Pre-16th Century Philippines: Summary of Culture & Society PDF

The Visayans – Physical Appearance The first Filipinos the Spaniards observed were Visayans from Homonhon, Limasawa, and Butuan. Described by the visitors as being medium stature and dark skinned. Pigafetta called them “olivastri” meaning olive skinned or tanned Thomas Caverdish called Capul Isla...

The Visayans – Physical Appearance The first Filipinos the Spaniards observed were Visayans from Homonhon, Limasawa, and Butuan. Described by the visitors as being medium stature and dark skinned. Pigafetta called them “olivastri” meaning olive skinned or tanned Thomas Caverdish called Capul Islanders tawny. But the most frequent designation was “the color of cooked quince” The natives of Leyte and Samar were lighter than those of Davao. Father Alcina said he did not think they were really that dark, though almost. Mentrida, however, defined Visayans “mailum” as a color a bit darker than that natural to the Visayans, though not black as the Ate (Negros or Negritos) From Cebu, Juan de La Isla reported that the natives were darker than the “indios” of Mexico but a contemporaneous account written in Mexico said they were lighter. Loarca said the Visayans well-built, good looking and not very dark. Chirino said the same thing, and in the case of the Boholanos, said they were not only lighter and more handsome than other Visayans, but braver and more spirited. Baga napkangan huligid – in English “like a chaw of coconut meat” DECORATIVE DENTISTRY Sangka – tooth filing or leveling Lakha – used to color teeth Kaso/kasopangil – a deep red, an effect heightened and preserved by habitual ‘betel’ nut chewing. Pusad – was the general term for teeth gold work, whether they were inlays, crowns, or plating. Manunusad – is the dental worker Halop – a gold coating that serves as tooth cover Bansil – were gold pegs inserted in holes drilled with an awl called “ulok” TATTOOING Pintados – is what the Spaniards described Visayans Batuk or Patik – the general term for tattoos, it is also meant the marking of snakes or lizard Halo – a tattooed man who was considered cowardly with a large black and yellow reptiled tattooed all over but extremely timid. Tigma – was a youth’s first taste of war or sex and; Tiklad – was his first conquest either in battle or love Kulmat – To strut around showing off new tattoos Hundawas – stripped to the waist for bravados Baug or binogak – was the healing period Lusak – when the wounds were still swollen, and if infections caused the designs to be muddied Labid – were the distinctive inch – wide lines Ablay – were those on the shoulder Dubdub – those to the chest up to the throat Daya-daya or tagur in Panay – on the arms Bangut (muzzle or halter) – were the ones that made of the face such a frightening mask also called ‘langi’ like a crocodile jaws Hinawak from hawak – a tight lean waist Lipong – were heroes tattooed all over (except under G-string) like the fancy linipong porcelain jars from China. SKULL MOULDING Tangad – a comb like set of thin rods bound to a baby’s forehead by bandages fastened at some point behind. Sipit – a kind of little plate or tablet the Bikolanos used or ‘saop’ a padded one Tinangad – adults with the desired tangad profile Puyak – flatness of the back of the head Ondo – opposite of tangad PENIS PINS Visayans men wore a pin through their penis for the greater stimulation of their sex partners. The pin was called ‘tugbuk’ Sakra – generally served to anchor a kind of ring or cog wheel with blunt teeth Kinamakawing – were ornaments required manipulation by the woman The practice of circumcision was widespread in the Visayas. It was called ‘tuli’ cut lengthwise above rather than around. Pisot – the uncircumcised PIERCED EARS kulot or sisip: the operation to trim and suture the edges of torn earlobes so they heal whole again. This was common after earlobe injuries, especially from fights. bingbing: persons without pierced ears.bibi: those whose earlobes were too short for successful piercing and distending. HAIR panta or talabkok: additional switches of hair used by women to enhance their hairstyles. sampolong: the act of grabbing someone by their locks, especially by the chignon (a bun or knot of hair at the back or top of the head). bulat: a perfumed ointment made of various ingredients, used to style and scent hair. CLOTHING malong: a tube skirt or a light blanket wrapped around the body, similar to a sarong. lihin-dikin: more prestigious clothes worn for public appearances or formal occasions. swayaway-ampis: the front flap of a G-string (bahag) that hangs down. paksuur: the back flap of the G-string. lubid: three-strand cords used to create fringes on a G-string. lubitan: a G-string with a fringe made of three-strand lubid cords. watid: a G-string deliberately dragging on the ground, symbolizing mourning. alamper: the act of wrapping a garment around the shoulders or head, like a cape. saob saob: an ankle-length garment worn with or without sleeves, often open in the front like a cloak. sinina: a short, tailored jacket exposing the midriff. pandong: a lady's cloak, also referring to any natural covering, like a banana trunk. tabat: a term for imported chintz or calico fabric used for garments. habul: woven material. halong: a term for abaca fabric. bafikuskus: a knot that women make when wrapping a blanket around instead of wearing a real skirt. gansing: a gold hook-and-eye or button used to close cloaks or gowns. hayo: fine white textile imported from China. kalasumba: thin red cotton from Borneo. liray: alternating colored stripes on fabric, sometimes woven with silk. rokat: squares woven into fabric, resembling German designs. salukap: a checkered design added as decoration to clothes. potak: small rosettes used as decorative elements on garments. luray: separately woven strips used as decoration on clothes, resembling a banister of many colors. pudong: a turban or head wrap worn by men, with different styles indicating status. potlong or saplung: headcloth or bandana worn by both men and women. magalong: a red turban symbolizing a brave warrior who had killed an enemy. pinayuson: a prestigious, gauze-thin abaca fabric dyed deep scarlet in intricate patterns. tubetub: a kerchief worn tight over the head by women. sayap or tarindak: a broad-brimmed hat woven from sago-palm leaves. surk: a deep-crown headdress used for travel, meaning "to go for water." JEWELRY bahandi: heirloom wealth, often in the form of gold, buried with ranking datus (chiefs or nobles). panika: a general term for ear ornaments, including rings and plugs worn in the lower earlobe. panikaan: the lower hole in the earlobe where panika is worn. burit: granules of filigree used to decorate panika earrings. THE VISAYANS FOOD AND FARMING  The staple crops of the Visayans were rice, millet, taro, yams, and bananas grown in swiddens (kaingin), wild yams and sago. Rice was grown everywhere and was the preferred food.  But since only in a few places could a years supply of rice produced, root crops were therefore the most common food for part of the year or all of the year for part of the people.  The dearth in rice supply was later even more characteristic of the Spanish colony because tribute was collected in rice from the very beginning.As father Alcina(1668a, 8:101-2) observed a century later, ‘the rice usually does not last them longer than the time it takes to harvest it, since the rest they pay in tribute or sell to get the cash to pay.  Spaniards made much of the fact that visayans did not produce a year’s supple of rice ,that even datus with many slaves root crops in certain seasons.  Apparently , neither were the Spaniards aware thar low-intensity farmers wished to distribute to several different crops the risk of bad weather or infestation by locust and other pests, nor did they consider that filipinos might not have found such annual variation in diet `a particular hardship in the first place.  The fact that visayans lived in permanent settlement in evidence that their sweddining techniques were not destructive- meaning that a favorable balance between their numbers and land available to them permitted new swiddens to be made in the secondary growth on abandoned swiddens without cutting into virgin woodland each time.  Root crops- among their root crops, or tubers, the one the Visayans considered most nutritious was taro(calocasia) which required moist soil, even mud or standing water and had large shield-shape leaves Yams(dioscores) were the most widespread root crop, growing both wild and domestic in four or five ,9 different species with dozen of varieties.   Sago- another starchy foods was a kind of flour made from the inner trunk of the sago palm(lumbia)or of a number of other palm like nipa or buri - example ambolong,puguhan or sakol  Bananas- a number different bananas and plantains( cooking bananas) boiled like rice or yams when still unripe, were also a staple food crop.  Camote- the camote or sweet potatoes(ipomea batatas) was native to tropical america, and is not to be confused with the common potato solamum tuberusum Rice Farming Introduction Rice farming was central to Visayan society, deeply linked to seasonal changes, rituals, and community efforts. Rice was the primary food source, with millet and root crops also important. Seasonal Awareness Farmers used natural signs (stars, winds, plant growth) to time planting and harvesting. Agricultural cycles varied by region due to different climates (e.g., monsoon winds). Land Use & Swidden Farming Swidden (slash-and-burn) farming cleared land for planting; farmers claimed crops, not the land. Cooperative labor (alayon) was common in preparing and maintaining fields. Planting & Crop Protection Fields were prepared by cutting and burning vegetation, followed by rituals and omens before planting. Men made planting holes with poles, women sowed seeds quickly and efficiently. Fields were fenced and guarded to protect crops from pests and wild animals. Harvesting & Rituals Harvesting involved strict rituals and taboos, initiated by women. Rice was harvested panicle by panicle with sickles, stored in granaries, and processed as needed.  Other Crops Millet was the second major crop, more resilient than rice but harder to process. Root crops were a staple food, grown alongside rice and millet. Visayan rice farming was highly organized, with a strong emphasis on teamwork, rituals, and adapting to environmental conditions Visayan Farming Terms Sixteenth-century Visayan farmers knew neither the plow nor the carabao-and the rather puny plows which became available in the next century would have been of little use in swiddens anyway, because of snagging on roots. Farming tools and techniques other than those for clearing swiddens included those in the listing below. Bakar – To till the soil by any method Bunyag – To water plants by sprinkling Damus or napon – A field of root crops Gibo – A crude broom for sweeping a field Habuk – To cultivate the soil for planting with a bolo Kahig – A rake or harrow Koyog – To plant trees, vines, bananas, or camotes in rows Lalong – To transfer a whole plant, including the roots with soil attached Pusok – To plant a whole field to one crop or one kind of tree Sandol – A paganito (religious rite) for rain in time of drought Sun-ad or sunag – A transplanted tuber Tagbung or hamugdas – To plant something whole, like a coconut   DALLAG-straight aze TRADE AND COMMERCE  GAROL-Spurs for fighting cocks According to William Henry Scott in his book  KALOB-spoon bit BARANGGAY SIXTEENTH CENTURY  SABIT-Billhook PHILIPPINE CULTURE AND SOCIETY on the part 3”which is the trade and commerce discuss  SALAT- Sickle about visayans who practice trades were professionals in the sense of being compesenated  SIPOL- Paring knife for specialized skills, but not necessarily in the  SANGGUL-tuba tuppers knife sense of supporting themselves by their professionals.  TIGIB- chisel  Wares and services were limited  TIRLOS-lancet for bleeding  Shipwrights or goldsmiths — practice their  ULOK- Dentist awl crafts full time —The lagari (saw) and the Plain (saiyo) were Example: Slaves,dependents or employee of datu apparently missing in 16th century visayan tool capitalist and the traders. kit. IRON WORKING WOOD WORKING  Blacksmith(panday sa puthaw) -iron workers  tree is more solid on Eastern side  Smithing -noblest professions  male trees are always stronger than females trees.  SANTUBONG(SARAWAK)-Bornean refines   Sulawesi-iron was also being produce  done by skillful joinery without saws or nails.  Chinese cauldrons- major source or supplier of local forge in visayas  Hagopi or Biri palm- used for sandpaper or wood rasps  HOSAHAS-bellows of forge  Bisol and dahonan- hardest wood  Tayhop- two upright cylinder  Tambuko-lugs  TAMBOROK-pistons  Harigi- hardwood posts  MASAOP-Blacksmith apprentice  Bohon- plates,bowl,spoon and ladles  Lilong-(receptacle) charcoal fire ARCHITECTURE  Anvil-(landasan) piece of iron set in a heavy wooden block  Balay-House  Palo-Palo-stone hammer there are three types of balay;  kipit –pair of tong  Kalabayan – settlement  Bolo– the most important tool by the  Magkabalay – man and wife blacksmith  Minalay – Married  dohong or dayapok- the ordinary bolo Permanent Wooden structures called;  tuwad- a heavier one  Town Houses – Datus  bako or bantok—with curved blade  Cottages built of light materials – Ordinary  pisaw- one with short blade and long handle People  Wasay – Ax  Tree houses – Time of war More specialized tools -For pigaffeta the houses are like a triangle standing on legs  ABLUWANG- drill  Balay-balay – variety of huts  BATAKAN- a blade for slicing korol  The large Town Houses  BARIL-piece of iron for whetting tools  Harigi or Togbong – Hardwood Pillars  BINKONG-curved adze  Sanag – Valuable planted deep in the ground  BISONG-small knife  Sablayan – Grinder  Saragunting – Main Rafters  Ubung-ubung – opposite harigi by a tie beam  Sasagangan – lower girder  Alantaga – a landing  Batangan – floor joists  Lugdog – single bamboo used as ladder stubs  Bakalan – sills  Salugsog – split bamboo ladder for House dogs  Dingding – walls  Pamulong – decorated façade  Tanor – big pegs  Pagngawan – entrance  Salog – floor  Ganghaan – door or window large enough to pass through  Puta – floor divided into two sections  Tarambowan – window  Puthanan – squared beam slightly higher than other  Batalan – veranda for laundering  Buklag – lengthwise bamboo, rattan or cane  Saramde – living spaces along the side of the strips lashed together on top of wooden grill house  Atup – bamboo or palm leaf shingles lashed to  Sibay – small room for slaves (isinabay) parallel strips of heavy rattan  Pusor – macramé done in rattan which  Bobongan - bobong rendered all structural bindings artistic  Sayong – one protruding beyond the ends of  Family – Wooden partitions carved with the house like horns foliage in high relief provided separate chambers for him and his wife Finer Details of Visayan Architecture are revealed by their special terms  Binokot – daughters  Hogdan – house ladder Non Datus lived in cottages built of light materials ready to be moved every few years to be near  Balitang – one rung or step shifting swiddens  Datu Farmers live in such houses seasonally.  Batangan – sturdy crossbeams  Sagbat – unsquared poles  Ogsoran – sliding roof to serve for either shade, shelder, sunning  tree house -Disappeared after Spanish Pacification BOAT BUILDING  Tilimbaw or Yahit - if wooden planks were added  Lawaan - referred by Visayan boat builders  Barangay- was an edge-pegged V shaped at both ends  bidok, Biroko, Biray or Lapid - plank-built The interior was hollowed out boat large ones for carrying cargo  Agar - tambuko projecting the seat thwarts  Daya or Paya - Flat open boats Good panday could make such a canoe 9 meters  Champan(from Chinese sampan "three boats") long and 1.5m wide for 10 days by himself  Adyong (that is Malay jong) -foreign vessels  Baroto -could boards added to increase its with high freeboard freeboard  karakoa - the most celebrated visayan vessel  Realships -cargo capacity or seagoing raids warship  Canoa - what spanish called to baroto  sombol - tall staffs of brilliant plumage fore  Damlog - if it is a single piece and art as a sign of victory on the prow  balasiyan - if small enough for a man to pick  Lutaw - floating up  Bugsay - Paddles a 120 cm long  Bilos - bark washboard added for increase  Gaor - Oars freeboard POTTERY GOLDWORKING practiced by female potters using paddle and They never seen a Visayan without gold anvil technique Most mining was placer mining-gold panning in  Dihoon - The Visayan Potter's craft streams of riverbeds.  Maninihon - gathered the clay herself (kalot)  pamiling - wooden pan used  Luyang - kneaded it  bilingan - meaning sifting and a wooden trough or tub  Igsosool - anvil BOHOL was said to have one in Kabularan where  Dakol or Dapi - thinned and enlarged the as much as 1 mas (2.4 grams) a day could be lump of clay recovered.  Pakpak or pikpik - slapping sound  Kotkot or kali - to mine by actual excavatio  Igigihit - smoothen and widened the lip with  Kalian - the mine a wet cloth  sabod - rich in vein like those found 5 - 6  Pagba - fired without a kiln meters deep in Masbate.  Lunhaw - while still green  Bulawan - Gold called in Visayan  Daba or Koron - Common cooking pot Anglet  HImulawan - Fine Gold or tnuk - in Panay.  bulaw - presumably from  Bogoy - one with an especially wide mouth  porog - red or rosy color they often produced  Balanga - a flat pan for frying with ochre  Banga - water jar shaped like porcelains  snitran - touchstones  Pangasi - for brewing and drinking  Cebuanos weighed out the 20 pesos gold  Dulang - large plate with foot which they paid Magellan for 6 kilos of iron.  Pingan lasa - large one  bangati - kinds of seeds o  Lampay - small one  kupang (0.25 mas) - convertible to standard Asian weights of the the time.  Siwit - litthe one like sauce dishes  tael or tahil - (16 mas) - basing in Visayan  Bahandi- what visayans called in jewelry The Visayans reckoned three different kinds of  Ginamikun - Hacienda (which is ordinary basing according to the quality of its gold and jewelry, plates) content.  tadyaw - Large Visayan porcelain items 12-  labingsiam - worth 12 Spanish reals 14.liters  labingwalo - worth 10 or 11  Tinadyaw - anything valued at that price  lapingpito - worth only 9  Tinaradyaw - when a man was enslayed for inability to pay a fine  kamagi - bahandi necklaces which contain hundred of links and rods and wires.  Ang-ang - Ordinary Chinese jars As Alcina said a century later, "one who know how  Gining - used for pangasi to make them today is hard to find".  Abdan & Lumbang - large ones -The jeweler Ramon Villegas, leading authority  Linoping - Big Zheiiang wares with "ears" on Philippine gold, argues persuasively that (handles) The -Portuguese called many motifs and techniques of Philippine (martabanas) goldwork which have origins or similarities elsewhere, are combined and developed in ways  loping - men tattooed all over not found outside the archipelago  Hinalasan - dragon jars  Halas - snake  Basingun - because they were woth 1 (basing - gold tael)  Tinampilak - a large black jar  Tuytuy - a small black one  Kabo - Ming blue and white jarlet WEAVING  Habul - Visayan word for cloth  Backstrap loom The two bars about 4 meters apart and produced a textile twice that length and a meter wide  Birang - standard measure  lakdug - half of what came from the loom  os-osan - Front loom bar and coated with sticky black wax  Gikos - the cords fastening the os-osan  paholan - leather or wooden backstrap  sablayan - back loom bar  salangtan - reed or comb  tangkup - two parallel rattan rods  salisi - the teeth  bukug - bamboo shed rod  koghon - heddle  borboran - heddle stick  sankad - cross rod ( a coil rod )  barila - hardwood batten shaped like a dull sword as long as the fabric was wide.  hulug or pogawa - lay it flat again to strike the reed and beat the weft tight  sikwan or bosaki - The shuttle was a thin cane that same length as the barila  pugi - lease rod  koging or kohit - oversized knitting needle  han-ay - transfer  hinan-ay or tindug - ready to be set up  puran or sikaran - pushing against a footrest Weaving was a normal part of housekeeping, and women supplied all their menfolk's clothing:  ladok - shabbily dressed  yu-da - Chinese called Mindoro abaca  moo- employed as domestic weavers. The Spaniards quickly demanded cotton as tribute for sailcloth or export to Mexico, and a year after Legazpi seized Manila, two galleons sailed for Acapulco with 22,600 pesos worth of cloth and 3,800 kilos of thread. TEXTILES  Medrinaque(habul)- abaca cloth  Gamay- finest fabric  Sandulan- light fabric  lapnis- heavy cloth  bikil- strong threads  Gapas or bunang/tingkal- cotton  tingkalan-spindle  kupang- one skein composed of 10 boko each of this was composed of 10 kawol and kawaol is a 10 threads  baye-half of kupang  lompot-cotton cloth  gintas-3meters  kombal- looms  sibukaw-dyestuff  nino- wood  tagum-indigo  dulaw- yellow ginger roots  kasuba- saffron  tina- dye of black soil DOMESTIC TRADE Magellan landing on homonhon island fisherman appeared from nearby suluan to trade. Fish, coconut and arrack  Suluan -most remote bits of land in the archipelago.  Suluanon- traders in pre hespanic visayan  in loay boats came alongside fo barter fish, wax and goat meat  few visayans island produced surplas of rice.  when Cebuanos tried to strave the Spaniard out, muslim merchant supplied them with rice from luzon and panay. Traded/exchange in local markets  wild roots  korot  Coconut  wax and honey  wild fruits and nuts  garden vegetables  medinical herbs  pack food like palm sugar (kalamay)  Salt is a essential item of trade One gantang was a 5 ot 6 centimeters square, worth a ganta or rice (3liters).  usa ka gantang of cloth- 80 centimeters was the length for which a weaver was paid such a piece of salt. Most common domestic trade good were thread,cloth and clothing.  Womens work - spinning, weaving, pottering and sewing. Also the laborious work like stripping, cleaning, bleaching and dying abaca were also done by women usually working in groups. cotton thread was sold by the skein (kupang) and cloth by the blankets (lompot) Cleaned abaca fibers (lanot) however were sold by the skein or bundle which could be encompassed by the thumb and forefinger (kumo). heavy items were weighed with a steelyard call SINANTA, one chinanta is equivalent of 6.3 kilos.  Gold was weighed against little seeds small enough to be carried on the persons.  Rice was itself a medium of exchange.  Pots were sold for the amount they could hold, a gantang was the value of a ganta of unhansked rice.  Expensive item like boat,slave or good hunting dogs wete priced in GOLD TAHIL (38.4grams)  pakaagungon to price in gongs (agung), or hinalasan, the value of importanted drago jar.  kukot- were used for calculation  Cebuanos would not accept chopper,silver or gold coins from Magellan in 1521,but 20 year later, diego de bustos bought a piece of silk in abuyo (leyte) for 2 peson in 1565.  Luzon and borneo would not accept anything except from silver.  SALAPI meant half peso, that is a Portuguese TONSTON.  Visayang calculated spanish currency in terms of a 4 real tonston rather than 8 real peso. For example si kiwalo (0.5 real) an eighth of tonston or sikapai (1 real) a quarter tonston and the kalahati (2 real coin) meaning a half of tonston. THE CHINESE ENIGMA  Chinese trade goods is well attested fact but their presence is more problematic. —early Spanish explorers were told in lianga bay that chinese junk came to cebu and mindanao every year.  cebu- they were told that the eighth survivors in magellan expedition had been sold to chinese traders.  Sarangani- chinese traded in cotabato  Abuyo-chinese traders actually resided in sugod  June 1544- a Bornean in limasawa reported the two junk were then anchored in butuan.  1569- legazpi moved to capiz did they capture a chinese vessel and its crew.  Non-chinese traders who sold chinese  good were often called Chinese.  Legazpi captured a PARAO own by Anton Malcus, Portuguese resident in borneo carrying the cargo belong to the sultan of Brunei, it's chief pilot was interviewed. The moro told the General that two junk from luzon were in butuan bartering GOLD, WAX and SLAVES.  Bornean boats- carrying goods from china  Chinese- chinese junks in the island —Visayan called "foreign nations like the Borneans and sangleyes (Chinese)sina"  chinese sailing 1617, avoid island visayan water by passing from mindoror to oton (ilo- ilo) to dapitan.  Junk (junco)- actually a malay jong  Adyong- a ship of high freeboard INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE The sultan of Brunei's manila son in-law had a makassarese slave who could speak Spanish and a butuan ruler from limasawa understood a malay speaking merchant from ciama (champa) international commerce from the Atlantic to pacific Visayan end was being serviced by traders from borneo, sulu and luzon and sanglis settled on davao bay. Chinese goods were delivered to manila and borneo sometimes in mindoro, exchange for gold or slaves. All the traders were muslim including the ciama. Local trading Network sealed with marriage alliance as illustrated by rajah Kolambu of butuan personally guiding magellan from limasawa to cebu. Greatest bulk of chinese trades goods  porcelain, stonewar, and unglazed crockery. Prior to the galleon trade silk was limited to thinner, cheaper varieties or thread. Common white or black and white blankets, sarsaparilla, incense, glass beads, tin and brassware also came from china. Most important is the ironware and cast iron pans. Hardware came from borneo like small knives, spearhead and fine steel blades Japanese sword also reached visayas through manila Bornean imports  Camphor  fine woven mats  sago cake  expensive red cloth  elegant g-strings  tropical perfume and drugs  indian chintzes  javanese batik stuff  precious red stone Sinulug- sulu trade Bulk of visayans exports wax civet must ambergris  cinnamon dyewood aromatic hardwood red resin red ants cowry shells- currency use in cambodia, siam and patani (sumatra) abaca, cotton cloth and the cotton thread and cotton seed, had a steady market in china Destined from japan came from mindanao  Pearls  Coral  Tortoise shell RELIGION NATURE SPIRITS Nature forces like celestial bodies or flowing water were personified for reverence or worship. - Chief among them were the sun and moon - Stars and Constellations are connected with the agricultural cycle were invoked for good crops. -To the winds, they addressed prayers for fair weather and favorable winds. There were River gods, and important gods and spirits of the sea. As for Spirits dwelling in the mountains, hunters were sure to offer the first catch to them. Crocodiles were held in special veneration because of their obvious danger. Pahali, the spirit of the strangler fig, or Balete tree was also given offering in recognition of its sinister powers http://avrotor2.blogspot.com/2014/12/the-ba lete-ficus-benjamina-is-home-of.html Dangerous cliffs or strange rock formations were also invoked for safe passage THE UNSEEN WORLD Visayans considered themselves vastly outnumbered by a variety of invisible beings, spirits, and deities. Gods and Goddesses were called Diwata Ancestors spirits were called Umalagad - These beings were benevolent and could be approached ritually for good crops, health and fortune. Malevolent beings - had to be avoided or kept off by precautionary acts - They had no single name as a class, spanish lexicographers simply called them witches, brujas or hiechiceros. Diwata - malay-sanskrit term for gods or godhead in Visayan, and Visayan maniwata or magdiwata meant to invoke or deify them. - Diwatas’ had their individual personalities and places Some gods constituted a genuine pantheon, a hierarchy with specific roles to play, particularly in connection with birth, longevity, death, and the afterlife Others were patrons of specific human conditions: - Dalikmata, a diwata with many eyes, was invoked in the case of eye ailments. - Makabosog moved men to gluttony Our earliest list of Visayan deities was recorded by Miguel de Loarca in Panay in 1582: -Sidapa was a diwata who marked out one’s mortal lifespan on a tree trunk on Mount Madyaas - Magwayen ferried the souls of the deceased across - Pandaki rescued the deserving for a more pleasant fate -Lalahon was the fire-breathing goddess of Mount Canlaon - Mayong was the diwata of the volcano in Ibalon (Albay) - Inaginid and Malanduk were invoked for success in battle and plunder - Nagined, Arapayan, and Makbarubak could be appealed to when concocting a poisonous oil Few were hostile to mankind: Makaptan - who lived in the highest heavens and so had never tasted human food or drink and presumably for thisreason, capriciously caused them death and disease  According to Pigafetta ,Visayan called their god “abba” According to Sebastian de Puerto reported that the natives sacrificed to a god called Amito, that is Anito According to Father Chirino, he stated that there is a principal and superior of all gods. In Tagalog, its Bathala Mei-Capal - means creator god or maker. In Bisayans, Laon, which denotes antiquity Father Alcina rather, he devoted his whole chapter of thesis that Malaon was simply one of many names which Visayans applied to the True Godhead. - He equated Malaon with the ancient of days, - Makapatag(to level or seize)with the old testament good of vengeance, and - Makaobus(to finish) with the alpha and omega. Raom (Laon) - appears as an Bohol Idol in the Jesuit letter of 1609 but none in chirino’s contemporaries. - Laon was not a person but of things: it meant aged or dried out like root crops or grain left from last year, or a barren of domestic animal. - But Manlaon appears as the name of a mountain peak - Thus laon may have been the goddess of Mount Canlaon in Negros, Loarca’s Lalahon. The Soul or elan vital - was kalag Spirited, Forceful man - Kalagan na tao The kalag might separate from the body during dreams, illness, or insanity, or be carried off by a diwata for envy or desire. - Especially Bugus, that is, perfect, handsome, or otherwise enviable. - Daay was the diwata’s desire for such a person. The loss of kalag might result in a kind of enchanted death (Linahos Inkamatay) Ancestor Spirits were called Umalagad, from alagad, a follower or voluntary assistant. - It was these umalagad and kalag, rather than diwatas, who were the main objects of visayan adoration. THE SPIRIT UNDERWORLD Visayans also believes in a demimonde of monsters and ghouls. Aswangs were the most feared but common who are flesh eaters that devour the liver like a slow cancer. - And conduct a Lingalok, omen seeking rite to discover the progress of the disease - Aswang also ate flesh of corpses - Their presence was often revealed by level spots of ground they had trampled down during their witches dance at night, or by their singing, sound like cackling of a hen - nangangakak - Often afraid of noises - Alok, balbal, kakag, oko, onglo, and wakwak were synonyms of aswang Tiktik - one that flew at night https://www.epuzzle.info/en/puzzle/p lay/people/147215-tiktik-aswang#13 x11 Tanggal - one that left the lower half of the body behind https://www.campfireadventurespodc ast.com/previousepisodes/dg2jlmw7 4uuq6dy9hn57xts7rglvtk Mantiw - ghosts or apparitions Landung - imaginary visions or phantoms Yawa - general term for demons Ogima - man-shaped demons with hind quarters of a beast (satyrs or fauns) Binaliw - a witch who had become invisible OMENS AND DIVINATION Visayans also believed in signs and portents - Signs were indicated by behavior of animals like birds and reptiles. - Any snake or lizard crossing the path was a warning to turn back. - A sneeze was also enough to interrupt any activity, including business transactions that were going badly - If someone ask them about their plans, hunters turn around because their quarry would then have been forewarned and hide. - A Monitor Lizard under the house was a sign of death or disaster - A Famous omen, Limokon(koro-koro) - turtle dove with striking green and white plumage and red feet and beak. Himalad - fortune telling by palmistry Luknit - to cast lots by four crocodile teeth or boar’s tusk Tali - a stone or egg which the diviner made stand upright on a plate. Popular method in divination was to ask the diwata to answer questions by causing inanimate objects to move : - Abiyog - to swing - Kibang - to move or wiggle Sorcerers - were believed to derive knowledge of black magic from unnatural forces - Habit - a spell - Ginhabit - the one who got bewitched - Bakwit - a spell which women detained their lovers - Lumay - a love potion - Buringot - the opposite - Mentala - incantations and verbal formulas - Awug - a spell put on coconut palms to make a thief’s stomach swell up - Tiwtiw - make fish follow fishermen to shore or wild boar to follow hunter - Oropok - make rats multiply in someone’s field - Tagosilangan - person with a charm - Tagarlum - a charmed herb that rendered its owner invisible A Datu’s power was enhanced by popular fear of his arcane knowledge of black magic - Ropok - was a charm to make people obey - Panlus - a spear or G-string, can cause leg pain or swelling if stepped on - Bosong - intestinal swelling - Hokhok - to kill with a breath or just a touch Kaykay - to pierce somebody just by pointing from distance. A reputation for such powers no doubt both facilitated a datu’s effective control over his subjects, and arose from it WORSHIP Anito - a sacrifice Paganito and maganito - act of sacrifice Pag anito - to perform that act Iganito - the things being sacrificed Paganito were basically a seance - Communication with spirits Minor paganito performed by any householder Pagobo - for drought, a bird shaped rice cake together with leaves or sprouts from the crops Pabto - when a hunting dog has a poor performance was attributed to witchcraft Solemn Pagnito should be performed by a babaylan Babaylan - shamans or spirit mediums https://filipinawomensnetwork.org/e pahayagan/did-you-know-pre-coloni al-philippines-longstanding-tradition -of-women-leadership-and-mysticis m - Also called Daitan - Either male or female or an asog(male transvestites) https://www.aswangproject.com/asog/ - They come to their calling through attacks or illness or insanity. - Their remuneration was a designated share of the offerings. - There were also outright charlatans Some paganito were for the benefit of individuals or kindred, some were by nature seasonal, and some sought relief from a public crisis like drought or pestilence. Naturally these ceremonies had their own vocabulary: - Ginayaw - offerings of spherical yellow rice cakes - Tinorlok - the hog reserved for sacrifice - Bani - the tabu requiring mat to be burned - Taruk - the babaylan’s dance - Bodyong - her bamboo trumpet - Banay - fan or fly whisk with which she kept time - Hola(hulak or tagdug) - spirit possession - Saob - including animals - Tabo - wheezing sound when the diwata spoke - Latangan - little houses or altars - Magdantang - if large enough Babaylan’s healing prowess described in terms : - Agaw - to carry off the force - Tawag - to call someone out - Bawi - to rescue from the afflicting spirit Paglehe or Magrehe - restrictions following a datu’s death Missionaries adopted the word lehe for lenten abstinence harang or halad - offering Darangin - perfunctory invocation of ancestor spirit Chapter 5: Literature and Entertainment Spanish accounts say that the Visayans have no writing, before their conversion to christianity. In 1597, Jesuits had found their catechumens in Ormuc (Leyte), literate enough to copy down their lesson on a bamboo slip to take home to study. In a report attributed to Legazpi, it says that their letters and characters are like those of Malay and they write on bamboo, bark, and palm leaves with a pointed tool. The Visayans referred to the Philippine Script as “Moro script” as they referred to many Manila imports as “Moro”. The Alphabet The only known specimens of Visayan penmanship known today are the signatures of Bernardino Dimabasa and Maria Mutia of Bantay Island. The letters of the Visayans according to Alcina are; a. e. b. c. d. g. h. l. m. n. p. r. s. i. nga. The letters or characters without a dot are pronounced with a–-e.g., ba, da, ga, and etc…. And with a dot over them, with i or e, when put below, they are pronounced with o or u—e.g., ba. be. bu. ca. ci. co. According to Alcina, they used to write like the Chinese and Japanese. Literature The way they record stories and etc….. were more oral than written. Visayan literature was oral literature.All poetry were sung and chanted rather than recited. Ordinary Visayan speeches were rich in metaphor and colorful imagery. Ambahan - A simple verse that were popular among the children and adults of both sexes. Balak - A poetic debate between a man and a woman on the subject of love. They might also carry musical instruments with them, the karlong for the woman, and the kudyapi for the man.  Bikal - A poetic jousts between 2 men or 2 women in which they satirized each other’s physical or moral shortcomings, but were expected to harbor no hard feelings afterwards. Siday/Kandu - The Visayan term for Epic and considered noblest literary of Visayan literature. It focuses on the heroic exploits of ancestors, the valor of warriors, the beauty of women or even the exaltation of heroes still living. Kabungaw and Bubung Ginbuna A tale of two lovers who faced some challenges and eventually reunited. Before Kabungaw leaves for a raid, he instructs Bubung Ginbuna that she should go to his mother and sister (as his father had already died) if she needs anything for comfort. But instead of being helped, she was mistreated instead which caused her to run away to an island. Upon Kabungaw’s return, he learns of her mistreatment and sets out to find her, enduring hardships along the way. When he finally reaches her, they reunite and marry and become the rulers of the island they call “Natunawan.” Epic Also called as Siday/Kandu but nowadays its referred to as folk epic Power and prestige were more based on the control of slave labor Karanduun - Celebrated Visayan heroes that is worthy of Kandu who would have won their reputations in pangayaw slave trade. These Epics were characterized by highly repetitious plots. If a Kandu lasted all night, they must’ve included some details of the hero like physical appearance and etc…. One characteristics of Philippine Literature is the amount of space given to betel nut. Bonga - Local name of Betel nut tree or Areca Tree, A good epic ends with a colorful description of a lavish wedding feast in which its protagonist join to display their wealth magnaimity. Datung Sumanga and Bugbung Humasamun  Bugbung Humasamun tests the love of Datung Sumanga by giving him difficult quests, as she was offended by Datung Sumanga’s lack of courtesy. The quest varies from gathering ingredients, raids on distant towns, and even the conquest of China. But each time he succeeds she gives another difficult task one after another,until she finally demands something from the heavens. In this task resulted in Datung Sumanga’s frustration, which prompted him to threaten Bugbung Humasamun that he’ll come and remove her hairpiece personally, forcing her to relent. She sends the buyos, but the Datu insists she present it herself as a sign of consent, winning both her heart and hand in the end. Folklore FIRST MAN AND WOMAN ○ After the world has made and the coconut palms had borne fruit, happened to fall into the sea and carried them on its waves for many days. When the sea is raging, it threw them against the rocks ready to hatch as if they were eggs. They broke open with the blow as if preordained there came forth from the larger a man who was the first one , whom they call laki , and from the smaller a woman , whom they call baye. WHY THE BAT IS CALLED STUPID (KABUG) ○ The birds got together each one to choose a fruit and the big bat chooses the “tabigi” fruit. They make fun of him for choosing a fruit that only has a beautiful appearance but for nothing else. Kabug or bobo – one who has a little sense THE TORTOISE AND THE MONKEY ○ The tortoise and the monkey found by chance a sprout of a banana plant. They fought over who would take the best part of it, the tortoise tricked the monkey for wanting the leaf part to make him think that the root is the worst part of the sprout. Giving the part of the root to the tortoise, we say that when the piece of stalk or root which the Monkey had given him sprouted, grew and bore fruit, the Tortoise, since he could not climb, went to find the Monkey to climb up and get the fruit, which he gladly seated above, began to gather the ripe bananas and to eat them, throwing down all the rinds or skins on the Tortoise who was down below, with which he tricked him, or revenged the first trick. Sahan – bud or sprout of a banana tree Pusong of Magtaon ○ The story is all about the giant Pusong , a native of the town of Magtaon in the interior of the island of Samar and Ibabao that invades other town of Calbiga and Libunao which are on the Samar side, but not so much around Borongan because those on that coast were much more feared. Those who he killed, were many who stood up and they had enough so they set up a great trap to Pusong the giant and they successfully killed him which the trap was setup in a stream he had to cross, which was all flat stones with very high banks of rock, one of the more daring hid below it on the side he usually came from, and the other waited for him on the opposite side, with arms ready, though not trusting so much in them as in the treachery and trap they had set for him. Pusong jumped over, the one who was hidden below the bank threw his spear with such great force that it passed through his body, with which he fell. And the one who had challenged him came down and they killed him.Magahat: A term used for raiders in the region. Barote: A padded breastplate Bahag: A type of loincloth worn by men. Bongan: The term used by Calbigans for pygmies.  PARAPAT ○ Parapat who was so swift when running along the beach he left no trace or footprint , that only the top of rocks would some grains of sand be discovered he had passed by. Bingi of Lawan ○ The story starts in the place where Karagrag who is a chief a lord and ruler of town Makarato. And married to a lady of his rank called Bingi. This lady, accordingly describe to the story is endowed with many fine virtues and greatly celebrated for her beauty to its natives so much so they were moved by the fame of her beauty. The Datu or chief of Albay which is Dumaraug and they set sail with unexpected arrival to the town with a fleet of ships but the force of the sea and its waves were strong and turbulent they cannot go any further so they set a shelter instead near the beach which Rawis Point. From there he sent small boat with a sign of peace to announce the purpose of his coming, which was simply to carty Bingi away as his wife or had means of having her as a wife. But the lady rejected her and that she was content with the husband she had and did not care to exchange him for any other, even one much more powerful, and that so long as he was alive, she could not think of leaving him and she would never consent and was ready to give her life first and Karagrag deployed his men although they were outnumbered but how the fortress was built they were in bigger advantage than Dumaraug’s fleet. Dumaraug reconsidered and hesitated a bit but not for long, and without attempting anything more and risking his men, he returned home just as he had come, leaving both the chief and his wife Bingi happy. Bingi: a name which had been bestowed on her because of her chastity Musical Instruments There were four very quiet instruments played indoors at nighttime - Small lute, bamboo zither , nose flute and reed Jew’s harpThe other four were very loud and therefore suitable for war , dancing and public gatherings - Bamboo or seashell bugle , metal gongs , skin-headed drums , and bamboo resonator Kudyapi - a kind of small lute carved out of single piece of wood. -only played by men mainly to accompany their own love songs. Sungar-sungar or burbuwaya - body of the kudyapi Burubunkun- the neck Dulos – strings Pidya – fretboard Birik-birik – tuning pegs Apil-apil or sayong - scroll Korlong - a female equivalent - kind of zither made of a single node of bamboo strings cut from the skin of the bamboo itself. - each raised and tuned on two little bridges and played with both hands like a harp. Tolali or Lantuy – a nose flute with three or four finger holes , and was played in imitation of a mournful human voice. Subing – a Jew’s harp twanging reed plucked between the lips or teeth with the mouth open as a variable resonating chamber. Bodyong – a conch shell or section of bamboo played against the lip like a bugle. Kalatong – tambourines Gadang or gimbal – war drums Tibongbong – a node of bamboo pounded on the floor as a rhythm instrument. Agong - is the most important instrument - a bronze gong Spanish explorers encountered wherever they went ashore. - were played either on the edge or on the navel slowly to announce bad news and faster to summon the people. Mungmungan – boss or teat Panas – a flat gong or worn off by long use. Mangmang – platelike Chinese gong Ganding – the largest in an assemble of gong Hototok – to play in a simple stick Saramisaw – more than one player alternated strokes Pagdanaw or pagbasal – to strick on the boss with a basal Basal – padded drumsticksLinganay – actual bells from spain or asia Golong-golong – little jingle bells Vocal Music Awit – general term for singing Paraawit – a professional singer Biyaw – sing solo Mananabat – responding in chorus Batbat – to beat metal flat Bagaw or dagaw – two or more reinforce or complement each other in male drink fest. Daihuan – songs in which drinkers make fun of one of their fellows. Biriyawan – tales or fables Karankuun – if it was of epic length and loftiness Hiya or hele – shout of men putting their shoulders to do a common task. Otohele – sea chanteys Hotlo – heavy beat with a refrain Sabi – general term for poetry or song in panay. Handuum – to recall somebody departed with affectionate praise Bat-ar – was a dirge or eulogy addressed to the deceased to a wake. Haya – dirges in leyte and samar DANCING Sabay or sayaw – What’s the general term for dancing Sabay suggested bird like motions with the arms for men , one arm pointing down and the other up , to be reversed while opening and closing the fist ; for ladies extended with low deliberate finger motions. Magsalabay – for men Magkigal – for women Magbabanug – for a pair of dancers Magsisibay – for group dancing in two opposed lines Taruk – referred to the delicate foot movements characteristics of dancing by women. Patad-patad – stomping to a light tread by either sex. Kigal – a lady held a kerchief in both hands , waving it to one side and then the other. Salabay – a war dance in which two men armed with shields and spears. GAMES AND GAMBLING Bata-bata or kulasot – little girls dolls Kunggit – played with kigay or buskay seashells, probably modern “sungka” Spuntops - is a popular form of gambling for men of all ages requiring a good top throwing both skill and muscle- made out of hardwood Gamowan – strong soft cord of maguey Ulo – head Tagad – point Kasing – top Tuyong or urok – motionless or “Sleeping” Cockfighting Magbubulang – a wrist weapon not only for cocks but also for men who had challenged one another. Garol or bulang – blade Gatas-gatas plant – healing sap CHAPTER 6 NATURAL SCIENCE Natural science - A branch of science that deals with the physical world, e.g. physics, chemistry, geology, biology. Visayan Visayan society knew no schools or classroom: Children became functioning adults through informal instruction within the family. Parawali – probably from Malay - Arabic wali, “saint” – Who gave advice in household gatherings. The movement of heavenly bodies and change of seasons, the direction of the winds and recognition of storm signals, the nature and habits of different species in the animal kingdom, All such knowledge might be called natural science. Environment Banwa – A word which meant mountains, countryside, terrain, climate, and homeland. Banwaan meant overgrown. Napabanwa gone to the hills. Binmanwa – was a man who could take care of himself in the wilds. Banwaanun or tagubanwa were mountain dwelling spirits. Visayans child probably first learned the names and characteristics of wildlife from comparisons with human behaviour. People who affected gaudy clothes were said to be like the brilliant big “kakanog” butterflies, Evil omens that brought swiddening activities to a halt and the abandonment of the site. Men who strutted around in a blood red “pudong” Were red-headed “piyak” woodpecker who pecked any branch they happened to light on. G string were like “piyas” a baby monkey, who supposedly tied their youngs to their breast with Rattan Women who were not good mothers to their babies were like “tabon birds” or sea turtles which did not hatch their own eggs but buried them in the sand to be incubated by the sun A promising youth who died young was like the “balitnung” tree, whose leathery bark was easily removed. A boastful man who promised much but delivered little was like a “Biribog” crab that move backwards If a man said he was like a giant tridacna clam in a certain place, he meant he would never move.  The greedy and voracious and the powerful who “ swallowed up everything” were naturally called crocodiles ( buwaya). Albinos like a deer or turtle – were “pangasa”, bad luck, since their unnatural color must mean they were bewitched. It was taught to that a crocodile’s age could be determined from the numbers of pebbles found in it’s craw since it swallowed once a year as ballast. They never hurt villagers on the same stream where they lived The actual danger of crocodiles was an everyday fact of village life. Many of these phenomena which would be rejected by modern sciences but were accepted by well educated missionaries in their day. Like father Alcina did not doubt that the “ipo” tree Was so venomous that it killed any who passed through it’s shade or downwind. Neither did he doubt that one of his parishioners had given birth to a crocodile twin, A little creature delivered together with a normal child. Visayan bestiary Bangil or sikop – hawks in whose nest a root or herb could be found, which contained the secret of their fishing ability. Barangitaw – A species of small crocodile friendly to human beings. Basol – A caterpillar whose hairs caused dangerous infection when accidentally touched, but were harmless if it was seen before touching. Bukaw – An owl which was a sure sign of death if it perched on a rooftop. Dumuragmon – A black snake that made bark-leaf nests, And cured wounded snakes of it's kind by applying medicinal herbs. Kolago or kagwang – A kind of flying squirrel whose loud clear cry at dawn meant there would be no rain that day Mago – A tarsier that live on charcoal. Magpopo – A small viper with a crest and that crowed like a rooster. Miro – A civet cat which charmed roosting hens with it’s eyes so that they fell from the branch. Taligatos – A snake which was always accompanied by 100 others, which would rush up if it was killed, So nobody dared to touch it Tigi – A snake whose bite was not fatal if the victim called for help and somebody responded, Who would then suffer the effects of the poison instead. Tila – Clams which screeched with a loud voice if left exposed by receding tides. Walo – walo – A snake which spent eight days on land and eight days at sea, alternately. Health and hygiene A feature of Filipino life which always attracted spanish attention was their personal cleanliness. Dr. Antonio morga ( 1609, 174) considered it note worthy that they immerse the whole body. “ Without considering that it could do them harm at any time”. Father colins thought that the reason Filipino’s settled along streams and riverbanks was their fondness for bathing. Upper-class Visayans wanted to have a pleasing body odor. They therefore scrubbed their bodies with pumice when bathing, perfuming and oiling them afterwards.  Pigafetta detected the scent of benzoin and storax on the persons of the two butuan rajah’s. They were also careful of personal hygiene, kulkug or kilikug was to clean out the ears with a feather or swab and silat was a kind of toothbrush made of vegetable husk for cleaning and polishing the teeth. Sipan being fancy once of betel nut bark which ladies often gave to their lovers. Bobho was a tree whose scrapping were used as a shampoo to get rid of dandruff. Puno was a fine comb for removing head lice or ringworms scales. Atole – refers to the dirt of the ears. Atinlig – refers to the dirt under the nails. Buras – refers to the dirt or unclean part of private parts, which is an extreme offense, burason being insult so serious it required revenge or satisfaction. Aliments Visayans suffered skin diseases as one of their most common complaints. Some of these are simple discomforts connected with ordinary activities. Nugas – blister from poisonous plants. Aripunga – sores between the toes. Bayook – on the throat. Alatay or kalamayo – more serious defined by mèntrida as erysipela, an intense inflammation accompanied by streptococcus infections. Pocks in general called “buti”. Pinarurkan – being distinguished as the “ virulent kind” that is smallpox More widespread were bangtas, tabahak and tabukaw ulcers Bulog – a glandular swelling, all of which spaniards called “bubas”. Iri – was to separate somebody outside the village who was offensively bubaso.  Bubas – the classic meaning of bubas was the lymphatic swelling symptomatic of bubonic plague. Leprocy – was called karanga, kagirkit or tuyog Amomotol – especially suggesting the loss of finger or toes Goar or godon – was the stage when the ravages of the disease were still not visible externally. Butog – the thickening of skin. Bangag – the loss of the nose. Binokbok – a wound so deep they seemed to be eaten by bokbok wood borers. This specialized vocabulary, however, does not reflect the incidence of the disease so much as the emotional reaction which it elicits in human socities Ailments localized in internal organs include those related to bagu, the spleen and sulok- sulok, stomach. Pantog – was bladder or scrotal rupture. While any complaints pertaining to liver (atay) was attributed to the appetite of witches, so that “ Ginitay ka!”, was in itself a curse invoking such a result Wati or bituk was intestinal worm Atol – bloody stool. Botbot – protruding hemorrhoids. Tibak was gout Tiyan – dropsy or edema(that is swelling caused by retention of body fluids, which was usually considered the result of a spell cast by a Datu against one who had deceived him.) Piyol – were joint pains. Scrofulous swellings or goiter were called bonga after the betel nut fruit. Uyangas – was an ingrown nail or an infection that caused a nail to drop off.  Atolay – any infected scratch or abrasion. Tayum – was toothache or gum infection. Malhit and mila-mila – were eye ailments. Puling – was any defect in vision: thus the tuba seller ask for his wares was himoling because of their expected effect It is noteworthy that recognizable synptoms of tuberculosis like coughing blood are not listed, perhaps they were subsumed under respiratory complaints hulab, hubaw, or ubo- cough, asthma, or hoarseness or perhaps even bugtas, an infirmity attributed to hunger or overwork. Treatment They were 5 general categories of visayan treatment. Massage, fumigating or sweating, prescription of medicine, counter sorcery and propitiation of supernatural beings. Massage was applied for injured or dislocated muscles or pressure put on nerve centers by physical experts called hilot. Their reputation was sufficient for father Sanchez (1617,56v) to use hilotar as a Spanish verb, that is to say “Balokar”: hilotar or to massage a womans abdomen to cause a miscarriage or abortion. Mamarokpok – was a masseur who simply pummeled the back and spine and usually a datu’s husky slaves. Surgery was limited to suturing ir cauterizing wounds and to cosmetics, surgery to repair torn earlobe.  Susup or kulot was to trim the edges of ragged lobes, So the raw surfaces could be sutured together. Red animitas ants were used, a species as large as wasps which had the characteristics of leaving it’s head behind with jaws clamped in it’s vicious bite. Tiyun – was a button cautery, that is igniting a pellet of moxa, the wooly lint of certain plants, to smoulder on a small wound. Atolob – was sweat induced by smoke, steam or rubbing with hot stones or ashes, and was like the most popular specific against skin diseases. Toob – was to fumigate by covering the patients with mats and blankets to concentrate the smoke of medicinals fuels. Aslob – was a steam bath in which the patient lay enclosed on a rack over containers of water into which hot stones were dropped, the woods used for this purpose called bulung meaning medicine. Obal was the most effective, from which was derived the terms burulngan or bulnganan for the little enclosed sheds. Hospitals came to be called “pamulngagan” when they were introduced by spanish missionaries. Tambal – were all plants, roots, leaves, or barks with medicinal properties, for which the Spaniards called the “ tanbalan an herbulario” , “ one who has knowledge of plants “( hierbas) , their power and property. ( They were not to be confused with practitioners of sleight of hand who pretended to extract a bone or stone from some part of the patients body – naga botbot).  Tambal were taken internally or externally, with plasters or poultices distinguished as haklup or tampus. Sampling of visayan materia medica. Agoho – A tree whose leaves were a specific against muscle cramps(the leaves were applied to the affected part or use for a bath). Agusip – A tree whose bark was a specific for intestinal pains(the barks was chewed or decocted for drinking). Argoro – A very medicinal plant ( it shoots were boiled and the decoction drunk for stomachache, it’s leaves used as a plaster for headache, It was also used in baths to bring down fevers). Bangati – A vine used as a preventative for epilepsy. Hagonoy – A plant prescribed for bladder stones or other urinary complaints. Halilitan – A plant whose leaves were chewed mixed with lime , or mixed with oil and hot sulfur as an antidote for poison. Hangapitan – A tree whose toasted leaves were boiled as an antiseptic for bathing wounds. Kalampisaw – A plant whose root and leaves were applied to open sores. Kalaring – An antiseptic composed of citrus juice and iron fillings, for drying up small sores. Lagtang – A potent vine whose root was an antidote for poison and when sliced, cleared vision,( it’s fruit was poisonous it’s juice was filtered a laxative). Lampuyang – A plant with an offensive odor applied to swellings. Lumaka or hanono – A tree whose leaves were masticated, sprinkled with salt, heated, then wrapped in another leaf for application to wounds.  Pili – A large tree whose resin was used as a healing valm or ointment. Salimbagal – A plant whose cooked broth was a specific for bloody stool. Tangan-tangan – very peppery seeds from which a medicinals oil was made, abd whose leaves were good for swellings, chills and sores. Tigaw - A smaal tree whose leaves, smoked like tobacco or decoction drunk, were good for coughs. There were also medicines of animal or mineral origin. Soil of abandoned termites mounds was good for fumigating. Calculous stine found in a sharks head were a cure for similar stones in the bladder or kidney. Powdered duyong bones were almost a panacea, good for bloody stool, diarrhea, colds and fevers The marginals (bantok) of turtle shells were said to crack in contact with any poison. According to Alcina (1668,3:347) remarked, “ I tried it once, but frankly only by an innate desire to preserve life could do such a medicine be taken”. Illness attributed to sorcery had to be relieved either by a sorcerers themselves. Some sorcerers were believed to be so powerful they could kill with a breath or the touch of a hand (hokhok). Panlus was either a spear. G-strings, or some other personal possession which caused leg pains or swelling in the victim when he stepped over it. Basong – Swelling of the stomach, was immediately suspected of having been caused by an evil spell worked by a datu.  These required diagnosis and prescription by babaylan or daetan, shamans or mediums able to contact the spirit world in a state of trance to learn the nature of the offense and what was required for satisfaction. Panganito – Involving the sacrifice of a live animal or other food offerings. Timekeeping The Visayans divided the daylight hours into a dozen or more specific times according to the position of the sun. Between dawn and noon, they reckoned “nasirakna”, shining, and “nabahadna, climbing, and then “iguritlogna” , time for hens to lay, and makalululu, when your bracelets slid down your raised arm if you pointed at the sun. High noon was “odto na an adlaw”; followede by two points of decents in the afternoon. Palisna and ligasna; until midway to setting, tunga na. Natupongna sa lubiwas when the sun sank to the height it the palm trees seen against the horizon, and sunset was apuna: or when the sun finally disappeared. Day ended with igsirinlo, when it was too dark to recognize other people. Beyond the day, however, they distinguished no time period shorter than one month, this means they did not recognize either the Eurasian seven day or Javanese five day a week, neither of which, As a matter of fact, was based on any Celestial cycle but they reckoned the days of the month precisely. The days from one new moon to the next, just as divided the hours of the day by the movement of the sun, so they identified the days of the month by the appearance of moon in the night sky.  The new moon was subang the first night it could be seen, or more colorfully. Kilat- kilat – a lightning flash. When it appeared as a full crescent the next night or two, it severed to have opened it’s eyes (gimata) or, alternatively, closed it’s mouth(ungul)- like a baby’s on a mother’s breast. Then came a “three day moon” or high new moon, hitaasna ang subang, followed by balirig, the fourth or fifth night, and next it was near the zenith (odto). When it appeared as an exact half disk-what western calendars call the first quarter moon – It was directly overhead at sunsets, and therefore odtona an bulan. Then as it continued to wax, it “passed the barrier” (lakad), and when it was lopsided both before and after full moon it looked a crab shell (maalimangona). The full moon was greeted with a variety of names- paghipono, takdul, ugsar -but most significantly as dayaw, perfect or praiseworthy, fit recognition of it’s spectacular shape and sunset – sunrise brilliance. As it began to wane – that is darken (madulumdulum) – a night or two later, It set on the western horizon or late by mistake – like a man who dies just before a son or grandson is born. The fifth or sixth night of waning was parik, to level or flatten. Kalin was the third quarter, so it had crossed the second barrier (lakadna an nagsag-uli) by the twenty fourth or twenty fifth night, and he got ready for new moon again (malasumbang) about the twenty ninth. This was the dark moon, or what the Spaniards called conjucion ( meaning the conjunction of the sun and moon) when the moon disappeared for a night or two, to the Visayans, it was dead, lost, or gone into hunting.  These phases of the moon were common time markers known to all. Duldulman an bulan ( the moon begins to wane today) or paodtononta an bulan (let’s wait for the quarter moon),(Sanchez 1617,37,188). Nasubang nga tao was newcomer or upstart. Visayans month was a lunar month – 29 and a half days and 43 minutes to be exact - so twelve of them did not add up to a year but only 354 days. Thus unschooled Visayans – plebe imperita, as Father Alcina said- calculated months in the christian calendar as beginning with a new moon, and observers familiar with twelve month year, both sixteenth – century spaniards and twentieth – century filipinos, tend to equate the two; the use of a moon basal calendar with lack of education. But Miguel De Loarca (1582,164,166) wrote more carefully in 1582, what loarca cakked months were seasonal events connected with swidden farming, they do not appear in early visayans dictionaries as the names if months, nor do any other names, rather, the year is defined as the same time between ine harvest and the next. A time which naturally varies according to whether the monsoon rains cime early or late and in what quantity. Alcina (1668a,3:40) explained the word tuig year: as follows [ It is a word] with which they also counted the years, but without computing or numbering the months, which from harvest to harvest, they would count as eleven or twelve distinct and past, and which they called tuig, and although, they now confuse it with the year, it was not a single year but an indefinite time because the word means to them the same as “time” does to us. There 3 Visayans word for year- taon, tuig and dag-on, taon actually meant harvest- “taon na didto dile”( it’s already harvest in their place )” and was used for calculating age; old folks were those who had seen many harvests(Sanchez 1617,504v). Tuig was both harvest (for example, tinutuigan, what is ready for harvest) and any recurring period of time, not necessarily annual. Tinuig na siya was said of a menstruating woman, and panuigan sang ulan sang habagat was the coming of the rains either from the South or sang amihan, from the north. Dag-on was used in the same way: panag-on sa kahahuyan was then everything was in bloom. Indeed, it was the flowering of trees and plants which indicated the relation of the seasons. Kalparasan (january-march), kallaloto(march-may), hatlawaan (june-august), and katkisiw(October -December) were the months during which trees of these makes blossomed. The seasonal behaviour of birds was another indicator: when the kahaw bird gave it’s “kahaw” call in the morning, it was time to plant. The agricultural cycle began, As Loarca noted, with the appearance of certain stars. Most often, these were the pleiades in the constellation of taurus which can be first seen in june, locally called moroporo, meaning either “ the boiling lights” or a flock of birds Big dipper (ursa major) which they called losong (rice mortars) or balatik(ballista) , though in panay balatik was that the called the two bright stars in Gemini. The constellation of aries, the ram, they called alimango the crab. Visayans also believed that just as the moon times human menstrual cycle, so it phases controlled all biological growth. The dark moon was considered sinister because it was the favorite of witches and asuang, who fled at the first sight of the crescent moon showing it’s horn. Nobody doubted an eclipse (bakunawa) was caused by a huge sawa, python, trying to swallow the moon. Winds and weather Visayans called the Northeast monsoon amihan and the southwest habagat, what the spanish called the brisas and vendavales. Another major airstreams, the Northeast trade wind, brought fair weather but due to the rotation of the earth, it veered in clockwise direction as it moved south. The Visayans called south as timog, which Sanchez (1617,515) defined accurately as winds that blows between brisas and mediodia, - that is, between north- east and the south. Kanaway – or northwest wind , ipo – regularly causing respitory ills. Timog was always considered a relief from the monsoons – blowing in from the east in July – September, the south in May – June – but the sound wind itself was properly called salatan or iphag (“the other side”). Visayans, however, did not recognize these winds as the four winds of western navigators , so spanish lexicigraphers selected four visayan terms and applied these to the four winds: kanawayan, amihan, salatanan and habagat. Some old men were renowned for the accuracy of their weather forecast. Dark clouds meant a squally storm (anos), but leaden skies meant a real typhoon (bagyo) if the new moon of October was considered the most likely time for a typhoon. They also prophesied whether the coming year would be wet or dry – supposedly by observing the position of stars and constellations. Seamanship Visayans spent a lot of time on the water because boats were their only form of transportation. Heavy loads like ship hulls or tree trunks could be moved on land with log rollers. The word for a steave or pulley (galingan) was extended to the wheels of Spanish carros(cart) and then carrozas(carriages). Settlements were built on the coast or riverbanks, and nobody lived more than 40 kms from saltwater. Orientations was taken, not from the direction of the sun, but of the sea- ilawod, downstreams or iraya, upstreams. Basura was used to fertilize fields to guest to attend weddings. Good paddling required both skills and stamina. Karakoa- speed required the coordination ti get a hundred paddles in the water at the same instant. The sound of such swift, well-timed paddling was called ragabrab , but bungkalis was splashing and hagdol was striking the hull. Kabig was to move a boat broadside to, and sowal was the opposite. Paddling against the wind was called bulsa-bulsa, from bulos, to take revenge or oaybavk in kind. (People living on the coast showed their orientation by calling tge milky way , binugsay,”paddled”, because it looked like a ships wake across the sky.)  Sailors in visayan waters had to sail out of sight of land in fair weather, and so set their courses by piloting rather than by celestial navigation. Thus, though Visayans coined a term for the Mariner’s compass when it inteoduced in the next century-padalunan, “thing with a needle “ – they made a Little use of it because it did not tell them anything they did not know already. CHAPTER 7 SOCIAL ORGANIZATION DATU -The head of a Visayan community reffered to by the spanish as a “principal, chief” or “lord vasal”. Kadataonan – datu class (group of datus) Sibali- A man could become a datu by marrying into the datu clads Binokot- Daughter “Princesses” Sandil- Secondary wives Lumao- a secondary wife came from nobility Timawa- if she was a commoner or slave Poli or lubus nga datu- one of the pure or unmixed ancestry Kalibutan- “all around” or reffering to one’s entire heritage. Primus inter pares- Pangulo, head or leader Kaponoan- puno, root or trunk Rajah- Ruler Batara- noble lord or Sarripada- (His Highness) Bendahara- Prime minister Bahandi- Datu’s wealth (items like gold, porcelain, or bronze gongs) Atubang sa datu- “ Facing the datu” Chief minister or privy counselor of datu. Paragahin, dispenser- ( steward or majordomo) who collected and recorded tribute and corps of datu. Bilanggo/Bilanggowan- Jail Tumao/sandig sa datu- supporters of datu Paratwag/Mantala- message announcer  Himuka- “Gifts” for marriage BawBaw- “Gifts” for awarded decisions. Timawa -Spanish dictionaries always define as timawa as freemen (libres) or freedmen (libertos) and matitimawa. Citizen (Cuidadanos)- referred to timawa as “citizens” were nonsalve resident of chartered cities (cuidades) who enjoyed its special laws and exemption. Buhis or handug- timawa tribute paid to their datu Knight and hidalgo – the boxer codex called timawa. Timindok (big banana)- if they were wealthy enough to act like datu By the seventeenth century, timawa were referred to as commoners (plebeyos) or tungan tawo, which means ‘people in-between.’ And Fray Alcina, the timawa were remembered as a ‘third rank of nobility,’ but even that memory was fading. The modern Visayan word timawa now simply means ‘poor’ or ‘destitute.’” Oripun - The word “Oripun” appears to be transitive form of an root “udip” (to live) meaning to let live. Bihag – Captives, either ransomed or sold. Hayohay or Ayuey – Oripun who lived in their master’s house. Tuhay or Mamahay – Oripun who had their own house and field. Hayohay – Domestic oripun, lived in the master’s house, received food/clothing, worked for themselves one day out of four. Bulan (Half-slaves) – Oripun who served their creditors part-time. Tilor or Sagipat (Quarter-slaves) – Quarter slaves if grandparents were non-slave. Gintubo – House-born slaves, children raised by their master’s house, some became favorites (sibin or ginogatan). Tinubos – Redeemed/ransomed individuals, transferred from one creditor to another.  Tumataban – Slave bonded for 6 pesos, worked five days a month. Tumarampok – Slave bonded for 12 pesos, worked four days out of seven. Horohan – Oripun performing lower-echelon military service as mangagayaw oarsmen or manghat warriors. Dagupan – Vassalage fee instead of field labor. Upward mobility – Some oripun had opportunities to move up in society based on economic conditions and personal achievements. DEBT AND DEPENDENCE -Visayan Social fabric was thus waven of debt and dependence that is relationship in which one person was deoendent on the decisions of another, the one exercising choice, the other not. tagobilang- the days given a slave to work for himself sulit-a debt without interest huram-borrow utang-debt gaon-involuntary collateral seized until the debt qas paid. tokod-“to make sure” was to collect a debt from somebody other than the debtor. COMMUNITY - A datus following was his haop or dolohan, Visayan terms to which tagalog barangay was added after manila became the colonial capital. nahaop ako kan koan- I belong to so and so’s barangay palos or hinapot- one released from captivity bongto or lungsod-the villages and towns where one or more haop live. gamuro-hamlets or neighborhoods parentela- or kindred sandugo- men ritual brothers kasungar or katawagan-take common names ubas-share the same clothes or sweetheart  balata-oath not to partake of a certain food or drink till they met again. yab-yab- non-datos who affected gold teeth. tabi-polite expression like “tabi sa iyo umagi ako”, “with your permission I will pass”. KINSHIP -Early Spanish dictionaries of Visayan languages often list Cebuano, hiligaynon, or sumareno variants under a single entry. amahan,amay and anduyon-father amba, or ambuyon- father (cebu variant) ama, ina or inda-terms for special respect inahan,indayon or iloy-mother inang-mother (kiniray-a variant) Baba- affectionately addressed for fathers himaba- gift to a go-between by a suitor who wished to establish such a relationship with his prospectives father-in-law. yoyo, oyo-an,or bata- uncle iyaan or dada- aunts anak- sons and daughters igkaanak,igsoon,ignanhod,igtotood or otod- cousins either sex kaotoran- relatives of one lineage patod or ig-agaw- cousins from siblings distinguished igkampor- second cousin in kiniray-a bogto or boggong tinay- gut brothers (children of the same parents) Within the family, there were courteous forms of address which made this distinction. oyo or liti- sister called their brothers akay- brothers called their sisters magulang,ubu or aso- older brothers umbo- older sisters  bubu(madame)- mothers called their daughters(cebu), ipi in candaya, and umboy, idi or didi(samar) oto or otoy- affectionate name for husband boto(penis)- only son. LAW - Laws were part of the customs and traditions handed down from one generation to another; they were not considered products of legislation but part of the natural order of things. kabtangan- customs butang- to put something mestizos- kalibugan alagang- natural awe which juniors felt presence of seniors hilas- ingrained reluctance to contradict parents superiors naga kahilas- was for an ancestor spirit to keep a disrespectful descendant awake with a guilty conscience kagawigan synonym for kabtangan from guni- to keep or preserve batas-batas- tariff hukom- judge dangpas- was for the theft of root crops ugnas- for fallen fruit sorok- for bananas, sugarcane, or coconuts. hilugo- blood-priceViolent Curses Binaliw ka[be changed]- become crippled or deformed Ginanitan ka[Be flayed] like an animal hide or [ Nahahaan tinay mo] get your guts. hingulaw- shame payment kubol- for longtime loves to marry Dalaga- a young woman marriageable age whether virgin or not.  bugus(complete) bingil(chaste)-both for virginity and for faithfulness to one man. kiral- lewd or prostitutes. MARRIAGE -Wedding between people without property to share by be quest were simple ceremonies in which the couple pertook of the same cup or plate and hayohay were simply married off their masters and given a few pots. Weddings of datus were most important social events in a visayan community. Bugay or Bride-Price Spanish dowry (dote) – a property a bride brought into her marriage to be enjoyed by her husband. kukod – act as kind of insurance to the groom. The Marriage contract negotiated in girls house accompanied by 2 or 3 mediators. hingusul – Breach of contract himaraw- a compensation in gold for all the sleep she had lost while the bride was an infant. Bokot- where she spent her days as binokot Snatched off one another’s Pudong Banlal- a gift that fathers traditionally provide when a new household is formed. dapi or darapi – which is to give them the clothes they need. Marriage was forbidden between first degree kin. Pangoli- was a gift to attract back a wife who had fled to her relatives. INHERITANCE -Children of both sexes inherited equally unless their parents specified some preference in a will (bilin). Children of both sexes inherited equally unless their parents specified some preference in a will (bilin).  illegitimate children inherited only at the pleasure of the legal heirs. An unmarried girl died who was the only child of a Widowed datu. A childless woman adopted the daughter of her brother. PROPERTY AND LABOR -The property mentioned in bride price exchanges or inheritance disputes was always slaves and behandi imoorted porcelains and gongs and gold, especially ornate gold ornaments whose value greatly exceeded their gold content. The property in bride—price exchanges or inheritance disputes was always slaves and bahandi. Property of whatever value must have been inheritable. All products of human labor were alienable property which could be bought and sold, children are included. lito was resale and linilito pagtubos. Oripun were not bondservants workincg off their dept. Namomoo – was to work in somebody’s else’s house. lihog -were hired hands compensated only with meals and with a feast when the project was completed. Himakdul – was compensation given an agent or messenger for difficult service. Hinguli – was a kind of hazardous duty pay on expeditions. Lan-o/tagolalina – the work a slave did for his master. Tampok (a precious stone) – was what he did for his master. CHAPTER 8 WEAPONS AND WAR Bladed weapons were an ordinary part of Visayan male costume. This includes daggers, knives, swords, spear and javelins, and shield and body armors. Bow and Arrow scattered distribution, and the blowgun was found only in Mindanao and Palawan. SWORDS AND DAGGERS BALADAW A short broad dagger with a single-edged leaf-shaped blade It was 20 to 25 centimeters long Typically decorated with tassels made with silk or hairs TWO KINDS OF SWORDS KRIS A long double-edged blade Modern specimen run to 60 to 70 centimeters Either straight or wavy but characterized by an asymmetrical hornlike at the hilt end called Kalaw-Kalaw Wavy Kris was called Kiwo-Kiwo KAMPILAN Came from Spanish word as "A heavy, pointed cutlass” Modern ones are two-handed weapons running to 90 centimeters Never manufactured by Visayan Smiths but imported from parts of Mindanao, both Muslims and Pagan It was coated with poison before going to battle SPEARS BANKAW This was the most important Visayan Weapon Carried for security and ceremony, not only in warfare but in religious functions and business transactions The general term for it was Bankaw; while a light spear was Barobankaw or Bankaway, or Piniris Men called their own spears by intimate terms: Ipambuk or Ipanonos nuance of "My trusty blade" SPEARS THAT ARE HIGHLY POLISHED SONGIL The most prestigious spear Leaf-shaped blade with 30 centimeters long PINISKAN OR PINAMASKAN Had an elegant round or flame-like inlays of brass, copper, and silver Could be valued at one slave BINALO was similar in shape to Piniskan but cheaper BUDIAK was longer and wider but thinner LIPARAK was short and broad TUMBAK the medium-sized LANAB the longest and widest of all TINIKOL was the shape of a tikol leaf BINUSLORAN thick down the middle PINUSO was so called because of its similarity to the flower of a banana plant MISSILES Missiles were ordinarily poisoned with Bulit, and Snake venom, preferably from a Viper The small role assigned, the bow and Arrow in Visayan Warfare is suggested by the poverty of its vocabulary.  Bow was BUSOG Arrow was ODYONG Quiver was LANANGAN In Panay, the Arrow is called PANA BLOWGUN (SUMPIL)  found in Sarangani and Palawan a natural cane, projected a thick dart (Kalway or Pangodyong) about 20 centimeters long A butt of softwood to make an airtight plunger A barbed head often made of fishbone—and poisoned Its length permitted great accuracy DEFENSIVE ARMS BAROTE quilted or corded body armor which the Spaniards called Escaupiles woven of thick-braided abaca or bark cords. BURLAP or HABAY-HABAY was worn next to the body under the barote itself PAKIL and BATUNG-BATUNG were breastplates or backplates made of bamboo, bark, and hardwood KALASAG  the shield, was made of light, corky wood, generally considered sword-proof TAMIN a small round buckle to have been copied from the Moluccans WARFARE Visayan life was sufficiently warlike to provide an occasion for men to win the tattoos that caused the Spaniards to call them Pintados. Favorite Samar targets were Albay and Catanduanes, with forays as far as north as Casiguran; and marriage relations with Burials, Masbate, and Mindanao were the results of wife seeking raids from those places. Legend recounted the fame of a giant of a man from Magtaon called Pusong who used to raid Calbiga and Libunao. Boholanos men were considered to be the bravest of all warriors, who formerly would not permit any other nation to abuse them. PURPOSE AND CAUSES OF WARS Visayan Communities had small populations, low level of production, and unlimited access to natural resources. Wars were therefore fought to control people, not territory. Waged by raids intended to seize slaves outright Initiate or enforce Alliance for trading networks Visayans fought not by armies or navies but by citizen warriors Recognized for causes of just wars were: Direct Raid or attack by another community Betrayal of blood pacts or alliances Treachery or abuse of traders in a friendly Village Murder or theft by an outsider Slave raiding was the main reason for the unprovoked attack Strategy and tactics Gubat was the general term for warfare, but actual engagements were distinguished as gahat by land and mangayaw by sea, or salakay by storming a fortified position. Preferred tactic on land was ambush—habon, saghid, hoom, or poot—either by lying in wait or by such strategies as exposing a few agile warriors to enemy view to lure them out into the trap. -Sayang was to pass by hidden enemies unawares. -To loot was dahas or dampas. -Pangawat being the one who took the lion's share -Dugdug was to rob on the trail like a highway man -Lingo if it involved killing in an isolated spot -Dakot or bakot was a complete sacking of a community -Taban was anything taken by force, including wives and women -Sangbay or bansag, any trophy, captive, or goods seized from an enemy -Dangin was both spoils of war and something set aside for a religious sacrifice Special roles connected with the conduct of war included away -bantay-sentinel -bila-allies -kagon-mediator -laway-spy -Asdang was hand-to-hand combat -Bulu was a duel -Hulaw was a man known to be a look out for an enemy -Angat was to provoke or challenge ex. "pauli kita sa sulad (Let's go both to hell)" -Pinaorihiyan was for a fleeing warrior to turn and spear his pursuer -Naga kamatayan was to fight to the death -mangin matay was a desperate man determined to die on the battlefied -Balita was a bad news of death or captivity -hugyaw or ugyak were the clamorous shouts or chants of returning victors Sea Raiding The most celebrated form of Visayan warfare was sea raiding -mangayaw a word which appeared in all the major languages of the philippines. its roots appears to be kayaw (for example, Ilocano kinayawan, captive) -ayaw, ngayaw, and agaw, meant a raid to bring back slaves or heads. -heads were cut off in the course of battle or murder -Luba, pogot, sumbali, and longol all meant to behead -tongol was also the dress plumage displayed at the stern of a warship The sacrifice that was performed on launching a warship for a raid was called pagdaga -it was considered most effective if the prow and keel were smeared with the blood of a victim from the target community -bangga and bangal was to pursue a fleeing enemy vessel Besides slaves, preferred spoils of war were the bronze gongs and chinese porcelains which constituted bahandi wealth. -Raids were launched to capture choice ladies as brides, particularly the daughters of men with whom collateral ties were advantageous. Defense The best defense against mangayaw attack was to intercept the enemy at sea. Moog, ili, or ilihan was any tower, rocky outcropping, or natural pinnacle that could ne fortified to which evacuees retreated for defense. -Balatik were set along the approaches, and the ground was planted with suyak, ankle high poisoned spikes. -Tambangan is any fortification. -kota means permanent forts built by moros. Peace Pacts Hostilities were suspended by Sandugo Sandugo - which the two parties drank a few drops of one another's blood in a draught of wine. -vowing to stick together through thick and thin, war and peace. Epic Heroes Successful mangayaw raiders were regarded as popular heroes and enjoyed interisland reputation. -they tattoed in proportion to their prowess and were entitled to wear distinctive attire. -karanduun were the most famous among them -worthy of being memorialized in those heroic epics called kandu Chapter 9 Luzon and Mindanao Chapter 9 delves into the distinctions and developments in Luzon and Mindanao during the sixteenth century, offering an ethnographic and historical study of these regions during the early stages of Spanish contact and colonization. Caraga Location and People: Caraga, situated in northeastern Mindanao, was inhabited by the Caraga people. Like many other groups in the region, they were known for their martial abilities and their resistance to foreign domination, including both Spanish and Muslim influence. Political Structure: Caraga was organized into smaller communities led by local leaders or datus. It did not have a centralized political structure like the sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao, but the local datus wielded considerable power within their territories. Interaction with the Spanish: The region was notorious for resisting Spanish conquest, with frequent raids against Spanish settlements. The Caragas, along with other groups, were fierce warriors and conducted maritime raids (also known as piracy), especially in response to Spanish efforts at subjugation. Butuan Location and Importance: Located along the northeastern coast of Mindanao, Butuan was an important political and economic center before the sixteenth century. It had long been engaged in regional and international trade, particularly with China, and was noted for its early metalworking and boat-building skills. Trade and Economy: Butuan's strategic position allowed it to become a key hub for trade, dealing in items like gold, beeswax, and resin. Its connections to the Chinese traders were well-established, as evidenced by archaeological finds of Chinese porcelain and other goods. Political Influence: Although Butuan was not as centralized as the sultanates, it had considerable influence due to its wealth and trade networks. The region's leaders, known as rajahs, had control over maritime trade routes and maintained alliances with other regional powers.  Spanish Contact: By the time of Spanish contact, Butuan's influence had started to wane, but it was still recognized as a significant area for trade and political influence. The Spanish sought to establish relations with Butuan’s leaders, who were more inclined to cooperate with them for trade purposes, in contrast to the resistance seen in other parts of Mindanao. Dapitan Location: Dapitan is located on the northwestern coast of Mindanao. It was one of the important settlements in the region and had its own independent datus. Political and Economic Role: Though smaller than Butuan or the major sultanates, Dapitan was a thriving coastal community involved in local trade. The area was not as centralized as the Muslim sultanates, and the Spanish were able to make inroads more easily in Dapitan compared to other regions. Spanish Relations: Dapitan is notable for its early interaction with the Spanish, who were able to exert some influence over the area. The Dapitan people, though initially resistant, eventually aligned with the Spanish due to political pressure and missionary efforts. The region later became a focal point for Spanish missionary activities, converting many of the local population to Christianity. Important Rulers in Mindanao 1. Sultan of Sulu: ○ The Sultanate of Sulu was one of the most powerful political entities in Mindanao during the sixteenth century. The Sultan of Sulu held centralized power over a large territory and had extensive trade relations with other Southeast Asian states. 2. Sultan of Maguindanao: ○ The Sultan of Maguindanao was another prominent Muslim ruler in Mindanao. This sultanate was also a well-established political unit with strong influence and resistance to Spanish conquest. 3. Rajah of Butuan: ○ Butuan was a significant trading center, and its Rajah was the local leader who controlled the region’s maritime trade routes. Though Butuan had declined somewhat by the time of Spanish contact, the rajahs had a long history of engagement in international trade, especially with China. 4. Datus of Caraga and Dapitan: ○ In regions like Caraga and Dapitan, local leaders known as datus governed smaller barangays. These datus were important figures in their respective regions, wielding influence over their communities and engaging in resistance or cooperation with the Spanish, depending on the circumstances. 5. Rajah Sulayman (though primarily related to Luzon): ○ Although Rajah Sulayman is more connected to the Manila area in Luzon, he is part of the broader discussion in this chapter of resistance to Spanish conquest. He l