالكمية والجودة والسعر الذي يريده الناس‬ However, for both the government and the market economy in the short term, increases in production of one good typically mean offsetting decreases somewhere else in the economy. ‫ فإن الزيادات في إنتاج سلعة‬،‫ بالنسبة لكل من الحكومة واقتصاد السوق على المدى القصير‬،‫ومع ذلك‬.‫واحدة تعني عادًة انخفاضات معادلة في مكان آخر في االقتصاد‬ *The Major Economic Problems Economic problems arise because human wants are unlimited whilst the resources available to satisfy such wants are limited. ‫* المشاكل االقتصادية الكبرى تنشأ المشاكل االقتصادية ألن الرغبات البشرية غير محدودة في حين‬.‫أن الموارد المتاحة لتلبية هذه الرغبات محدودة‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬15( ‫صفحة‬ If an economy were to have unlimited wants and unlimited resources, there would be no need to study Economics! ‫ فلن تكون هناك حاجة لدراسة‬،‫إذا كان لالقتصاد احتياجات غير محدودة وموارد غير محدودة‬ !‫االقتصاد‬ Moreover, there would be no economic problems because the economy would be able to satisfy all its wants from the available resources. ‫ لن تكون هناك مشاكل اقتصادية ألن االقتصاد سيكون قادرًا على تلبية جميع‬،‫عالوة على ذلك‬.‫احتياجاته من الموارد المتاحة‬ Economic resources are not only limited but also have many competing ends..‫ بل لها أيضا العديد من الغايات المتنافسة‬،‫إن الموارد االقتصادية ليست محدودة فحسب‬ Consequently, every economy is faced with three core problems: what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce..‫ ولمن ننتج‬،‫ وكيف ننتج‬،‫ ماذا ننتج‬:‫ يواجه كل اقتصاد ثالث مشاكل أساسية‬،‫وبالتالي‬ Let us look at each problem in turn..‫دعونا ننظر إلى كل مشكلة على حدة‬ What to Produce?