Prelim ANAPHY PDF

TOPIC 1: THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION An Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy Greek word ana = part and tomy = to cut study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts and their relationship to one another Physiology Physio = nature and ology = study of study...

TOPIC 1: THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION An Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy Greek word ana = part and tomy = to cut study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts and their relationship to one another Physiology Physio = nature and ology = study of study the way in which a living organism or bodily part functions Anatomy: Types of Study 1. Embryology first 8 weeks of development sperm and egg meet 2. Development Biology complete development 3. Gross Anatomy large structures easily observable can be easily seen by the naked eye 4. Systematic Anatomy structure of specific systems of the body 11 organ system study of the body by systems such as the cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and muscular systems. 5. Regional Anatomy study of the organization of the body by areas such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all systems are studied simultaneously specific regions of the body 6. Surface Anatomy surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy -> external structures study of external features, such as the bony projections which serves as landmarks for locating deeper structures 7. Microscopic Anatomy very small structures can only be with a microscope 8. Cell Biology cellular structures and functions 9. Histology Tissues Types of Tissues: connective - tissue supports other tissues and binds them together (bone, blood, and lymph tissues)  epithelial - tissue provides a covering (skin, the linings of the various passages inside the body) muscle - tissue includes striated (also called voluntary) muscles that move the skeleton, and smooth muscle, such as the muscles that surround the stomach nervous - tissue made up of nerve cells (neurons) and is used to carry "messages" to and from various parts of the body Physiology: Types of Study 1. Neurophysiology functional properties of nerve cells 2. Endocrinology hormones and how they control the body functions 3. Cardiovascular Physiology functions of the heart and blood vessels 4. Immunology body's defense against disease the study of immune system 5. Respiratory Physiology the organs and structures in your body to pull in oxygen for your body's cells and get rid of carbon dioxide, a waste product functions of the air passageways and lungs exchange of gases oxygen -> carbon dioxide 6. Renal Physiology the study of the physiology of the kidney this encompasses all functions of the kidney maintains acid-base balance regulate air blood pressure filtering impurities from the blood Levels of Structural Organization atoms = molecule 1. Chemical level (lowest / basic) - atoms form / combined to form molecules 2. Cellular level (cells) - basic unit of life - cells are made up of molecules 3. Tissue level - tissues consists of similar types of cells 4. Organ level - made up of different types of tissues 5. Organ system level - consists of different organs that work together closely 6. Organismal level - human organism are made up of many organ systems The 11 Organ System Overview 1. Integumentary System mainly for protection forms the external body covering skin protects deeper tissue from injury synthesizes vitamin D  location of cutaneous nerve receptors thermoregulation -> control temperature by producing sweat regulates the temperature -> 37°C (normal body temperature) 2. Skeletal System bones, cartilages, ligaments, joints protects and supports body organs provides attachment for movement site of blood cell formation (Hematopoiesis) stores minerals and lipids (fats) = calcium ligaments = attached bone = made up of minerals BONE MARROW = produce blood 3. Muscular System allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression the mobility of the body as a whole reflects the activity of skeletal muscles maintains posture produces heat 3 Types: Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth Muscle 4. Nervous System (control system of the body) the body's fast-acting control system it consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors responds to internal and external change activates muscles and glands 5. Endocrine System controls body activities endocrine glands produce chemical molecules called hormones endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal, ovaries, and testes Secretes regulatory hormones: Growth, Reproductive, Metabolism 6. Cardiovascular System Oxygen, Nutrients, Hormones, Carbon Dioxide, Wastes transport materials in the body via blood pumped by heart transport nutrients, oxygen in the body the primary organs are the heart and blood vessels 7. Lymphatic System lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphoid organs returns proteins and fluids of blood vessels disposes debris involved immunity 8. Respiratory System for exchange gases keep the body constantly supplied with oxygen removes carbon dioxide 9. Digestive System  breakdown foods allows for nutrient absorption into blood eliminates indigestible material mouth = mechanical digestion intestines = chemical digestion 10. Urinary System eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the blood and flushes them from the body in urine maintains acid-base balance regulates water and electrolytes (salts) 11. Reproductive System mammary glands (in breasts) production of offspring development and nourishment of a new individual production of reproductive hormones Maintaining Life 1. Maintaining boundaries "inside" remains distinct from its "outside" > serves as protection a. Cell is surrounded by an external membrane that prevents entry of some substances b. Body is enclosed by the integumentary system 2. Movement (Muscular System) all the activities promoted by the muscular system and manipulating the external environment (locomotion) movement of substances (blood, foodstuffs, urine) 3. Responsiveness (Irritability) ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and reacts to them nervous system bears the major responsibility for responsiveness > fast reaction or responds to survival 4. Digestion (Digestive System) process of breaking down ingested food into simple molecules that can be then absorbed into the blood 5. Metabolism (chemical reaction of the body) chemical reactions within the body depends on the digestive and respiratory system regulated mainly by hormones a. Catabolism - breakdown of larger molecules (gives off energy) b. Anabolism - synthesis of larger molecules (requires energy) 6. Excretion (Removable) process of removing excreta (wastes) from the body digestive system rids the body of indigestible food residues in feces the urinary system disposes of nitrogen - containing metabolic wastes in urine 7. Reproduction formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair or replacement production of future generations (reproductive system)  the functions of the reproductive system is regulated very precisely by hormones of the endocrine system 8. Growth increasing cell size and number hormones play a major role in directing growth Survival Needs the goal of nearly all the body systems is to maintain life 1. Nutrients (food): carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals 2. Oxygen: required by the chemical reactions that release energy from foods 3. Water: provides the fluid base for body secretions and excretions 4. Normal Body Temperature: 37°C (98°F), must be maintained 5. Appropriate Atmospheric Pressure: force exerted on the surface of the body by the weight of air (breathing and exchange of O2 and CO2) HOMEOSTASIS (unchanging) Homeo = the same; stasis = standing still maintenance of a stable internal environment = a dynamic state of equilibrium (balance) must maintained for normal body functioning and to sustain life the body's ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world is continuously changing Important aspects: maintaining body fluids (ex. blood) Homeostatic Imbalance a distance in homeostasis resulting in diseases (external and internal environment, physiological stress) most cases are mild and temporary / intense and prolonged Regulating Systems of the Body Nervous System the body's primary control system it is responsible for transmitting messages between different parts of the body and the brain Endocrine System is a collection of glands that produce hormones, which are chemical messenger that regulates various bodily functions Immune System is the body's defense against foreign invaders, such as bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens Feedback System cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, reevaluated, and so on. 2 Types of Feedback System:  1. Negative Feedback includes homeostatic control mechanism shuts off the original stimulus reduce its intensity does not prevent variable but maintains variables within normal range 2. Positive Feedback increase the original stimulus pushing the variable farther not directly used for homeostasis only occurs in blood clothing and birth of a baby generally associated with injury, diseases Stimulus - produces changes in variable Receptor - detects changes Input - information sent along afferent pathway to control center Output - information sent along efferent pathway to effector Response - effector feedbacks to reduce the effects - stimulus and returns variables to homeostatic level RECEPTOR > CONTROL > EFFECTOR CENTER The Language of Anatomy special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding exact terms are used for position, direction Anatomical Position to accurately describe body parts and position must have an initial reference point and use directional terms the body is in a standard position called anatomical position standard position person standing erect with face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward SUPINE - person is lying face upward PRONE - person is lying face downward Directional Terms allow medical personnel and anatomists to explain exactly where one body structure is in relation to another the ears are located on each side of the head to the right and left of the nose Regional Terms there are many visible landmark on the surface of the body once you know their proper anatomical names, you can be specific in referring to different regions of the body Body Planes - imaginary flat surface that pass through the body parts Section - cut refers to the cut Body Cavity spaces that enclose internal organ 1. Dorsal Body Cavity: cranial cavity - is the space inside the bony skull spinal cavity - extends from the cranial cavity nearly to the end of the vertebral column 2. Ventral Body Cavity: thoracic cavity - is separated from the rest of the ventral cavity by a dome-shape muscle, the diaphragm the abdominopelvic cavity - containing the stomach, liver, intestines, and other organs Other Body Cavities: 1. Oral (mouth) and digestive cavities 2. Nasal cavity 3. Orbital cavities 4. Middle ear cavities TOPIC 3: CELLS Cells (the basic unit of life) basic living unit of all organisms highly organized specialized structures called organelles Structure (ORGANELLES) little organ Discovery of Cells: Robert Hooke (1665); "MICROGRAPHIA" using his microscope with 3 lenses and a stage light, which illuminated and enlarged the specimens, he saw some cubelike structures and name them cells plant tissue - cork, cubelike structure, small rooms like monk's room (or cells) at the monastery called "cellula" Cell Theory fundamental principles in biology that describes the basic unit of life and organization of living organisms Matthias Schelden, Theodor Schwann, & Rudolf Virchow (1838-1858) 1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organism 2. The activity of an organism depends on the collective activities of its cells 3. Principle of Complementary, the biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their shape or form and by the relative number of their specific subcellular structures 4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis Function of the Cell 1. Cell metabolism and Energy use 2. Synthesis of Molecules 3. Communication 4. Mitosis and Reproduction Mitosis - cell division from one parent it will produce 2 daughter cells Reproduction - reproduction of new individuals fertilization and union of sperm and egg ATP = Adenosine Triphosphate Mitochondria - skeletal for movement Mitosis - cell division (multiplication) Reproduction - production of offspring (fertilization) Anatomy of Cells (Structures) 3 Main Regions: 1. Nucleus 2. Plasma / Cell Membrane 3. Cytoplasm Nucleus control center of the cell (acts like the brain) contains genetic material (DNA) shape: oval / spherical / conforms to the same of the cell 3 regions / structures: Nuclear Envelope, Nucleoli, and Chromatin holes: regulates the passage of molecules (entry / exit) Nucleolus > ribosomal RNA > ribosomes + protein ✓ Nuclear Envelope regulate the passage double membrane barrier allows same but not all substances ✓ Nucleoli where ribosomes are assembled ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm synthesize ribosomal RNA (rRNA) ribosomes ✓ Chromatin DNA is organized chromosomes Plasma / Cell Membrane barrier of the cell contents contains fluid mosaic model (double phospholipid layer): hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails hydrophilic - water loving hydrophobic - water fearing also contains protein, cholesterol, glycoproteins membrane junctions > specialized area - cells are connected to one another 1. glycoproteins act as an adhesive / cellular glue 2. wavy contours of the membrane of adjacent cells fit together in a tongue and groove fashion 3. special membrane junctions vary in structures depending on their roles: a. tight junctions - prevent / does not allows the passage b. desmosomes - strength and stability to prevent stress c. gap junctions - small passageway for molecules Cytoplasm materials outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane site of most cellular activities: 1. cytosol - semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements  2. organelles - the metabolic machinery of the cell 3. inclusions - chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on the specific cell type Mitochondria shape: lozenge-like / sausage - shape change shape continuously energy production Powerhouse of the cell = primary sites of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for cellular energy Ribosomes made up of proteins and rRNA sites of protein synthesis founds at 2 location: free in the cytoplasm and attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum Endoplasmic Reticulum fluid filled tubules for carrying substances that coli and twist through cytoplasm there are two types: Rough ER and Smooth ER 1. Rough ER it is studded with ribosomes the proteins made on its ribosomes migrate into the tubules transport vesicles site where building materials of cellular membrane are formed 2. Smooth ER communicates with the rough variety it plays no role in protein synthesis it functions in lipid metabolism (cholesterol and fat synthesis and breakdown) and detoxification of drugs and pesticides Golgi Apparatus stacks of flattened membranous sacs that modify and package proteins produces different types of packages: 1. secretory vesicles 2. cell membrane components 3. lysosomes Lysosomes breakdown bodies contains enzymes and acidic digesting work-out / non-usable materials within the cell and most foreign substances that enter the cell abundant in phagocytes Peroxisomes membranous sacs that oxidase enzymes detoxify harmful substances  converts free radicals to hydrogen peroxide (H2, O2) numerous in liver and kidney cells Cytoskeleton (provides support and maintain shape of the cell) network of protein structures that extends throughout the cytoplasm provides the cell with an external framework a. microfilaments actin subunit form the blue batlike network b. intermediate fibrous subunit form the purple network surrounding the pink nucleus c. microtubules tubulin subunit appear as gold network surrounding the cells pink nuclei Centrioles rod shape bodies made of microtubules that lie close to the nucleus direct formation of mitotic spindle during cell division Cell Extension 1. Cilia microtubules numerous and whip-like that more substances along the cell surface (respiratory tract) 2. Flagella microtubules 1 per cell (sperm cell) move an entire cell 3. Microvilli microfilaments tiny, finger - like projections numerous on cells that have them (intestines and kidney) increase the surface areas of those cells Cell Physiology Membrane Transport plasma membrane is selectively permeable substances moves through the plasma membrane Passive Processes: Diffusion and Filtration does not require ATP / Energy movement of molecules: from higher concentration to lower concentration a. Simple Diffusion b. Carrier - mediated facilitated c. Channel - mediated facilitated diffusion d. Osmosis Active Transport requires ATP / Energy lower concentration to higher concentration Vesicular Transport requires ATP / Energy membrane boundsacs (vesicles) 1. Exocytosis - moves substances out of the cell 2. Endocytosis - enclosed ATP requiring processes in a small membranous vesicles a. Phagocytosis - cell eating b. Pinocytosis - cell dividing c. Receptor - mediated endocytosis main cellular mechanism for taking up specific target mediated TONICITY - ability to change the size and shape of the cells 1. Isotonic Solution - same, equal 2. Hypertonic Solution - shrink / dissolved substances (more solution) 3. Hypotonic Solution - small solution / more solute inside fewer cell swells distilled water Cell Division Cell Life Cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides Interphase (larger stage) - the cell grows and carries its usual metabolic activities Cell Division - reproduces itself DNA Replication Events of Cell Division Mitosis division of the nuclear, occurs first / second, division of the cytoplasm Cytokinesis begins when mitosis is nearly completed Stages of Mitosis (PMAT) PROPHASE METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE Cytokinesis - begins during late anaphase and completes during telophase Central Dogma of Biology DNA > RNA > Proteins TOPIC 4: BODY TISSUE Histology - structures and functions of tissues Primary Types: 1. Epithelial - Covering 2. Connective - Binds / Connects / Supports 3. Muscle - Movement 4. Nervous - Signals / Controls Epithelial Tissue (singular: Epithelium) Found in different areas: Body coverings Body linings and Glandular tissues (skin, small intestine, kidney, gland) Functions: Protection Absorption Filtration Secretion Special Characteristics: Cells fit closely together to form continuous sheets Tissue layer always has 1 free (unattached) surface or edge (optical surface) The lower surface is bound by a basement membrane Avascular (have no blood supply of their own) Regenerate easily if well nourished (2) Classification: Simple Stratified 1. Number of cell Simple Squamous Stratified layers Simple Cuboidal Squamous Simple Columnar Stratified Cuboidal Pseudostratified Stratified Columnar a. Simple (1 layer) (means: FALSE) Transitional Simple (it appears Epithelium b. Stratified (2 or more) stratified) (have (UROTHELIUM) varied lengths) undergo 2. Shape of the cells appearance changes stretching a. Squamous (flat) b. Cuboidal (cube)  c. Columnar (column-like) Glandular Epithelial Gland - 1 or more cells that secretes a particular products (secretions) 2 major types: 1. Endocrine Glands Ductless Secretions are hormones (thyroid, adrenals, etc.) 2. Exocrine Glands Secretions through ducts to the epithelial surface Sweat glands, oil glands, liver pancreas Connective Tissue (vascular - own blood supply) Most abundant and widely distributed to the tissue types Adipose tissue - stores tissue / lipids Functions: Protection Support Binding body tissue together Storage Common Characteristics: 1. Variations in blood supply Most are well-vascularized Some have poor blood supply (tendons and ligaments) on one avascular (cartilage) 2. Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Non-living materials that surrounds living cells 2 Main Elements: a. Ground Substance - mostly water along with adhesive and polysaccharides molecules b. Fibrous - produced by the cells: 3 types: 1. Reticulum - mainly for support 2. Elastic - unchangeable 3. Collagen - flexible / resist stretching 5 Types of Connective Tissues 1. Bone / Osseous Tissue bone cells / osteocytes (consists of collagen) hard because of minerals like calcium salts, large numbers of collagen fibers 2. Cartilage / Chondrocytes less hard and more flexible than bone a. Hyaline Cartilage (collagen) connecting support most abundant type  forms the supporting of structures of larynx b. Fibrocartilage highly compressible cushion like disks between vertebrae of the spinal column c. Elastic Cartilage higher concentration of elastic (coil to its original form) 3. Dense Connective Tissue (dense fibrous tissue) (collagen fibers = main matrix elements) tendons - attached muscle to bone ligaments - attached bone to bone 4. Loose Connective Tissue fibers are far apart (have more cells and fewer fibers) a. Areolar Tissue most widely distributed (3 types of fiber) nourishment (cushion, protects, supports the body organs) area swells and becomes puffy, called edema b. Adipose Tissue (adipocytes / fat cells) certain large lipid deposits site of food storage c. Reticular Connective Tissue fine interlacing networks of reticular fibers (thin form of collagen fiber) and reticular cells 5. Blood (vascular tissues) consists of blood cells platelets (blood clothing) fluid (blood plasma) Muscle Tissue (movement) muscle cells (myocytes) "my" fresh + "ocytes" cells consists of elongated cells Functions: Body Movement Maintain posture Generate heat Protection Muscle attach to bones (skeletal) Muscles of heart (cardiac) Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth)  SHAPE STRIATION NUCLEUS MOVEMENT (bonds) SKELETAL Cylindrical Present Multinucleated Voluntary CARDIAC Cylindrical Present 1 Nucleus per Involuntary (interrelated cell dics) Spindle shape SMOOTH Absent Involuntary 1 Nucleus per cell Nervous Tissue Neurons and nerve support cells (neuroglia) Functions: a. Send impulses to other areas of the body (irritability and conductivity) b. Insulate, support and protect delicate neurons Tissue Repair (Wound Healing) 2 Major Ways: 1. Regeneration ○ replacement of destroyed tissue by the same type of cells 2. Fibrosis ○ repair by dense connective tissue (scar tissue) Determination of method depends on: type of tissue damaged severity of the injury Events in Tissue Repair:  1. Inflammation 2. Granulation tissue forms 3. Regeneration and fibrosis affect permanent repair Granulation Tissue fibroblasts collagen capillaries ↳ part of fibrosis Tissue Regeneration 1. tissues that regenerate easily ○ epithelial tissue ○ fibrous connective tissue & bone 2. tissues that regenerate poorly ○ skeletal muscle 3. tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue ○ cardiac muscle ○ nervous tissue within the brain & spinal cord cell death → inflammation → necrosis sperm and egg meet → zygote → embryo (first 8 weeks) → fetus (9 weeks until birth) ↳ formation of germ layer → organogenesis Germ Layers 1. ectoderm - outer 2. mesoderm - middle 3. endoderm - innermost Developmental Aspects of Cells & Tissues epithelial tissue arises from primary germ layers muscle and connective tissue arise from mesoderm nervous tissue arise from ectoderm with old age there is a decrease in mass and viability in most tissues Modifications of Cells & Tissues 1. Neoplasms (Tumors) ○ uncontrolled cell division ○ abnormal mass of proliferating cells  ○ Benign - local, encapsulated, non-cancerous ○ Malignant - capable of invading or spreading (metastasis), not capsulated, cancerous 2. Hyperplasia ○ enlargement of certain body tissues (or organs) due to some local irritant or condition that stimulates the cells ex: callus ○ enlargement of women breast during pregnancy in response to increased hormones 3. Atrophy ○ decrease in size of an organ/body area that loses its normal stimulation ○ muscles that are not used/lost nerve supply