Visualizing The Lifespan PDF

VISUALIZING The Lifespan Canadian Edition TANNER WARREN BELLACK MACQUARRIE Chapter 5: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood  Chapter Outline Physical Development Nervous System Skeletal System Muscular System Cognitive Developme...

VISUALIZING The Lifespan Canadian Edition TANNER WARREN BELLACK MACQUARRIE Chapter 5: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood  Chapter Outline Physical Development Nervous System Skeletal System Muscular System Cognitive Development Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development The Information-Processing Perspective Language Development All the Systems Working Together Play Early-Childhood Education Health & Safety Concerns  Physical Development Learning Objectives Identify how the brain develops during the early- childhood period. Describe the key processes of skeletal growth. Explain how gross-motor and fine-motor skills become more refined during the preschool years.  Growth in Early Childhood Between age 2 and 6, the average Canadian child gains 2.7 kg and 5-8 cm each year Individual variability based on: heredity SES nutrition ethnicity culture Figure 5.1 Growth rates during early childhood  The Nervous System Neuronal pruning takes place more slowly The brain gains 20–25% of adult weight Increased brain weight and size due to more connections and continued myelination More connections → more complex thinking and movements Myelination → neurons communicate more quickly Preschoolers react more quickly and have improved hand–eye coordination  The Nervous System Figure 5.3 The Corpus callosum corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain Myelination of the corpus callosum allows the hemispheres to communicate and work together better Figure 5.2 Myelination of the cerebellum  The Nervous System Lateralization: the process by which the right and left hemispheres of the brain take on specific functions Right hemisphere Controls the left side of the body Involved in perception of emotion Left hemisphere Controls the right side of the body Plays a dominant role in language Handedness: the preference for using one hand over the other for basic activities such as eating, throwing, and writing  The Skeletal System Most obvious changes in the bones: Length, Width, Hardness Ossification: process through which cartilage becomes bone Occurs from infancy through adolescence Variation in length and width of bones and sequence of ossification Affected by genetic and environmental influences Environment: nutrition, physical stimulation, overeating, food choices Deficiencies can negatively affect bone growth  The Skeletal System For healthy bone growth, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends adequate calcium intake exposure to sunshine (Vitamin D) consumption of various fruits and vegetables Diets deficient in key nutrients can lead to skeletal disorders For example: Stunting (a.k.a. chronic growth retardation) linked to delayed cognitive development, poor educational attainment, physical problems later in life  The Muscular System As bones change, muscles become stronger, thicker, and more complex Evidenced through improvements in gross motor and fine motor skills Small muscles control fine motor skills Example: muscles of the hands and fingers Large muscles power gross motor skills  Motor Skill Milestones Motor changes result from improved stability enhanced muscle complexity and growth myelination of the CNS  Cognitive Development Learning Objectives Explain the features of children’s thinking during Piaget’s preoperational period. Summarize Vygotsky’s ideas about children’s cognitive development. Describe the areas of focus of the information-processing theory in early childhood. List key changes in language development that occur during early childhood.  Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development Ages 2 to 7 Child begins to think symbolically Preschoolers begin to use language to make sense of the world Perception of the world is still centered on immediate events Child tends to overlook sequential steps in getting from point A to point B  Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Piaget separated the preoperational stage into two substages: 1. Symbolic function, about age 2 to age 4 The ability to use language gives children a new way of thinking about the world Thinking symbolically = to understand that one object can stand for another 2. Intuitive thought, about age 4 to age 7 Children want to know how and why  Piaget: Symbolic Function Substage Children actively demonstrate their ability to think symbolically Form of symbolic substitution = language Words are used to refer to objects, feelings, beliefs, and intentions  Piaget: Symbolic Function Substage Features of preoperational thinking: Centration: a Conservation: the quality of thinking in understanding that key which a person physical properties of focuses on one an object remain aspect or dimension constant even if the of an object while appearance of the disregarding any object changes other dimension  Piaget: Symbolic Function Substage Features of preoperational thinking: Egocentrism: a Irreversibility: the cognitive quality in which belief of preoperational one is centered in one’s own frame of reference thinkers that objects Animism: an and events, once egocentric belief changed, can never that all inanimate objects have return to their original qualities associated form with humans  Piaget: Intuitive Thought Substage Characterized by a desire to know how things work and where things come from Tendency of 4- to 7-year-olds to ask a lot of “why” questions Come up with their own explanations of events based on purely intuitive ideas Artificialism: belief that all objects and events are affected by human influences  Criticisms of Piaget Piaget may have underestimated children’s cognitive abilities Studies show that 3-year-olds can distinguish between animate and inanimate objects Studies lack cultural comparisons  Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Social world influences cognitive development Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that a person cannot accomplish independently but that can be done with the assistance of a person with more experience or more advanced cognitive ability Range of optimal learning for children Figure 5.9 Moving through the zone of proximal development  Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Guided participation: a process in which a more experienced teacher becomes an interactive guide, helping a younger or less experienced person do tasks that he or she could not complete independently Scaffolding: a type of guided participation that aids a less experienced individual through complex tasks by providing verbal or physical supports. These supports decrease as the individual’s skill increases.  Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Emphasized the importance of language for cognitive development Language drives the internalization of cognitive rules and thinking Private speech: a language process in which children talk to themselves as they attempt to perform a task or solve a problem Over time, children learn to regulate and internalize private speech  Information-Processing Perspective Uses the analogy of the mind as like a computer Children develop an understanding of belief, desire, and emotion Emergence of a theory of mind: The ability to understand that others have mental states and that their thoughts and knowledge differ from one’s own Understanding that others can hold incorrect or false beliefs Theory of mind required in order to knowingly tell a lie  Information-Processing Perspective Cross-Cultural Studies Cross-cultural studies have shown that theory of mind and false beliefs are universal Example: at age 5, children in Canada, India, Thailand, Peru, and Samoa understand that people can hold false beliefs Lack of a theory of mind in childhood may indicate developmental problems  Information-Processing Perspective Attention Memory Improved ability to Memory abilities direct attention improve during early Come to recognize childhood relevant features of problems Ability to recall, remembering Improved performance on without any cues problem-solving tasks Criticisms of Information-Processing Perspective Criticized for being “too simplistic” Reduces human cognitive development down to a few mechanisms  Language Development Early childhood is a time of significant language development In early childhood, children learn what words mean how to put words together into sentences properly how to use language for social purposes  Language Development General time frame for language milestones  Language Development Vocabulary Grammar Rapid vocabulary Learning grammar rules increases during early Overgeneralization: applying the rules of childhood grammar to cases for “Vocabulary spurt” or which they do not “naming explosion” apply Example: “I sitted on 2-year-olds speak 500 to the bus” 600 words How to put sentences Over 12,000 words together properly when starting school  Language Development Pragmatics the social use of language communication children understand pragmatics at a young age, speaking more politely to adults than to peers Children vary in pragmatics (e.g., egocentric children have poor pragmatics) Figure 5.13 Pragmatics of speech in action  Explaining Language Development Forming categories serves as the basis of language Categorization: the process of forming a cognitive compartment, or grouping, based on specific properties Drives early language development Rapid word learning Chomsky’s nativist (biological) approach Fast mapping: process by which a child can relate unknown words to known words, thus rapidly expanding vocabulary Language acquisition device: innate mechanism for processing words Brains are biologically “prewired” to internalize the meanings of novel words  Language Development: Social and Cross-Cultural Factors We live in a social world where we hear words produce words are forced to create meaning Michael Tomasello - functional language approach Language is developed on a “needs” basis in which children construct meaning out of a practical need to understand what others are saying and to be understood by others  Language Development: Multilingual Settings Canada is a bilingual nation of English and French 98% of Canadians speak at least one of these Anglophones 75% (English first language) Francophones 23% (French first language) 17.5% of Canadians speak more than one language 11.5% speak English and one language other than French Bilingual children fare well do better on most cognitive tasks understand words more quickly have larger vocabularies  All the Systems Working Together Learning Objectives Describe the different types of young children’s play. List several of the best practices of early-childhood education. Identify the effects of childhood overweight and obesity. Describe ways to prevent unintentional injuries of young children. Explain how lead poisoning affects children’s cognitive and physical development.  All the Systems Together Our physical and cognitive systems are interdependent and interact with socio-emotional changes Interactions observable through play education health  Play Play gives children opportunities to explore, create, and interact with the world Age affects the way children play with others Two major classifications of play: one based on social functions another based on cognitive functions  Play: Social Function Researcher Mildred Parten studied and categorized play by social function Parten believed play develops sequentially: non-social play parallel play associative play cooperative play  Play: Social Function Parten (1932) described four types of play, categorized by social function: Non-social play: non-interactive play in which a child either focuses on an object or toy and appears unconnected to others, or acts as an onlooker, watching others play without joining in Between ages 1 and 2 Solitary versus onlooker play Parallel play: a form of play in which children appear to be together but are not interacting with one another Start to look at other children; more comfortable sitting next to them  Play: Social Function Parten (1932) described four types of play, categorized by social function: Associative play: a form of play in which children interact and share materials but do not work together toward the same goal between ages 4 and 5 increased interaction between children but no joint activity Cooperative play: a form of play in which children interact to work toward a common goal from age 5 onward children work together  Play: Critics of Parten #1 Critics argue that older children engage in all of Parten’s categories, not just cooperative play  non-social Play  Associative Play  Parallel Play  Cooperative Play Figure 5.16 Parten’s social categories of play  Play: Critics of Parten #2 Some developmentalists argue that play is better categorized by its cognitive functions Major cognitive classification of play follows Piaget’s theory of cognitive development Four types of play mirror Piaget’s sensorimotor, preoperational, and concrete operational stages (see next slide): functional, constructive and symbolic play and games with rules  Play: Cognitive Function  Functional play: usually seen during first 2 years; involves repetitive movements and simple exploratory activity  Constructive play: begins around age 3; involves the creation of new objects, often by combining already- existing objects  Symbolic play: begins around age 3; play in which children use objects as symbols  Games with rules: begins during the concrete operational stage; help children learn cooperation and competition  Play: Cognitive Function Figure 5.17 Cognitive categories of play  Benefits of Play Children practice physical, cognitive, and socio- emotional skills Releases energy, Builds personality strengths: mental and competence, confidence, and resilience physical Rough-and-tumble play: a Increases muscle form of physical play, such as flexibility, cognitive wrestling, tumbling, and abilities, and running emotional maturity May help children develop physical and Allows creativity socio-emotional skills  Benefits of Play “Undirected play” is particularly beneficial Gives opportunity to Unscheduled, engage in imaginative play supports sharing academic and social negotiation success leadership Self-initiated dramatic conflict resolution play teaches social skills Often mimics observed (cooperation and mutual adult interactions respect)  Play Trends Time for play (especially undirected play) has been significantly reduced at home and in school Many Canadian school are decreasing unstructured time Schools continue to move away from recess time despite the fact that research links physical activity to higher academic performance  Canada Leading the Way in Play Children’s Right to Rest, Play, Recreation, Culture and the Arts (Canadian Coalition for the Rights of Children, 2011) Barriers to Free Play in Canada: Decreasing free time due in part to economic factors Too many ‘screens’ Not enough green space More children living in cities ill-equipped for natural play areas 96% of Canadian municipalities have policies that hinder or limit children’s physical activity and recreation National trend in Canada of closing schools thereby increasing commuter time Fear of abduction and abuse/bullying  Early-Childhood Education Most Canadian children (ages 3-4) attend a centre- based program (i.e., preschools or nursery school) before entering kindergarten There is much variation in both time attended and context: Time spent in the centre – can vary from a few hours a week to 8-10 hours per day, 5-7 days a week Context of the centre – churches – public schools – independent non-profit organizations – for-profits – Head Start  Effectiveness of Early-Childhood Education Aboriginal Head Start programs include local preschool projects controlled by First Nations Typically provide structured half-day preschool experiences for First Nations children in 6 areas: Aboriginal Culture and Language Education Health Promotion Nutrition Social Support Parental Involvement Goals include providing First Nations children with: a positive sense of themselves a desire for learning opportunities to thrive  Early-Childhood Education: Best Practices Research recommends the following steps for program success: Keep class sizes Develop small and child– comprehensive teacher ratios low curricula that address Employ highly children’s interrelated qualified teachers developmental with specialized needs—emotional, training in early education social, cognitive, and physical Make parents active partners in their children’s education  Inclusive Early-Childhood Education Best practice steps support the learning and development of all children Efforts have been made to merge special education and early-childhood education Widespread support Robin Nelson/PhotoEdit for inclusive educational settings Educators need to expand their skill sets to meet children’s needs Figure 5.21 Inclusive classrooms  Inclusive Early-Childhood Education Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): several related disorders, including autism and Asperger’s syndrome Characterized by: limited social interaction impaired verbal communication repetitive behaviours Linked to cognitive difficulties delays in language low scores on intelligence tests  Inclusive Early-Childhood Education Increased awareness of Autism Spectrum Disorders Early intervention can improve cognitive outcomes and adaptive behaviour Families advocate for children with ASD to be educated in regular classroom settings Inclusion linked to significant gains in: language skills social interaction skills play skills IQ  Early-Childhood Health Concerns Access to healthy foods and exercise allow children to learn and grow in safe contexts Obesity, unintentional injury, and lead poisoning affect health throughout the lifespan Concerns are most prevalent during early childhood  Early-Childhood Health Concerns Percentage of children in Canada classified as overweight or obese has been increasing in recent decades A global epidemic and major health concern in Canada 22% of Canadian children aged 2-5 years are considered overweight or obese Body mass index (BMI) Measure used to determine healthy body weight Calculated by dividing person’s weight (in kilograms) by their height (in metres) BMI at or above 95th percentile indicates obesity  Obesity Trends Through Childhood Young children are not experiencing as sharp an increase as older children and adolescents Early-childhood years set the stage for later eating and exercise habits  Factors Affecting Childhood Obesity Interrelated Causes Associated Problems Genetics Physical problems Sedentary lifestyle heart disease Poor nutrition osteoporosis e.g., not enough diabetes vitamins impaired liver function e.g., too much sugar asthma Advertising Psychological problems unhealthy foods depression directly marketed to children low self-esteem increased risk of being bullied dysfunctional social skills  Preventing Childhood Obesity 1st Step = Diet Eating habits of Canadian children are often well outside the The Canadian parameters of a healthy diet Diabetes Association Food choices are more important (CDA) has suggested than exercise in losing weight several preventive Switch from pop to water interventions Switch from high-fat dairy to low- fat Snack on fruits and veggies  Preventing Childhood Obesity 2nd Step = Activity Combo of healthy eating The Canadian and physical activity = most Diabetes Association powerful approach (CDA) has suggested Increase physical activity several preventive Walk or bike whenever interventions possible Reduce ‘screen time’ Increase family ‘play time’  Preventing Childhood Obesity 3rd Step = Family Children learn values from the family: which foods to value (or not) The Canadian is physical activity important (or not)? Diabetes Association parents are models for their (CDA) has suggested children several preventive Family members should learn and interventions practice: proper nutrition healthy food preparation healthy exercise habits  Unintentional Injury Leading cause of death among Canadian children and teens Fourth leading cause of hospitalization for children ages 1-4 Almost 25% of deaths of children ages 1-4 are due to injuries Often predictable events that are frequently preventable Example: seat belt usage, booster care seats, bicycle helmet use Prevention Public Health Canada Aims to prevent through education: Resources for parents, teachers, care workers Supervision of children is critical Link between SES and injury: 18% of children under 18 living in poverty (Canadian Institute of Child Health, 1994) Lower the SES the higher the risk of dying from injury (Canadian Pediatric Society, 2009)  Preventing Unintentional Injury Families are vital in preventing and treating injury and illness Key Issues: parental knowledge of what causes injury potential hazards in the home presence or absence of safety items, such as smoke detectors, in the home number of injuries that have occurred in the home to date cost-effectiveness of instituting prevention  Lead Poisoning Lead is a toxin which can cause irreversible brain damage Severe poisonings are now rare but can lead to seizures, coma, mental retardation, and death Major public health concern for over five decades (silent epidemic) 1976 Canada – the use of lead-based household paint finally regulated (though older homes often still have lead-based paint) 2010 Canada – became world leader – restricting levels to less that.009 percent (one of the strictest lead limits in the world) Child exposure to lead today still occurs and results in: cognitive damage and learning disabilities attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) poor gross- and fine-motor coordination social and emotional problems  Lead Poisoning Treatment can successfully lower children’s blood lead levels But unable to improve the cognitive, behavioural, and neuropsychological damages Limited awareness of the dangers of lead poisoning Vital to educate families about the dangers, sources, and means of absorption, and precautions to prevent exposure  Chapter Summary 1. Physical Development The Nervous System, Skeletal System, and Muscular System 2. Cognitive Development Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Vygotsky’s Theory Information Processing Theory Language Development 3. All the Systems Working Together Play Early-Childhood Education Common Health Concerns  Copyright Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein.