Prelims Exam Reviewer PDF

01 DEFINITION AND VIEWS OF LANGUAGE * HELPING – help the main verb to express tense, mood, voice (do, have, may) Language – spoken, written 4. Culture – shaped - use for communication...

01 DEFINITION AND VIEWS OF LANGUAGE * HELPING – help the main verb to express tense, mood, voice (do, have, may) Language – spoken, written 4. Culture – shaped - use for communication - language is intertwined with culture - linguistic / speech / cognitive ability LANGUAGE DEFINITIONS 2 PARTS OF SENTENCES 1. Verbal Communication Subject – what / whom the sentence is 2. Cognitive Ability about 3. Linguistic Communication Predicate – tells something about the 4. Culture-shaped subject - shows / describe 1. Verbal Communication - contains verbs - production and reception of sounds > NOISE – barrier / interference that Articles – comes before a noun hinders the success of communication * Definite – THE > COMMUNICATION PROCESS * Indefinite – A, an LANGUAGE VIEWS 1. Structuralist View 2. Transformationalist View 3. Functionalist View 4. Interactionist View 1. Structuralist View - specific framework - claims that acquiring language involves > ONE-WAY COMMUNICATION assembling all the components due to Sender – channel – receiver their interconnected nature - language system is semiotic > TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION - a tool for communication, involves To have feedback spoken expression, arbitrary elements > MAJOR LEVELS OF LINGUISTIC STRUCTURE 2. Cognitive Ability (Mental Process) - adapt, acquire language - curse words / gay lingo > INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION - talks to oneself 3. Linguistic Communication - every aspect of words is important - parts of speech (adjective, noun, adverb, pronoun) > VERB – describes what the subject of a sentence is doing * ACTION – physical actions (cry, jump, eat, kick) * LINKING – describes the subject (is, has) > Constructive Criticism – sharpen the 02 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTCS OF mastery of students LANGUAGE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 2. Transformationalist View 1. Language as something learnt - can be related to culture – shaped 2. related to the culture of society - mental, innate, universal, and creative 3. species-specific, uniformed, and - create a game using language or unique to humans design a pop-art and explain their 4. system designs 5. vocal - a system for free expression of thought 6. skill subject (Chomsky, 1980) 7. means for communication > MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES 8. arbitrary - ALL humans are capable of mastering a language if interested to learn 1. Language as something learnt -through exposure (speech community) 3. Functionalist View and practice (desired and required to - interaction based on reasons and learn) scenarios - more than a set of sentences, “it is a 2. Language as related to the culture of text, a discourse, an exchange of society meanings in an interpersonal context” - adaptation of language - fully realized when it is employed in - adjust to community where he belongs practical communication 3. Language as species-specific, 4. Interactionist View uniformed, and unique to humans - Cognitive Ability - sort of identity - social learning theory of Lev Vygotsky - humans genetically inherited language - social interactions make a person master the language 4. Language as a system - language learning is an active process - needs analysis and is done through social interaction - system of spoken and written symbols in - foreigner, children which abstract figures concretely represent - system of non-verbal signs 5. Language as Vocal - Speech is primary, writing is secondary - a system of spoken and written symbols > 5 MACRO SKILLS 6. Language as a skill subject > NON – INSTINCTIVE – not biologically - learning is acquiring skills automated but culturally determined - macro skills are categorized into receptive and expressive language skills 2. Productivity and Creativity - link meaning to words given as long as other people can understand it - fixed to create new expression 3. Duality - phonology (sound system) and meaning (semantic and pragmatic) > SEMANTICS – literal meaning > PRAGMATICS – contextual 4. Displacement - humans can recall what happened - can look yourself in the future - create stories particularly fiction 7. Language as a means for 5. Humanness communication - only humans can learn English language - no message is a message - greatest form of intelligent interaction 6. Universality - goal is to send info - language have a basic word order - different set of rules (grammar, linguistic 8. Language as arbitrary aspects) - meanings are existed as they are and agreed upon by many > PARALINGUISTIC – volume, speech, 03 LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS tone - how we used language > CONVENTIONAL – meanings that are - consider who are involved standard > CONSENSUAL – meanings given by group of people 3 MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE 1. General Functions of Language 2. Jakobson CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE 3. Halliday 1. Conventional and Non - Instinctive 2. Productivity and Creativity 3. Duality GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE 4. Displacement 1. Interpersonal Function 5. Humanness 2. Informative Function 6. Universality 3. Performative Function 4. Expressive Function 1. Conventional and Non – Instinctive - it expands and transforms 1. Interpersonal - adapts with the change of time - unplanned communication - Fulfills the human needs to exchange - adopt particular language (no choice, experiences since humans are social required to do so) beings - to connect with other people - “Let us talk.” JAKOBSON’S FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE - “Come with me.” - Verbal communication is done through - “Join me here.” your voice, physiological organ (lungs, pharynx, vocal cords) 2. Informative Function 1. Referential Function - does not confirm or reject propositions 2. Emotive Function - uses declarative sentences 3. Conative Function - use to inform/give further emphasis to 4. Phatic Function the known information 5. Metalingual Function - Humans are capable of love. 6. Poetic Function - “50% to all items this coming 11.11” - “Announcements” 3. Performative Function - use to do things / perform / reports an action - actions need to be performed / done - I do. - I accept. 1. Referential Function - I apologize. - CONTEXT - I promise. - references an information/cognitive Emphatic verb - denotative (mental state) - Emphasizes verb - description, contextual information - Action will be done - concerned with the content - I do love you - The sun rises from the east and sets into the west. 4. Expressive Function - Our business hours are 9am-5pm, - express thoughts, feelings, emotions to Monday through Friday. others. - reports attitudes and emotions 2. Emotive Function - personal / detailed - SENDER / ADDRESSER - “You are such a happy pill.” - expression of emotional / internal state - “This is great” - reaction / initial expression of feelings - “You are great” - similar to expressive, but expressive is - “I love Princess Aurora so much.” more formal while emotive is an initial reaction. - Ouch - Yuck - Wow - Awesome! - Whew! 3. Conative Function 6. Poetic Function - RECEIVER / ADDRESSEE - MESSAGE - causing / preventing an action - focuses on the message and its - command / fulfill a request aesthetic presentation. - imperative sentences - involves choosing words carefully - PERFORMATIVE - descriptive language - “Come in and join the class.” - richness of language - “Run.” - literatures - “Can you show John where to find the - But, soft! paper clips?” - What light through yonder window - “Go on, open it!” breaks? - “Get out of here.” 4. Phatic Function HALLIDAY’S METAFUNCTION OF - CHANNEL / CONTACT LANGUAGE - a bridge to connect receiver and sender Textual - checking of the channel if it is still intact - discontinue conversation - “Are you still listening?” Interpersonal - “Can you hear me?” Ideational - “Hi or Hello?” - “Ok.” - “Bye.” 1. Ideational Function - “How are you?” - express ideas / experiences - “Really?” - involves the natural world and human - “No way!” consciousness - creating / maintaining a notion of 5. Metalingual Function experience which is both experiential and - CODE logical - requires language analysis - the way you choose words - self – reference - combine words to create clauses and - bridge people / common sense phrases to form sentences - use language to discuss language - Noun, adjective 2. Interpersonal Function - Code switching – let students finish first - shows that language does not only then back to mother tongue interpret experiences but also as a - Mixing – 2 languages vehicle to interact - Water is a non-count noun, right? 3. Textual Function - language is used to interpret experience, and interact but remember the context MICRO – FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE 4. Personal Function - Pragmatic - ‘Here I come’ 1. Instrumental - express personal opinions / attitudes 2. Regulatory - “I am a good girl.” 3. Interactional - “I am here for you,” 4. Personal - “And… I’ve got a dog!” - Mathematical - “I know that song ‘cause we sang it at 5. Imaginative Kindergarten.” 6. Heuristic 7. Representational MATHEMATICAL - used to help a person come to terms PRAGMATIC with his / her physical atmosphere - fulfill social, physical, and emotional needs 5. Imaginative - “Let’s pretend...” 1. Instrumental Function - creating stories, games, and new worlds - ‘I want’ feeling - not necessarily ‘about’ things - express people’s needs or to get things - Out of reality done - “Once upon a time...” - getting things done - “Let’s allow our mind to ruin the wild.” - Turn off lights after use - “Does this hurt when I bend it?” - “I want a banana!” 6. Heuristic 2. Regulatory Function - ‘Tell me more / why / how’ - ‘Do as I tell you’ - seek for learning / need more info - influencing the behavior, feelings, - “How plants make their food.” attitudes of others - “Why?” - Command someone to do something - “We could make a water thing to tell includes persuade / request how much rain we got.” - “Stay with me.” - “You mustn’t take things that don’t 7. Representational belong to you.” - ‘I’ve got something to tell you’ - communicating information 3. Interactional Function - some with referential and informative - ‘Me and you’ - “I will tell you that.” - opening a conversation - “I made these earrings with pink and - getting along with others purple beads!” - Would you mind…? - “It is raining really heavy and heavy all - Excuse me, where is…? day.” - “Thank you!” - “Are you new here?” - “Can I please have a go after you?” - “Do you like cricket too Henry?”  04 BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS 2. Phonetics - study of speech sounds and their MICRO – LINGUISTICS physiological production and acoustic > HOW LANGUAGE WORKS qualities > theoretical / general linguistics - how human produce sounds through - Phonology physiological organ - Morphology - bicycle > baysikol - Syntax - "The word 'sheep' is pronounced with a - Semantics voiceless fricative at the beginning and a - Pragmatics voiced stop at the end." - Discourse Analysis 3. Morphology - prefix / suffix MACRO – LINGUISTICS Meanings can change by adding letters HOW LANGUAGE IS BEING USED for words to form - Sociolinguistics - MORPHEME – smallest unit of a word - Psycholinguistics - study of the English word "unhappiness," - Computational which is formed by adding the prefix "un-" - Historical to the word "happiness." - Comparative - Structural 4. Syntax - Biolinguistics - deals with arrangement of clauses and - Applied phrases to form sentences - Clinical - subject – verb – object - Developmental - The cat chased the mouse - Linguistic Typology - Neurolinguistics 5. Semantics - Stylistics - Literal meaning / implied - Etymology - reference and sense - study the different meanings of the word MICRO – LINGUISTIC "run," or the ways in which words can 1. Phonology have multiple meanings depending on - sound system the context in which they are used - different meanings of the word "bank," - factors of sound which can refer to a financial institution or - correct way to pronounce the side of a river - PHONEMES – smallest unit of sound - study the different ways in which the "s" 6. Pragmatics sound is used in English, such as the - contextual difference between the "s" sound in "cats" - can have unintended meaning and "dogs," or the ways in which vowel sounds change depending on the - convey politeness or sarcasm surrounding sounds - “For sale: Baby and Toddlers” - The rules for combining these sounds to form the word "cats" 7. Discourse Analysis - examines of his words to understand words - how sentences in spoken and written 5.Comparative Linguistics language form larger meaningful units - comparing languages to establish their “'That's not true, you're just trying to similarities and differences especially in mislead the voters.'" identifying whether or not they have a common ancestral language LEXICAL – vocabulary words - changes of language - study of the similarities and differences MACRO – LINGUISTIC between closely related languages, such 1. Social Linguistics as English and German - shaped by the social nature of human beings 6. Structural Linguistics - dialect / personal POV / social status - based on theories and principles that - “YOU” - different levels of politeness that language is composed of structural units are used depending on the social status such as lexical and syntactic elements of the person you are speaking to. - forms of systems / prescribed grammar - "The cat sat on the mat" has a specific 2. Psycholinguistics structure that can be analyzed using - interrelation between linguistic and structural linguistics. The sentence psychological factors that enable consists of a subject ("the cat"), a verb humans to understand, acquire, and use ("sat"), a preposition ("on"), and an object ("the mat"). language - factors: stressors, motivation, happiness, 7. Biolinguistics sadness - evolution of language - when we hear a sentence, our brain - natural sciences processes it in a series of steps. - researchers in biolinguistics might study 3. Computational Linguistics the genetic basis of language disorders, - application of computer science in the such as stuttering or dyslexia, to better analysis of language and speech and understand the biological mechanisms other linguistic studies that underlie language production and - machine translation / chat bots comprehension. - Google Translate - speech recognition system (Siri, Alexa) 8. Applied Linguistics - real – life application such as in 4. Historical Linguistics language teaching and learning - study of language, change or change - work with a government to develop a of a group of languages over time, language policy that promotes including phonological, grammatical, multilingualism and semantic changes - old to modern linguistics 9. Clinical Linguistics - English word “father” is similar to the - involves description, analysis, and German word “Vater” and the Latin word treatment of language disabilities and “pater”, which suggests that these words disorder such as speech pathology, are related and have a common autism ancestor. - patient who suffered from stroke, use LEXICAL – relating to words or other linguistic theory to develop a treatment vocabulary of a language as plan distinguished from its grammar and construction 10. Developmental Linguistics - How children acquire language in MORPHEMES – smallest unit of childhood grammatical or semantic meaning in a - how children acquire the rules of language grammar - how they learn to produce and PHONEMES – smallest class of sounds that comprehend complex sentences leads in a specific language to different in meaning 11. Linguistics Typology - describing the diversity of the languages SYNTAX – came from the Greek word in the world especially in terms of their syntaxis means arrangement properties and structures - study the different ways in which languages express tense or aspect - different ways in which they form plurals 12. Neurolinguistics - analyze the different brain functions and mechanisms that are related to language comprehension, production, and acquisition - deals with mind / brain / neurons - study how different areas of the brain are involved in language production and comprehension - how language is affected by brain damage or disease 13. Stylistics - studies the different authors and writers, especially their writing styles - tone / voice / literary language - study the language used in advertising, or the language used in literary texts 14. Etymology - focuses on the inception and evolution of words - study the history of the English word "apple," tracing its origins back to the Old English word "æppel" and the Proto- Germanic word "aplaz 05 LINGUISTICS THEORIES AND MODELS MONITOR MODEL LINGUISTICS THEORIES 1. Behaviorism 2. Nativism / Innatism LINGUISTIC MODELS 1. Monitor Model 2. Communicative Competence Model Behaviorism - behaviorists believe that for language learning to occur, imitation, drills, and COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE MODEL constant practice are very important 1. Grammatical Competence - language teachers must be proficient 2. Sociolinguistic Competence enough or possess native-like fluency 3. Discourse Competence 4. Strategic Competence Nativism / Innatism The “LAD” by Chomsky, 1965 Language Acquiring Device inborn brain structure that is supposed to function as a congenital device for learning symbolic language Interactionism - both biological and social components - Lev Wygotsky social interaction theory, which states that children’s language development is a by – product of children’s social interactions with the important people in their lives, more specifically, their parents and immediate Grammatical Competence – producing is more knowledgeable others (MKOs) a structured comprehensible utterance (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, - children can only do so much with their spelling) own ability (zone of actual development), but with the social Sociolinguistic Competence – using environment surrounding them, help and socially – determined cultural codes in support from their parents, peers, and meaningful ways, often learned teachers (MKO’s), they can soar to “appropriacy” (formal or informal ways of greater heights and achieve great things greeting) (zone of proximal development) Discourse Competence – shaping SYNCHRONIC VS. DIACHRONIC language and communication purposefully in different genres (text types), using cohesion (structural linking) and coherence (meaningful relationships in language) Strategic Competence – enhancing the effectiveness of communication (deliberate speech), and compensating for breakdowns in communication (comprehension checks, paraphrase, conversion fillers) 06 DISTINCTIONS OF LINGUISTIC APPROACHES 1. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 2. Synchronic vs. Diachronic LANGUAGE VS. PAROLE 3. Language vs. Parole 4. Language Competence vs. Language Performance 5. Etic vs. Emic 6. Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic 7. Speech vs. Writing DESCRIPTIVE VS. PRESCRIPTIVE Language Competence vs. Language Performance Competence – person’s knowledge of his language Performance – seen as a set of specific utterances produced by native speaker Etic vs. Emic Etic – denotes the description of a particular language or language culture that is generally objective in perspective and non-structural Emic – involves speech acts and SPEECH VS. WRITING situations that are confirmed as real, as perceived by the speech community, instead of the observations of the Speech Writing investigators and study Spontaneous and Time lag between instant production and reception Looser construction Organized and Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic compact expression - introduced by Saussure (1974) to due to careful distinguish two kinds of signifiers: sentence structure, punctuation, Syntagmatic – concerns positioning formatting - phonetics, morphology, syntax Repetition Rephrasing Paradigmatic – other concerns Superfluous comments substitution (“you know…”) (“you see….”) - semantics, pragmatics Sentence boundaries are often unclear Syntagmatic Relation – describes the dimensions of language in a horizontal Informal vocabulary – Formal vocabulary – mode such as sequential orders of contractions, words which are not phones in the world PEN nonsense vocabulary, normally used in obscenity and slang speaker language - linear order of morpheme in the word (long chemical names) Paradigmatic Relation – describes the Lengthy coordinated Long, balanced relation of the linguistic elements of the sentences sentences language outside the utterance “I am here” – viewed as not a set of words or grammatical unit but a meaningful utterance specifying the speakers as “I” who is at a certain location “here”