Positive Psychology Lecture Notes PDF

Stress: Given situation is about to exceed his or her ability / consequently will endanger his or her wellbeing Job Stress: The feeling that one’s capabilities, resources, or needs do not match the demands of the job. ● Sources of work stress: Job stressor: Could be real or imagined Stress and Perfo...

Stress: Given situation is about to exceed his or her ability / consequently will endanger his or her wellbeing Job Stress: The feeling that one’s capabilities, resources, or needs do not match the demands of the job. ● Sources of work stress: Job stressor: Could be real or imagined Stress and Performance (The optimal level of arousal) ● On simple tasks, performance may peak at a much higher level of arousal. ● On complex tasks, a relatively low level of arousal tends to be optimal. Burnout (High Job Stress) Burnout is a prolonged response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job (Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993). 1. Exhaustion refers to feelings of being overextended and depleted of one’s emotional and physical resources. a. i.e. Wearing out (耗盡的), loss of energy, depletion(消耗), debilitation(衰弱), and fatigue(疲 勞). b. Basic individual stress dimension of burnout 2. Cynicism (or Depersonalization) refers to a negative, indifferent, or excessively detached response to various aspects of the job a. i.e. Negative or inappropriate attitudes towards clients, irritability(易怒), loss of idealism, and withdrawal. b. Interpersonal context dimension of burnout. 3. Inefficacy (Job Detachment) refers to feelings of incompetence and a lack of achievement and productivity at work. a. i.e. A reduced personal accomplishment, reduced productivity or capability, low morale, and an inability to cope. b. Self-evaluation dimension of burnout The following job characteristics/ job stressors are associated with more employee burnout: Work overload: quantity of work A lack of Autonomy The discretion(決定權) of employees to complete tasks when, where, in what order and in what way Time pressure: task urgency Role conflict Incompatible demands from supervisor or colleagues Role ambiguity(模稜兩可) Lack of clarity of supervisor or colleagues’ expectations A lack of Support from supervisors and co-workers A lack of Feedback Little participation in Decision making Who tend to burnout? Person characteristics are associated Below 30—40 years old Unmarried (especially men) Higher level of education Neuroticism External locus of control Feel cannot control life event, but by god and external factor Avoidant coping style Outcomes of Burnout: Job withdrawal / Job Performance / Health Theories of Employee Well-being The Demand-Control Model of Workplace Stress (Karasek, 1979, 1998) ● Job Demand ○ Job stressors related to workload ○ The most studied ones are work overload and time pressure ● Job Control ○ The possibilities in deciding how to meet the job demands ○ Autonomy: whether individual can decide themselves how to meet their job demands I. Strain hypothesis: Job-related anxiety, Health complaints, Exhaustion, and Dissatisfaction - High job demands & Low job control lead to impaired well-being and ill health. - High job demands particularly result in strain under conditions of low job control (i.e. buffer effect of control) II. Learning hypothesis - High job demands & job control increase learning and activity. The Effort-reward Imbalance Model (Siegrist, 1996) ● Effort : Extrinsic job demands and intrinsic motivation to meet these demands ● Reward: In terms of salary, esteem reward, and security/career opportunities – i.e. promotion prospects, job security and status consistency ● Imbalance: Experiencing lack of reciprocity(互惠) in terms of high effort and low reward Critique on the Demand Control Model: - It is unclear why autonomy is the most important resource for employees in the DCM. - Situations totally different resources prevail(佔優勢): Inspirational leadership in an internet company, or open communication among reporters of a local TV station Critique on the Effort-reward Imbalance Model: - It is unclear why salary, esteem reward, and status control as the most important job resources. - Why is autonomy not incorporated in this model? Both models do not leave room for the integration of other work-related factors that can (and have been found to) be related to well being. The Job Demands-Resources Model (Bakker et al., 2003) ● Central assumption is that whereas every occupation may have its own specific risk factors associated with job stress ○ Two general categories: Job demands and Job resources ● Job demands refer to those physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical and/or psychological (cognitive and emotional) effort or skills and are therefore associated with certain physiological and/or psychological costs. ○ high work pressure, an unfavorable physical environment, and emotionally demanding interactions with clients. ○ Job demands may turn into job stressors when them exceed employee capacity ○ Job demands lead to strain → Health Impairment Process ● Job resources refer to those physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the job ○ E.g. pay, career opportunities, supervisor and co-worker support ○ Job resources increase motivation → Motivational Process ● Interaction effects: ○ Job resources may buffer the impact of job demands on job strain. ○ Job resources particularly influence motivation or work engagement when job demands are high. Positive and Motivated States at Work ● Work motivation: The process that initiates and maintains goal directed performance. ● Positive States: ○ Happiness ○ Job satisfaction ○ Work Engagement ■ Vigor: high levels of energy and mental resilience ■ Dedication(貢獻): Strongly involved in one’s work/ experiencing a sense of significance and enthusiasm. ■ Absorption(全神貫注): Being fully concentrated and happily engrossed in work ● Flow: A state of complete absorption and engagement into something that you are working on. ○ Intense concentration ○ Merging of awareness and action ○ not self-conscious in social settings ○ sense of control ○ Losing track of time (time flies!) ○ intrinsically rewarding (i.e. the task itself is enjoyable and/or meaningful) ● Preconditions of a flow experience ○ Challenge–skills balance: A balance between perception of one’s skills and the perception of difficulty of the activity. Challenge and Skill are both High ○ Interest: Whether one are interested in the task. ● Consequences of flow: Increased job performance/ Higher motivation/ Positive mood/ Loyalty What Affect Motivation at Work? → Theories of employee motivation Herzberg’s two factor theory proposed that the opposite of dissatisfaction is not satisfaction. Two factors: Motivator/ Hygiene factor ● Hygiene factor: related to job dissatisfaction/ create more pleasant ○ Extrinsic factors—such as salary, company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relations, and working conditions ● Motivator ○ Intrinsic factors—such as achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth ○ Satisfied and motivated to work What should a company do to motivate their employee? Job characteristics model: 5 key elements that make employee positive and motivated at work ● Skill variety: Whether the jobs involved various activities and skills ● Task identity: Whether the jobs involved the completions of a part or whole of it ● Task significance: Whether the jobs have a meaningful impact on others ● Autonomy: Whether employees can decide the schedule and progress of work independently ● Feedback: Whether a clear feedback regarding to performances would be provided Equity Theory Work motivation is influenced by people’s beliefs about what is a fair reward for one’ job contribution (an exchange). 1. one’s own outcome-and-input ratio 2. the outcome of social comparison a. Equal Ratio: The employee is motivated b. Unequal Situation (Under-reward ): Reduce inputs/ Strive to increase outcomes/ Withdraw c. Unequal Situation (Over-reward): Guilt/ low work motivation