Positive Psychology: Exploring Wellbeing, Joy, and Resilience

What are some reasons why we might be looking for more positivity in our lives? Martin Seligman - Father of Positive Psychology What is Positive Psychology? Components of Positive Psychology Scientific and applied approach Uncovering human strengths/virtues, in relation to cultural context Promoting positive function Other subfields focused on human weaknesses: Applied psych, psychopathology, psychiatry The ‘Fourth Wave’ of Psychology 1. Disease model - cure illness 2. Behaviourism - stimulus/response 3. Humanistic Psych - fulfill potential 4. Positive Psych - authentic happiness/good life Building Human Strength: Psychology’s Forgotten Mission Pre-WWII, three missions of psych: 1. Cure mental illness 2. Make life more fulfilling 3. Identify/nurture high talent Post-WWII pathology: More research, specifically for Veterans mental health ○ USA, creation of Veterans Administration and National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) ○ Psychologists learned they could earn grants/make a living on research for mental health Our Neglected Missions Humans seen as passive agents ○ Respond to stimuli/reinforcement (behaviourism approach) ○ Conflicts from childhood → adult behaviours Psychologists looked to ‘repair damage’ Treatment cannot just ‘fix the broken’, must nurture ourselves Seligman outlined new field Building Strength, Resilience, and Health in Young People How can we prevent mental illness in vulnerable people? ○ Pathologizing does not lead to prevention ○ Certain strengths (resilience, courage, optimism, interpersonal skills, work ethic, hope, perseverance, etc) can prevent mental illness ○ Practitioners help amplify strengths ○ By learning effects of behaviour/mental wellbeing, clients can become physically healthier The Dimensions of Positive Psychology Subjective Level: ○ Positive Emotions ○ Constructive Thoughts Individual Level ○ Positive Behaviour Patterns ○ Individual Creative Potential Society Level ○ Civic Virtues ○ Support and Nurture Citizens The Scope of Positive Psychology List of Interests: Building enriching communities, compassion, creativity, empathy Enhancement of immune system/functioning Life span models of positive personality development Psychological benefits of Zen meditation Basic Themes of Positive Psychology The Good Life: ○ Combination of Three Elements Connections with others Positive Individual Traits Life Regulation Qualities The Harvard Study of Adult Development Understanding human health by focusing on what makes people thrive rather than struggle/sick. Variables: mental/physical health, career, retirement, marital quality, etc. What has the most impact on wellbeing? ○ Deep, supportive relationships. Positive Emotions are Important Focus working on positive rather than negative emotions Helps people emerge from psychological problems Self-help interventions based on positive psychology Basic Themes of Positive Psychology 1. STRUGGLING 1. FLOURISHING 2. FLOUNDERING 3. LANGUISHING People can flourish and thrive - complete health comprises: High emotional wellbeing High psychological wellbeing High social wellbeing Low mental illness People Need Positive Social Relationships Consider happiness achievable through individual effort Enhance understanding of how people experience wellbeing Teach children about happiness/good life Strengths and Virtues are Important Values like courage, fidelity, and honesty Scientifically discover values that enhance quality of life The Stories We Tell Stories → cultural perspectives that tell tale of values Eastern - harmony, interdependence, sharing, collaboration Western - independence, personal gain, fortune ○ Prince Charming fights alone, Ursula gives legs in exchange for voice, etc. Basic Themes of Positive Psychology Compassion and Empathy are Important Capacity for empathy → increased life satisfaction + positive relationships Motivate people to overcome low self-esteem by helping others Independence of Positive and Negative Emotions Optimism and pessimism have differential effects on a person’s self-reported well-being Dynamic model of affect Unique psychological processes Other psychological processes Negative Emotions are Still Important Negative emotions vital to personal growth Research shows happiness necessary for good life but not sufficient alone Increase one’s quality of life → help others increase level of happiness/life satisfaction The Science of Wellbeing Study healthy personality development and optimal states of wellbeing Need to build an experimental knowledge base in psych lab Eastern/Western Perspectives A Short Story of Wellbeing Early Hebrews: divine command theory The Greeks: agency, logic, and rational analysis ○ Socrates/Plato: know thyself, reality separate from senses ○ Aristotle: find the ‘golden mean’; eudalmonia; the good life within the total context of a person’s life; virtues Early Christianity and Middle Ages: religious devotion, true happiness in heaven ○ Malmonides ○ Mysticism: passionate pursuit of God The Renaissance to Age of Enlightenment: independent thought over religious doctrine ○ Rise of Artist and Rise of Science: genius, empiricism ○ Rising Importance of the Social World: utilitarianism, hedonic calculus ○ Rise of Democracy: social and political environments that promote wellbeing Romanticism and 19th C. ○ Emotion and the Romantics: individualism, intense emotions ○ Love in the Romantic Period: love marriages ○ Celebrating Childhood Experience: joy, delight 20th C.: Psychology - William James, Freud, Adler, Jung, mental hygiene, social indicators research ○ Humanistic Psychology; Maslow, the whole person, human experience Lessons on Wellbeing in Western History 1. Human mind divided into parts that can be in conflict 2. Training the mind is important to wellbeing 3. Pleasure comes more from making progress toward goals than in goal attainment 4. It is possible for adversity to make you stronger 5. We need to rise above our tendencies to be self-centred, egocentric, judgmental, and biased 6. Positive social relationships are important for wellbeing 7. In particular, love/emotional attachment are important for wellbeing 8. Virtues are important for wellbeing 9. Spirituality and self-transcendence are important for wellbeing 10.Having a sense of meaning and purpose in life is important’ comes from vital engagement in life and a sense of coherence or integration among various parts of your life. Matter of Perspective Western cultures value hope/physical reward Eastern cultures emphasize enlightenment and transcendence Inhabitants of both seek ‘the good life’ Summary of Eastern/Western Philosophies ALL theories mention ideas of virtues/human strengths in order to achieve good life. Similarities in valued human qualities ○ BUT one word does not have the same meaning universally, such as ‘WISDOM’ Judeo-Christian: understanding God’s plan Confucianism: transform and regulate social order Ojibwe: cherishing knowledge East Meets West Eastern and Western ideologies: individualism vs collectivism ○ The Psychology of ME - Independent ○ The Psychology of WE - Interdependent Origins and Ideology of American Individualism USA: The Rugged Idealist ○ A good idea + hard work = success ○ Thinking of themselves in isolation ○ Equal rights/freedom ○ Capitalist economy Individualism, Core Emphasis On: ○ Sense of independence ○ Need for uniqueness Acceptability depends on degree of similarity to others Behaviours reliant on peer feedback Uniqueness attributes affect social acceptability Attractiveness of scarce commodities ○ Individual as a unit of analysis Individualism, Secondary Emphases ○ Goals are for oneself ○ Pursuit of what is enjoyable for oneself ○ Group norms may be followed when personally advantageous ○ When to pursue relationships ○ Short term thinking ○ Informal social interactions Collectivism: Origins Hunter-gatherer ancestors; behaviour ○ Survival ○ Social bonds - human superpower Elliot Aronson: ‘social animals’ ○ Social psychologists have argued that people prosper when they join together and work toward shared goals Collectivism, Core Emphasis On: ○ Dependence ○ Conformity, fitting in ○ Group as unit of analysis Secondary Emphases ○ Pay close attention to rules ○ Subjugate personal goals ○ Satisfaction from group success ○ Satisfaction from fulfilling one’s duties in the group ○ Involvement in group activities ○ Generosity and equity in social exchanges ○ Pursue relationships even when counterproductive ○ Formal interactions ○ Emphasis on group harmony East vs West, Which is Best? Depends who you ask! Eastern Values: Compassion and Harmony TWO COMMON CONSTRUCTS MENTIONED: Compassion and Harmony COMPASSION ○ Compassion key to transcendence Three Requirements 1. The difficulties must be serious 2. Difficulties cannot be self-inflicted 3. The observer must be able to identify with the suffering. ○ Compassion key to group cohesion; as one understands others better, can understand the self. HARMONY ○ Harmony is key to an enlightened life Getting along with others Human interconnectedness Desire to find consensus The ME/WE Balance: The Positive Psychology of Us Both individualistic and collectivistic perspectives are viable ○ Can’t have ME/WE separated; can lead to acrimony Individuals varies in North America ○ Changing as non-Europeans immigrating into Canada and USA ○ Socioeconomic differences (ethnic majority vs minority group) Positive psychology should equate both ○ The ME/WE perspective allows us to think both of the individuals and the group Suggestions for ME People (Individualists): ○ Collectivists admire group accomplishments ○ Collectivists seek interpersonal harmony ○ Collectivists want to maintain pride Suggestions for WE People (Collectivists): ○ Individualists respect persona accomplishments ○ Individualists use conflict to ‘clear the air’ ○ Individuals do not intentionally use arguments for harm Overview There are cultural differences in how to learn these concepts ○ E.g., didactic vs experiential ○ Challenge yourself to new experiences and new ways of thinking Individualists are in the minority; ~70% of the world are collectivistic We are becoming globally interdependent ○ Global markets ○ Telecommunication Foundations: Emotion, Motivation, and the Nature of Wellbeing Basic Emotions Mental states/feeling associated with our evaluation of our experiences Several theories on what causes our emotions; lots of support for which ones we have. Biology - Cognition - Behaviour Discrete Emotions Theory Emotions have biological roots and serve evolutionary functions Also state that emotions (limbic system) precede our thoughts about them (cortex). Humans experience a small number of distinct emotions, even if they combine in complex ways. Good support for seven primary emotions. ○ Happiness, disgust, fear, sadness, surprise, anger, and contempt. ○ H.A.S.F.D.S These combine to form secondary emotions. Plutchik’s Emotion Wheel Combinations of emotions Implications of removing negative emotions. Components of Emotions: Two Neurobiological Systems 1. Behavioural Facilitation/Activation System 1. Regulates appetitive (approach) behaviour 2. Seek emotional rewards 3. Seek behavioural rewards 2. Behavioural Inhibition System 1. Regulates avoidance behaviour 2. Avoid negative events 3. Avoid punishments Biology of Emotions The Happy Brain ○ Complex/Dynamic system of sense of reward/pleasure The Chemicals of Pleasure ○ Neurotransmitters ○ Oxytocin, endogenous THC, Anandamide, GABA Neuroplasticity ○ Brains can change as a result of experiences/contexts The Genetics of Emotions ○ Metanalaysis; heritability of life satisfaction = 32%, wellbeing = 36% The Happiness Set Point Do Genes Rule Our Emotional Lives? ○ Genes express themselves in different environments Differential Susceptibility Individuals vary in sensitivity to environments due to genetic factors. Key Ideas: Genetic Sensitivity: some genes make people more responsive to their environment Plasticity: greater potential for change based on experiences. Mechanisms: Sensitivity influenced by neurotransmitters and hormones. Examples: Sensitive children benefit from supportive environments Genetic factors impact response to stressors. Implications: Some are more vulnerable or resilient based on genetics Interventions can be tailored based on genetic sensitivity Cognition: How We Think Impacts How We Feel Cognitive control of emotions; goal of CBT Learned optimism; can unlearn negative styles of thinking and thus learn realistic optimism. Perspective on Time ○ Zimbardo and Boyd’s Five Approaches to Time 1. Past-Negative Type: tends to focus on negative past experiences that still upsets them. 2. Past-Positive Type: adopts a pleasant/nostalgic view of the past 3. Present-Hedonistic Type: is dominated by pleasure-seeking impulses. 4. Present-Fatalistic Type: feels powerless to change the present or the future. 5. Future-Oriented Type: ambitious but feels a nagging sense of urgency that can impact close relationships. Classifications and Measures of Strengths Vocab: ○ Character ○ Virtues ○ Strengths ○ Signature Strengths Behaviour: How We Act Influences How We Feel Classifications and Measures of Strengths ○ Karl Menninger: development of new diagnostic system. ○ Better understanding of weaknesses than strengths. 1. Examples: ICD, DSM. 2. No classifications of strengths universally accepted. ○ Existing classifications of strengths. 1. The Gallup Themes of Talent 2. The Values in Action Classification of Strengths 3. The Search Institute’s 40 Developmental Assets Two Prevalent Models of Strengths 1. Elements of character that produce virtue. 2. Personal competencies that generate optimal performance Classifications and Measures of Strengths 1. GALLUP’S STRENGTHSFINDER, 1999 ○ Analysis of success ○ Clifton emphasized talents. Talents can be operationalized, studied, and accentuated in work/school. ○ Success related to talents and strengths. ○ StregnthsFinder 2.0 currently has 34 themes. ○ Empirically driven creatoin. Semistructured interviews to identify talents. Examined roles, visited job sites, identified superstars, determined what was associated with success. ○ To create tool, Clifton wrote 5000 item using empirical techniques. ○ Factor and reliability analyses conducted. ○ Psychometric research shows high internal consistently, reliability/validity, etc. 1. The VIA Classification of Strengths, Seligman 2004 ○ Some consider this the antithesis of the DSM ○ Provides common language of strengths, 24 strengths ○ Created in response to two questions: How can one define the concepts of strengths and highest potential? How can one tell that a positive youth development program has succeeded in meeting its goals? 2. VIA Survey-IS ○ Reliability: All scales consistent across a 4-month period Correlations among scales are higher than expected ○ Validity: Other ratings correlate at.50 with self-reports Majority of scales correlate positively with life satisfaction Factor analysis support six virtues. Issues w/ Measures of Psychological Strength Each of these scales measured in Western framework Lack of conceptual equivalence - different cultures may conceptualize differently Lack of linguistic equivalence Issues of metric equivalence - Likert scales may be problematic Different factor structures found in VIA-IS Components of Emotions Social/Cultural Influences on Emotions ○ Social constraints model. Different expressions across cultures; ○ How we express, label, promote positive emotions ○ How we use positive/negative emotions to estimate wellbeing ○ The words we use to express happiness or wellbeing. Changes occurring over time. ○ Even within a culture, changes over time can affect the experience of an emotion. ○ Society at the time dictates the emotional reactions to events. Unique Words for Happiness or Wellbeing 1. Hawaiian: Aloha: beyond a greeting, Aloha expresses love, compassion, and joy of being connected to others. 2. Danish: Hygge: refers to sense of coziness/comfort, often experienced in intimate, warm environments. 3. Japanese: Ikigai: means ‘a reason for being’, which contributes to sense of wellbeing 4. German: Zufriedenheit: refers to deep sense of contentment, distinct from fleeting happiness (Gluck) 5. Korean: Jeong: describes deep emotional connection and affection that brings happiness and a sense of belonging. 6. Spanish: Alegria: a vibrant word used to describe joy/cheerfulness, often in communal setting. 7. Finnish: Sisu: refers to inner strength resilience that leads to fulfillment and wellbeing in adversity. 8. Swahili: Furaha: a term for joy or happiness associated with communal moments. Positive Psychology and Motivation Motivation Incentive theories; we are motivated by positive goals. ○ Intrinsic: autonomous ○ Extrinsic: controlled Some needs take precedence over others. ○ Primary (biological) and secondary (psychological) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow Basic assumption: ultimate motivation is self-actualization. Hierarchy of needs: how human motivation is characterized; lower needs met first. ○ E..g, food, water at the bottom, and then social needs, status, and finally self-actualization (enlightenment). Motivation and the Pursuit of Goals Meaningful goals. Self-concordance: important of personality. Self-centred versus community-based goals, and their effects on wellbeing. Approach versus avoidance goals. Evaluation of progress - adequate/better progress = wellbeing Abstract versus concrete goals. Congruence versus conflict among goals. SMART and goal attainment strategies ○ Specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time bound. Strivings and Wellbeing Strivings — e.g., GOAL: buy a house. Strivings are the smaller goals to help facilitate the larger goal, such as saving money in the bank, etc. Emmons, 1999: extrinsic versus introjected strivings. Identified vs intrinsic strivings. Hope Theory Expectation for success. Projected pathways, agency Positive outcomes of being hopeful: ○ Positive emotions ○ Anticipate greater future wellbeing ○ More confident ○ Deal w/ stress better ○ More flexible to find alternate pathways ○ Higher social support Affective Forecasting People are not very good at predicting how they will feel after achieving their goals. Lacking details of imagining Needing realistic appraisals Enjoy the journey toward goals. Wellbeing and Positive Emotions Expanding the Repertoire of Pleasure Frederickson’s (2000) Broaden-and-Build Model: ○ Cognitive vs Physiological correlates. An experience of joy → openness - broadening. Joy induces playfulness. ○ Encourages attachment ○ Higher creativity ○ Brain development Positive affect can influence making change. ○ Will you implement steps to change if you’re stressed, upset, angry? ○ How likely are you to quit smoking if you’re feeling negative emotionality? Positive affect can assist memory. ○ Link words together ○ Spatial/verbal memory ○ Working memory ○ Visual attention Positive emotion can help build resources. ○ Creative problem-solving abilities → positive emotions → problem solving → more positive emotions. ○ Upward spiral! Positive emotions can offset negatives ○ E.g., cardiovascular recovery after negative emotion. Positive emotions and mental health ○ E.g., flawed research, but newer work shows some promising results. Broadening attention reduces sadness and depressed mood. Resilience to pain. Positive emotions and happiness. ○ The link between happiness and positive outcomes might be positive emotion. Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence: one’s ability to monitor one’s and other’s emotions, discriminate and label between them, and use emotional information to guide behaviour. Learning the Skills that Make a Difference Daniel Goleman — emotional intelligence ○ Bar-On 1997 EQI: self-regard, empathy, tolerance, happiness, etc, etc. ○ Too many definitions! Mowrer, 1960: high order of intelligence. Salovey and Mayer agreed, that adaptation requires cognitive and emotional skills. ○ Four-Branch Model, Salovey-Mayer 1. BRANCH 1: perceive and express feelings. 2. BRANCH 2: facilitating thought via emotion. 3. BRANCH 3: complexity of emotions. 4. BRANCH 4: mood regulation skills. Emotional Intelligence: Learning Skills that Make a Difference Using the four branches: Positive Interpersonal Functioning Emotional intelligence helps explain social functioning. ○ Even beyond Big 5 Traits Can teach others to benefit from emotional experiences. Connected to other cognitive abilities. ○ Resilience, mindfulness, leadership, wellbeing Must research neurological processes of emotional intelligence. How to Increase Emotional Intelligence? According to Margaret Andrews at Harvard 1. Recognize your emotions and name them. 2. Ask for feedback. 3. Read literature. Research Models of Happiness and Wellbeing Hedonic Perspectives Oldest approach: hedonism. Individual sensual pleasures. No lasting changes nor growth. Socially responsible hedonic. Eudaimonic Perspectives Eudaimonia: living well. Broad collection of approaches. Differences with hedonic approach. The Psychologically Rich Life The good life not motivated by happiness or search of meaning. Rather, a search for variety, interest, and perspective changes. Outcome: wisdom. Multidimensional Models of Wellbeing: Self-Determination Theory (SDT) Based on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The three basic needs: ○ Competence. ○ Relatedness. ○ Autonomy. Martin Seligman, 2002: happiness can be analyzed into three elements: ○ Positive emotion — leads to the pleasant life. ○ Engagement/flow — leads to the good life. ○ Meaning — leads to the meaningful life. Wellbeing Theory — includes positive relationships and positive accomplishments. PERMA — positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, accomplishment Carol Ryff, 1985 reviewed classics - Jung, Erickson, Frankl, Rogers ○ Six-Dimensional Model: 1. Self-acceptance 2. Personal growth 3. Positive relations with others 4. Autonomy 5. Purpose in life 6. Environment mastery ○ The psychological wellbeing scale Subjective Wellbeing Measurement of Subjective Wellbeing Self Report Measures: How to measure wellbeing? ○ Happiness, satisfaction w/ life, low neuroticism. Self-report Measures ○ Self-perceptions of happiness ○ Compare self with others. ○ Choose from a series of cartoon faces ranging from big smiles to frowns. Self-report measures assume same score = same happiness level. Why is Happiness Important? Positive Emotional Styles Linked to Common Cold COHEN ET AL., 2003 334 healthy volunteers infected with rhinovirus. Positive emotions and negative emotions assessed. People who scored low on positive emotions were three times more likely to get sick. Measurement of Subjective Wellbeing Top-Down and Bottom-Up Theories Top-Down Theory: what’s INSIDE us - our attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and personality traits, etc. Bottom-Up Theory: overall measure of wellbeing based on how satisfied we are in different domains: marriage, friendships, job, etc. Using appropriate interventions. ○ If top-down is correct, then change attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, or personality traits. ○ If bottom-up is correct, then change situations, external circumstances, etc. Equal importance of both theories. ○ We need both! Top-Down Predictors of Subjective Wellbeing Cognition: Is the Glass Half Full or Empty? Interpretation of external events. Construal Theory of Happiness: Lyubomirsky, 2001 ○ Happiness comes from out construals/interpretations of the world. Evaluation theory: Diener and Lucas, 2000 Quicker thinking, reasonable precaution: Chandler and Pronin, 2012; Pronin and Jacobs, 2008. Top-Down Predictors of Subjective Wellbeing Cognition: Elements of Self-Concept Self esteem + Self efficacy → Self Concept ○ Self-Esteem: the regard or respect that a person has for oneself. High SE: positive feelings regarding the self. ○ Can refer to specific areas and/or general feeling about the self. For instance, a person may have low self-esteem regarding physical attractiveness and high self-esteem about ability to do a job well. ○ Happiness vs Self-Esteem. ○ Related to culture? Seligman’s View: ○ I am not against self-esteem, but I believe that self-esteem is just a meter that reads out the state of the system. It is not an end in itself. When you are doing well in school or work, when you are doing well with the people you love, when you are doing well in play, the meter will register high. When you are diong badly, it will register low. ○ Is it possible to have too much self-esteem? What would that look like? Comments on Cognitive Predictors: ○ Self-Discrepancy Theory: actual vs ideal vs ought self. ○ Social Comparisons: lateral, upward, and downward. Two Ways of Conceptualizing Optimism 1. Dispositional Optimism: global expectation 2. Optimistic Explanatory Style: presence of positive experiences. Learned Optimism: Seligman ○ Why did that bad thing happen to me? Optimist: external, variable, and specific attributions for failure. Pessimist: internal, stable, and global attributions for failure. ○ Negative outcomes determine one’s attributional explanations. ○ We can cultivate optimism by consciously challenging any negative self talk. ○ E.g.,: PESSIMIST OPTIMIST Stable/Variable I’ll never be able to attract a There are going to be plenty of romantic partner people who like me. Global/Specific I’m just not an interesting It was just one isolated situation. person. Internal/External I’m ugly. He/she might have been in a bad mood. Realistic Optimism: Schneider, 2001: optimism that does not distort reality. Gender Differences in Optimism/Pessimism Comparative Optimism: good things will happen to me more than for others. Personal Optimism: good things will happen to me in general. Men scored higher in both of these. Why are men more optimism? ○ Personal control. Personal control as central motive? Internal vs External Locus of Control Rise in external Belief in chance. Self-efficacy and domain-specific measurement. ○ E.g., Satisficers vs Maximizers Maximizers: evaluate all options before deciding. Satisficers: decide as soon as you see a dessert you’d be satisfied with. Women are happier - an optimism of sorts? Top-Down Predictors of Subjective Wellbeing Positive Relationships with Other People Social support is the best predictor of wellbeing. Types of Social Support ○ Tangible (or Instrumental) ○ Emotional ○ Informational ○ Companionship/Belonging Personality Traits Extraversion ○ Sociability, better ‘fit’ with Western life, greater sensitivity to reward, ‘cheerful’ disposition ○ What about introverts? Search for meaning. Agreeableness and Conscientiousness: both traits = higher happiness/wellbeing. ○ Agreeableness → Happiness ○ Conscientiousness related to career growth/wealth. Neuroticism: low levels → higher happiness/life satisfaction. Why is openness missing? Personality might be responsible for up to 63% of the variability in wellbeing. Bottom-Up Predictors of Subjective Wellbeing Money, Income, and Wealth Complicated Low income, debt Living in a wealthier country and having more money Disposable income Livability theory Curvilinear relationship between income and subjective wellbeing. Wellbeing and Basic Needs ○ Income and wellbeing - tipping point of about $75000/year ○ Remember Maslow’s hierarchy ○ Being thrifty can be associated with happiness. ○ Overconsumption, materialism, greed all detract from happiness. Gender: Are Men or Women Happier? ○ No coherent data. ○ Gender inequality in a country. ○ Expressing and coping with emotions. ○ Different socialization patterns. Attractiveness, Climate, and Other Predictors ○ Impact of physical attractiveness. ○ Impact of education. ○ Wellbeing in retirement. ○ Impact of being taller. Impact of Discrimination on Subjective Wellbeing ○ Detrimental effect Race, gender, sexual orientation, HIV+ status, mental illness, physical disability, and obesity, etc etc. ○ Severely impacted groups: children, people from disadvantaged groups, being the target of discrimination Ways to diminish the impact ○ Social support ○ Engagement-type coping and effective coping strategies. Resilience against discrimination. ○ Create supportive communities, celebrate identities, foster growth. Differences between cultures. ○ Significant predictors ○ Social changes in attitudes ○ Ethnic identity affirmation Sexual Minority Status, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity ○ Discrimination against LGBTQ+ ○ Heterosexist oppression and PTSD ○ Being public about sexuality. ○ Gender-affirming surgery. Increasing Happiness and Life Satisfaction Hedonic adaptation: when we adapt to a positive stimulus and no longer feel the effects. ○ Hedonic treadmill: metaphor for hedonic adaptation. Strategies to avoid hedonic treadmill. ○ Speed up adaptation to negative (discharge anger/resentment/worry). ○ Slow down adaptation to positive (maintain gratitude/admiration/joy). Happiness growth mindset: belief one’s happiness can be developed. Positive psychology interventions. Increasing Happiness and Life Satisfaction (3/10) Strategies for Creating a Good Mood Increasing positive-negative emotions ratio. ○ Listening to music. ○ Controlled self-reflection NOT rumination. ○ Perception of time. Fordyce’s Happiness Training Program (1977, 1988). ○ Practical techniques. Sustainable Happiness Model (Lyubomirsky and friends, 2005, 2006). ○ Positive emotions, personal strengths, and meaningful life experiences. Barbara Frederickson’s Positivity (2001, 2009). ○ Stop ruminating and focus attention on senses, activities, or helping as well as noticing the positives in life. Quality of Life Therapy (2006, 2016). ○ 16 life domains; improve areas of life that contribute to life satisfaction. Making interventions more effective. ○ Comparing interventions - Seligman, Wiseman, Sheldon, and Lyubomirsky. Gratitude; smiling more, recalling a pleasant event from the previous day, performing an act of kindness, best possible self. Moderators of effectiveness. Person-Activity Fit Motivation Situations/Circumstances Culture Interventions practiced for a longer period of time. Alternate Ways to Measure Happiness ○ Contentment ○ Peace of mind ○ Tranquility ○ Serenity ○ Authentic-durable happiness ○ Joy ○ Love of life ○ Ontological wellbeing scale Can You Be Too Happy? ○ The down side of feeling up. ○ We also need negative emotions. ○ Emodiversity - emotional ecosystem Leisure How do we spend our spare time? Emotions associated with leisure activities. Leisure and Wellbeing Time Affluence: perception that one has time for leisure activities that are meaningful. Time Poverty: feeling constantly busy. Life outside work. Positive psychology and leisure. Four Categories of Leisure ○ Serious Pursuits - require skill. ○ Casual Leisure - relaxation without commitment or skill. ○ Project-Based Leisure — purposeful effort and specific goal. ○ Contemplative and Spirituality-Based Leisure. Leisure a state of mind. Leisure a predictor of satisfaction. Is happiness a retrospective phenomenon. Beginning at childhood with play. Associated with changes in mood. Participation in leisure activities. Leisure impacting engagement with life. Leisure and age. Leisure and physical health limitations. Leisure and cross-cultural differences. What Turns an Activity into ‘Leisure’? Reasons for engaging in leisure. Basic needs for self-determination theory. ○ Autonomy, relatedness, competence, and beneficence. The DRAMMA framework - mechanisms of action to foster wellbeing. ○ Detachment, autonomy, master, meaning, and affiliation. Social component of leisure. Leisure worlds. ○ What are the bits of knowledge in your leisure worlds? Adult playfulness. ○ Factors describing adult playfulness. What is Mindlessness? Habitual Passive Mind-numbing Short term stress relief Distractions Out of sync with surroundings Distractions Out of sync with surroundings Boring Empty Autopilot What is Mindfulness? Intentional, effortful Present moment awareness Nonjudgmental Momentary awareness In sync with surroundings Search for optimal experience Undervalued in North America Moment-to-Moment Search Moments are plentiful - 20,000 moments of 3s in a 16hr day. Take a walk with a three year old! Mindfulness: In Search of Novelty Amy Wrzesniewski: How do people function optimally at work? ○ Wrzesniewski, 2012: found that 1/3 of hospital cleaners considered their work a calling. ○ They did whatever they could to make the health care experience positive staff and patients. ○ Vigilant about sanitation. ○ Changing pictures in rooms for long term patients. ○ Every day, they found new ways to improve the environment. Ellen Langer: novelty at residential are facility. ○ Langer and Rodin, 1976: examined the effects of perceived control. ○ One group were given a ‘pep talk’ about making decisions and given a plant. ○ The second group were given a talk about how the staff would help them. They were also given a plant and told the staff would look after it. ○ Over three weeks, the self-decision group were more alert and happier. They found novelty every day as their plants and lives changed. New age and old age! Western and Buddhist mindfulness conceptions: ○ Western: independent, external awareness. ○ Buddhist: one component on the road to enlightenment; introspective. Langer’s definition of Mindfulness: active search for novelty. Mindfulness as a State of Mind Three Requirements of Being Mindful 1. Overcome the desire to reduce uncertainty in daily life. 2. Override a tendency to engage in automatic behaviour. 3. Engage less frequently in evaluations of self, others, and situations. Bishop and colleagues (2004) Self-regulated attention: current personal experience. Emotional openness: acceptance and appreciation of internal experiences. Mindfulness Qualities 1. Nonjudging 2. Nonstriving 3. Acceptance 4. Patience 5. Trust 6. Openness 7. Letting Go 8. Gentleness 9. Generosity 10.Empathy 11.Gratitude 12.Lovingkindness Jon Kabat-Zinn Medical Doctor Creator of Centre of Mindfulness in Medicine, Health Care, and Society at The University of Massachusetts Medical School Student of Zen Buddhist teachers His practice of yoga and Buddhism led him to integrate their teachings with science. He teaches mindfulness, which helps with stress, anxiety, pain, and illness. Creator of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Mindful Stretching 1. Seated neck stretch — chin to chest, ear to shoulder, switch sides. 2. Seated cat-cow — exhale, round back, inhale arch back. 3. Seated twist — cross left arm to left thigh, switch sides. 4-4-8 Breathing Technique The 4-4-8 is a basic breathing technique designed to help you relax and focus. This technique is great if you feel stressed or tense. Using this technique can help you get rid of the tension so you can focus on what you need and want to do. No matter what your goal is, deep breathing can help you focus, clarify your thinking, and feel less stressed as you move forward. This breathing technique has four easy steps: ○ Breathe in deeply through your nose for 4 seconds. ○ Hold your breath for a count of 4. ○ Release your breath for 8s. ○ Without a break breathe in again for a count of 4, repeating the entire technique three to four times in a row then resume normal breathing and activity. Focus on counting when breathing in, holding the breath, and breathing out. The Benefits of Mindfulness Kabat-Zinn’s 1989 work: ○ Increase in hardiness and coherence (meaning-making) Decreases in automatic thinking, Wang et al., 2012 ○ Stroop test: Red Green Yellow Purple Pink Black Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy ○ Reduction in depressive relapse, sexual dysfunction, social anxiety, stress Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, Kabat-Zinn ○ Psychiatric diagnoses, depression, anxiety, somatic complaints, quality of sleep, positive feelings about self, PTSD Benefits for children - mindful parenting ○ Interaction w/ compassion. Benefits for couple’s conflicts Helpful for coping with stigma ○ Gender-nonconforming individuals in Singapore; reduces in depression, anxiety, and lower wellbeing. ○ Parents of children on autism spectrum. Mindfulness-based therapies and treatments. ○ Not always accepted by all cultural groups. Increased ability to multitask. Cultivating Mindfulness Mindfulness-inducing techniques spur positive changes. ○ In counselling students, mindfulness increased self-reported abilities as counsellors. Brief mindfulness training is beneficial. ○ YouTube videos, self-help books. Cultural intelligence. ○ Mindfulness is key ingredient. Can be taught to children. ○ Self-regulation tactics, problem solving, calmness. Flow: In Search of Absorption Flow experiences observed throughout time. ○ E..g, painters, artists. ○ Michelangelo and Sistine Chapel. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Flow: state of engagement with activity and lack of self-consciousness. The Flow State CONDITIONS OF FLOW: ○ Perceived challenges or opportunities that stretch. ○ Clear proximal goals and immediate feedback. Flow, boredom, and anxiety. ○ Flow: where challenges and skills match. ○ Boredom: where challenges and opportunities were too easy relative to skills. ○ Anxiety: where demands exceeded capabilities. CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOW: ○ Intense and focused concentration ○ Merging of action and awareness ○ Loss of reflective self-consciousness ○ A sense of control ○ Distortion of temporal experience ○ Experience of intrinsic reward NECESSITIES: ○ Challenge and skill above one’s level ○ Particular activity plays a role; must have some sense of interest in task. ○ Controlled and efficient attention. E.g, athletes Flow: In Search of Absorption The Autotelic Personality - ability to achieve flow. ○ Combination of personality variables (e.g., curiosity, persistence, low self-centeredness). ○ Intrinsically motivated in high-challenge, high-skill situations ○ Exist in teenagers. ○ Experience little stress when in flow. Flow and Optimal Experience: Contexts and Situations of Flow Contexts where people report flow. ○ Creative artistic pursuits, hobbies, and sports. religious rituals, using computers, teaching in the classroom, driving a car, interactions with family, during solitary retreats, during psychotherapy sessions, online learning, cramming for exams, military combat, reading for pleasure, playing music, etc. ○ Work engagement. Social flow Cohesion - entire team in flow. Microflow - e.g., doodling. Intensities of flow: shallow to deep. Is flow a state or trait? Flow and Optimal Experience: Unique Qualities of Flow Involves altered perceptions of self, time, and abilities. Flow associated with greater right hemisphere activation. Attentional switching - greater skill associated with greater wellbeing. Stages from microflow to intense flow (Galway, 1974). ○ Paying attention, interested attention, absorbed attention, merging. Flow and Optimal Experience: Subjective Wellbeing Circular reasoning: is higher wellbeing creating flow or opposite? ○ Why does flow increase wellbeing? ○ Csikszentmihalyi’s ‘SIMPLE TRUTH’: the quality of our lives is determined by how well we are able to control our consciousness. ○ Ordering of consciousness. ○ Psychic entropy - inability to control consciousness. ○ Hypoegoic state. Relinquishing conscious control over one’s own behaviour. What happens after flow> Research findings from leisure research. Is there a dark side of flow? New Areas of Investigation Involving Flow: Gaming and Internet Use Flow-like state experienced during gaming, internet shopping ○ Lost awareness of time, reduction in self-awareness. May not qualify as flow. ○ Flow was originally defined as beneficial or constructive. ○ Need to delineate between flow and addictive behaviour. ○ Engaged living vs absorption. Cultural Comparisons and Considerations in the Flow Experience Chinese students (Moneta, 2004). ○ Preferred skill level to be higher than challenge level. ○ They evaluated high challenge situations negatively. Japanese nuance with flow experiences (Asakawa, 2004). ○ Experience similar to North Americans but they achieve flow less frequently. Flow can also be prevented for some (Guizzo and Cadinu, 2017). ○ Women under the ‘male gaze’ performed worse, less flow. Very little cross-cultural research in this area. How to create flow? Find an activity that you like that is known to induce flow. Savouring Fully experiencing something. Four basic types of savouring: ○ Basking: receiving praise and congratulations. ○ Marvelling: getting lost in the wonder of a moment. ○ Luxuriating: indulging in a sensation. ○ Thanksgiving: expressing gratitude. Benefits of savouring. Applicability for mental health. Peak Performance AKA transcendent functioning Those moments when we perform at a elvel beyond our normal level of functioning. Does flow cause peak performance>. Four parameters of peak performance: ○ Composure, concentration, confidence, and commitment Spontaneous or Training Peak performance in sports by maintaining a clear focus. Peak performance in elite athletes - 8 conditions Training for peak performance ○ Restricted environment stimulation therapy (REST) ○ Practical hints ○ Mental toughness Attachment and Love People we love can provide resource or burden Support vs Support Failures Companionship vs Rejection/Neglect Self-regulation vs Harmful Influences Harlow’s Primate Attachment Studies, 1959 1. Baby’s isolated from mother. 2. Surrogate mothers (wire mother vs cloth mother) Found that monkeys were more likely to choose cloth mother for contact comfort. Human Infant Attachment, Bowlby 1969 Attachment: the strong (reciprocal) affectional ties that we feel with special people. Attachment Theory: Separation from caregivers produces problems. Children with stable parental relationships develop stable close relationships/friendships. Infant Attachment, Ainsworth 1979 Development of attachment system - regulates proximity-seeking behaviours connecting infants and caregivers. Mary Ainsworth - Strange Situation ○ Method: mother and child play in a room, stranger enters the room and plays with the child as well. Mother leaves the room, leaving stranger and baby alone. Mother returns again and stranger leaves. ○ Results: SECURE: likely not to cry when mother leaves, show some distress with stranger and seek comfort from caregiver, being quickly calmed down. INSECURE-AVOIDANT: children who avoid social interaction.intimacy with others, show little response to separation and do not seek close proximity with caregiver on reunion. High levels of anxiousness. INSECURE-RESISTANT: children seek and reject intimacy and social interaction, when separated from caregiver show intense distress, display conflicting desires for and against contact. DISORGANIZED: lack of consistent patterns. Attachment Styles Secure Healthy communication style Able to ask for help when needed Can self-regulate emotions. Anxious Clinginess Fear of abandonment Needs constant reassurance Avoidant Difficulty expression emotions Tends to emotionally withdraw from others Unwilling to ask for help Disorganized Incorporates characteristics of anxious and avoidant styles Fear of rejection but difficulty with intimacy Low self-worth Infant Attachment Attachment patterns predict functioning many years later. Secure Attachment: preschool children adapt better to parental absence and relate to strangers. Insecure attachment: preschool children get tongue-tied with strangers, long-term outcomes result in relationship problems, mental disorders, conduct problems. Adult Attachment Carry attachment style through life. Mary Main: 4 Categories of Adult Attachment Secure - ‘it is easy for me to become emotionally close’ Anxious - ‘I want to be emotionally intimate, but I often find others are reluctant to get close. Avoidant - ‘I am comfortable without emotional relationships’ Unresolved - often related to trauma; cannot tolerate emotional closeness, argumentative, abusive, antisocial. Secure Adult Attachment: Bowlby 1989, Jerga 2011, Lopez 2000, Luke 2012 Comfort with emotional closeness, lack of abandonment concern. Successful at recruiting care → better coping. Less intense grief. Higher physical energy More able to pursue optimal human functioning What the difference between love and attachment? Maybe nothing? Same motivational system and parallel behaviours, Shaver 1987 How do we know our partners love us and aren’t just attached? Trust, respect, emotional intimacy, physical intimacy, commitment, loyalty Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love, 1986 Culture and Romantic Love Behaviours Different cultural practices, such as arranged marriages ○ Arranged vs Love Marriages - similar satisfaction and commitment Regan et al., 2012 ○ Verbal expressions of love differ ○ Physical expressions of love differ ○ Men report falling in love more times than women, Harrison and Shortall 2010 Perhaps due to definition: unrequited vs requited. How does this relate to positive psychology; more research needed Flourishing Relationships Happy people MAY be more likely to be married ○ Happiness peaks right before marriage according to Clark et al., 2008 Happiness in marriage vs cohabitation ○ No differences according to Perelli-Harris, 2019 More about Happy Long-term Relationships Marriage increases long-term happiness, according to Chen and CHen, 2019 The Harvard Study of Adult Development Lower risk of disease - cardiovascular, respiratory according to Huntington et al., 2022 Living a long life according to Terman study, 1986 ○ Those who stayed married and those who never married. The Gottman’s Love lab Can predict 91% accuracy of relationship success Have a ‘love lab’ and ask couples to engage in 15 minutes of conversation. ○ Magic ratio: 5 positive interactions : 1 negative interaction. ○ Unhealthy = 1:1 The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse 1. Criticism — verbal attacks of personality or character. 1. ‘You always talk about yourself, why are you so selfish?’ 2. Defensiveness — victimizing yourself to avoid attack and reverse blame. 1. ‘It’s not my fault we’re late, it’s your fault because you get ready at the last second’. 3. Contempt — attacking sense of self with an intent to insult. 1. ‘You forgot to load the dishwasher, you are so lazy’. 4. Stonewalling — withdrawing to avoid conflict and convey disapproval. A Culture of Appreciation Gottman’s ‘Sound Relationship House’ Theory: Partner receives appreciation positively Appreciation prevents contempt. Forgiveness Three Definitions 1. McCullough, 1998: Prosocial motivation 1. Less desire for avoidance; less desire to harm or seek revenge. 2. Increased desire to act positively. 2. Enright, 1998: abandon resentment and cultivate compassion. 3. Tagney, 1999: cognitive affective transformation, victim ‘assess the harm’ and cancels the debt or cancels the negative emotion, and then individual removes self from victim role. Cultivating Forgiveness: Forgiving Another Person Requires perspective taking and empathy. Gordon and colleagues 2004: three step model. ○ Promote a realistic appraisal of the relationship ○ Release negative rumination toward violating partner ○ Help the victimized partner lessen the desire to punish. Seil 2016: studied intentional forgetting. ○ More likely to forgive. Parallels to stages of psychological trauma ○ Impact to search for meaning to recovery. Cultivating Forgiveness: Forgiving Oneself Required when feeling shame or quilt. ○ Shame: I am bad vs Guilt: I did something bad. Not forgiving oneself can be consequential. ○ We must live with ourselves. Jacinto and Edwards, 2011: outline four therapeutic stages: ○ Recognition, responsibility, expression, recreating. Cultivating Forgiveness: Forgiving of a Situation Stop thoughts about negative life events and look toward future Forgiveness of abusive partner study, Gordon et al., 2004: showed that forgiveness led to returning to the violent situation. ○ Forgiveness not always positive. Maladaptive behaviour from self-forgiveness. ○ Smokers forgave themselves for smoking - continued to smoke. Individual and Cultural Variations in Forgiveness Difference in defining forgiveness: pardoning vs moving on Might be developmental process: you are more forgiving as you age. Harmony can dictate forgiveness. ○ More collectivist = more forgiveness, even in situations where Western societies would be unlikely to forgive. Religiosity also varies across cultures: some religions preach ‘forgive and forgetting’. Forgiveness and its Outcomes Less depression, narcissistic entitlement, etc. More longevity of happiness and health. Higher life and relationship satisfaction. Excellence – Empirical Study Macnamara, B. N., Hambrick, D. Z., & Oswald, F. L. (2014). Deliberate practice and performance in music, games, sports, education, and professions: A meta-analysis. Psychological Science, 25, 1608-1618. This reading is available to you on Avenue to Learn. Experts What is an expert? How are experts created? One view is that experts are “born” ○ Innate A second view is that experts are “made”. ○ Trained Deliberate-Practice View The Deliberate-Practice View (Watson et al., 1993) Becoming an expert is due to accumulated amount of deliberate practice. For example, spending a great deal of time practicing a skillThis view comes from self-reports of expert violinists Violinists spent an average of 10,000 hours practicing. This view famously appears in these three books to the left. Malcolm Gladwell termed this “the 10,000 hour rule” ○ The idea that you have to spend 10,000 hours on something to become an expert. Criticisms of this View In the scientific literature, this view has been criticized: By Gardner (1995) - the view requires a “blindness… to decades of psychological theorizing” (p. 802) By Sternberg (1996) - “deliberate practice may be correlated with success because it is a proxy for ability: We stop doing what we do not do well and feel unrewarded for” (p. 350). By Anderson (2000) - “Ericsson and Krampe’s research does not really establish the case that a great deal of practice is sufficient for great talent” (p. 324), By Marcus (2012) - “it would be a logical error to infer from the importance of practice that talent is somehow irrelevant, as if the two were in mutual opposition” (p. 94). The Meta-Analysis Macnamara and colleagues conducted a meta-analysis (a form of empirical review) of existing literature on the deliberate-practice view. They examined the domains of music, games, sports, professions, and education. Goals: 1. estimate correlation between amount of practice and performance 2. investigate factors which might moderate this relationship Method (simplified) 88 studies met inclusion criteria ◦ Each study was coded for moderator variables The correlation between accumulated amount of practice and performance was used as the effect size. Results – Goal 1 Figure 2 (p. 1613) shows that the correlations between practice and performance were almost all positive. The average correlation (r) of the 88 studies was.38. The explained variance [r2 x 100] is 14%, meaning that deliberate practice only explains 14% of the variance in performance. This means that 86% (!!!) of the variance in performance was due to something other than deliberate practice Results – Goal 2 Next, the authors looked at other variables (domains) that might explain the relationship between practice and performance. Theoretical moderators ◦ Games – 24% explained variance ◦ Music – 23% explained variance ◦ Sports – 20% explained variance ◦ Education – 5% explained variance ◦ Professions – 1% explained variance Results – Goal 2 Next, the authors looked at other variables (methods) that might explain the relationship between practice and performance. Methodological moderators – Practice Assessment Methods ◦ Retrospective Interview – 20% explained variance ◦ Retrospective Questionnaire – 15% explained variance ◦ Log Method – 4% explained variance Methodological moderators – Performance Assessment Methods ◦ Group Membership – 26% explained variance ◦ Lab Tasks – 12% explained variance ◦ Expert Ratings – 11% explained variance ◦ Standardized Objective Scoring – 10% explained variance Results – 3 Additional Models 1. Omit team sports The variance explained by deliberate practice was 12%. 2. Only solitary activities The variance explained by deliberate practice was 14%. 3. Only solitary activities AND omitted team sports. The variance explained by deliberate practice was 14%. These results again show that deliberate practice is important to performance, but that much of the variance is still unexplained Discussion This meta-analysis does not support the deliberate-practice view. Variability in variance explained by the domain For example, it was higher in an activity which is predictable like running, but lower in an activity that is less predictable, such as an aviation emergency. Ultimately, there are other variables which add to the variance in performance besides just practice. Discussion What are some other variables which might contribute to performance? The authors suggest: ○ General intelligence ○ Working memory capacity What other ideas do you have? ○ Passion, love. ○ Domain can explain some form, but access to resources can affect performance. Question 1 The article notes that deliberate practice can be mentally and emotionally taxing, and that it requires sustained effort over a long period of time. ○ How might this affect the feasibility and desirability of pursuing excellence in different domains? Question 2 The meta-analysis found that deliberate practice was more strongly related to performance in domains where there is a high degree of competition, such as music and sports. ○ Why might this be the case? Flow, motivation, comparison, fear of failure The 10-Year Rule Duration to reach elite status. ○ Consistent across disciplines ○ Productivity Late 20s/Early 30s peak age range ○ Later 40s/Early 50s for topics like philosophy Peak age excellence ○ Variable across disciplines. The Pursuit of Excellence Resonance: a cyclical process that guides the development of excellence in many areas of expertise. Passion: ○ Passion and identity ○ A dualistic model of passion. ○ Studies on passion. Pursuit of Excellence - Grit Grit - self discipline, perseverance of effort, consistency of interests toward goals. High grit scores and positive outcomes. ○ Achievement/success ○ GPAs, performance in competitions, work engagement. ○ Life satisfaction, optimism, happiness, PWB Well-being and Grit ○ Individualistic ○ Dark side? Aesthetic vs Aesthetics 1. Everyday Use of ‘Aesthetic’ (Pop Culture/Social Media) ○ ‘Cottagecore aesthetic’ etc etc ○ In this sense, aesthetic means a style or vibe, a curated experience. 2. Academic Use of ‘Aesthetics’ (Philosophy, Psychology, and the Arts) ○ Is beauty universal, or does it depend on culture and personal experience? ○ How does aesthetic experience affect our emotions, thoughts, and wellbeing? ○ Scholars analyze why people find things aesthetically pleasing and how those experiences shape human behaviour, culture, and meaning. This use is analytical and theoretical - it seeks to understand why aesthetics matter beyond just visual appeal. Aesthetics and the Good Life Why is Aesthetics Important? ○ Artistic sense in human history. ○ Art, creativity, and wellbeing. ○ Art is museums. ○ Studies on art and wellbeing. Attributes of the Aesthetic Experience Pleasure ○ Sense of wellbeing ○ Social status ○ Positive emotions Absorption ○ Heightened restorative vitality. ○ Intensify immediate experience. ○ Finer gradations of emotions. Attributes of the Aesthetic Experience Intrinsic Interest ○ Art and learning of the world. ○ Artistic expression and childhood. ○ Mozart effect misinformation. Challenge ○ Path to personal growth ○ New ways to view the world ○ Creative re-adaptation to life ○ Art pushing boundaries LIVING WELL Dr. Nadine Burke Harris Exposure → Better development for children Center treats symptoms of trauma and build resiliency. ACEs (Adverse Childhood Experiences) STUDY 17,500 Adults Childhood trauma common in everyone; direct link between ACEs and adult onset chronic disease, depression, suicide, violence, victim to violence More trauma variety → higher health, social, and emotional risk ○ Usually more than one type. 10 Types of Childhood Trauma FIVE PERSONAL: Physical Abuse Verbal Abuse Sexual Abuse Physical Neglect Emotional Neglect FIVE FAMILIAL Alcoholic parent Parent Victim to DV Convicted family member Mentally ill family member Divorced parents Death/abandonment Why study trauma associated with wellbeing? ACEs → worsened phys + mental health; not everyone who experiences trauma stay stagnant, some are resilient. ○ What do they do differently; can we reverse the effect of trauma? Developmental Psychology Resilience in childhood: ability to positively adapt after adversity. Positive youth development, 9 outcomes: 1. Bonding 2. Social, emotional, cognitive, behavioural, and moral competencies 3. Self-determination 4. Spirituality 5. Clear and positive identity 6. Belief in the future 7. Positive Behaviour 8. Prosocial development 9. Prosocial norms Successful aging: avoiding disease, engaging in life, and maintaining high cognitive and physical functioning in one’s later years. Living Well at Every Stage Resilience researchers: study naturally occurring resources that curve life’s challenges. Positive Youth Developmentalists: resilience research into programs. Resilience in Childhood Resilience: bouncing back, positive adapting to adversity ○ Bounced back to what? Back to normal or excellence? Most look for normal, excellence celebrated ○ Cultural differences What are cultural values? What are community expectations? Must be aware of biases ○ Who is resilient? External vs internal adaptation External: meeting society’s expectations — necessary Internal: positive psyche Roots of Resilience Research: Werner + Smith, 1982/1992 ○ 700 children followed from birth were studied, using their psych data. ○ At birth, 1/3 were high risk. ○ Of this 1/3, 1/3 were resilient, and 2/3 developed problems. Over 80% bounced back later in life by mid-30s, attribteud to having one supportive adult. ○ Resilience Resources Cultural influences coping w/ adversity: Individualism vs Collectivism Types of strats Stigma Access to resources ○ Thousands of development programs Help overcome adversities Help build competencies Key Aspects from Resilience Research 1. There is no timeline 2. About 1/3 traumatized children build better lives by teen years 3. Faith is essential 4. Most resilient people don’t do it alone 5. Setting goals and planning 6. Believing in oneself 7. Recognizing one’s own strengths What is Positive Youth Development? Marked by 9 positive outcomes: Positive Youth Development, Cultural African American youth: strong ethnic identity = self-esteem Mexican immigrant children: strong ethic identity = academic performance Posi Youth Develop, Problems May not be equally accessible ○ Some minority children may not attend after-school programs ○ Low SES children may not be able to Move away from studying negatives for certain groups ○ Instead, study positives ○ Studying only negatives results in stigma. Posi Youth Develop, Successes Programs may make children mor successful adults ○ Civic behaviours; being politically active Thriving and spark Strong relationships very impactful ○ Parents and other adults ○ High maternal warmth ○ Parental monitoring ○ Parental involvement in school. Posi Youth Programs that Work Big Brothers and Sisters Penn Resiliency Program — structured life skills development Changing Lives Program — enhance identity develop. and facilitate mastery experiences Life Tasks of Adulthood Trajectories of Precocious Children ○ Terman’s longitudinal study of gifted children ○ Most were hardy and healthy and graduated from college, secure jobs ○ BUT IQ does not guarantee success or protect against poor decisions What are the primary tasks of adulthood? ○ Valliant, using Erikson’s stages of development: ○ Identity, intimacy, career consolidation, generativity, keeper of meaning, and integrity Successful Aging MacArthur Study of Successful Aging Three themes: avoiding disease, engaging in life, and maintaining high cognitive and physical functioning in one’s later years. Life engagement most relevant — social support and productivity Social support: two types for successful aging ○ Emo suport, instrumental support The Adult Development Study ○ 256 White, socially advantaged adults ○ Identified specific lifestyle factors: Not smoking, coping adaptively, not drinking, maintaining healthy weight, stable marriage, some exercise, being educated. ○ These variables distinguished happy-well and sad-wick Biggest difference: using mature psychological coping styles; altruism, humour. ○ Positive emotional experiences in early life. Nun study, Danner et al., 2001 Biggest regrets ○ Not taking education more seriously ○ Failure to do things; travel, tell someone how you feel. Successful Aging Models of Optimal Well-being Wisdom and Courage Studied together but often difficult to distinguish Exemplify human excellence ○ Challenges ○ Good decision making ○ Culturally bound ○ Contribute to common good ○ Ordinary people Some disagreement about which one comes first. Theories of Wisdom Wisdom is referenced since ancient times ○ Found in persons seeking contemplative life ○ That of a practical nature ○ Scientific understanding ○ Aristotle: theoretical thought and knowledge devoted to truth. Philosophical versus pragmatic ○ Is wisdom a form of excellence in living displayed by ordinary people or is it a fuzzy philosophical idea possessed by academics/sages? Implicit vs Explicit Theories Implicit: examine nature of a construct, explain through describing characteristics, qualities, and dimensions of construct. Explicit: examine visible aspects of a construct; focus on observable characteristics of a construct. Implicit Theories of Wisdom Clayton, 1975 — 3 Dimensions of Wisdom ○ Rate association of words with wisdom 1. Empathic, experienced, intelligent, introspective, intuitive, knowledgable, observant. ○ Factor analysis to look for dimensions: 1. Affective (empathy and compassion) 2. Reflective (intuition and introspection) 3. Cognitive (experience and intelligence) Sternberg, 1985 — 6 dimensions ○ Reasoning ability, profound knowledge/understanding, learning from ideas, judgement, use of info, acuteness of perception. Chandler and Holiday, 1986 — 5 factors ○ Exceptional understanding, judgement and communication skills, general competence, interpersonal skills, social unobstrusiveness. Baltes 1993 — analysis of culture and philosophy ○ Addresses important/difficult matters of life ○ Involves special/superior knowledge/advice ○ Reflects knowledge with extraordinary scope, depth, and balance applicable to specific life situation. ○ Well intended and combines mind and virtue ○ Very difficult to achieve but easily recognized. Children’s Beliefs in Wisdom, Gluck et al., 2012 ○ Cognitive aspects: clever, astute ○ Friendly ○ Appearance: green eyes, grey beard ○ Possession of real-world abilities; gives good advice, can teach you. Implicit Theories of Wisdom Implicit definitions differ by context ○ Eastern: affective and cognitive Personal qualities: compassion, open-mindedness, humbleness ○ Western: stress cognition over affective dimension Personal qualities: intelligence, problem solving, planning Explicit Theories of Wisdom Jean Piaget: Cognitive Development, 1932 ○ Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational. ○ Extension by Riegel: postformal Dialectical operational — wisdom — logical argumentation in pursuit of truth. Erikson and life-span theory 1959 ○ Optimal developemt — concerns for collective good over personal interests Sternberg’s 1998: balance theory and Baltes’ 1990: Berlin wisdom paradigm Sternberg’s Triarchic Model of Intelligence Sternberg theorized three types of intelligence: Analytical, Practical, and Creative ○ Wise decisions require implicit knowledge, then balance, and each interest, consequence, or response is weighted. Balance Theory Berlin Wisdom Paradigm ‘Expert Knowledge concerning the fundamental pragmatics of life’ OR ‘good judgement and advice about important but uncertain matters of life’. What are ‘fundamental pragmatics’ according to Baltes? ○ Knowledge and judgement about essence of human condition, and the ways and means of planning, managing, and understanding a good life. Baltes hypothesized a few areas where wisdom is manifested: ○ Age ○ Experience to wide range of human conditions ○ Experience of mentorship/tutoring ○ Motivational dispositions, like generosity. To be wise, one needs expertise, needs to ‘know what’ and also ‘know how’. To be a wise problem-solver, a person should have the following qualities: ○ Rich factual knowledge + procedural knowledge ○ Life-span contextualism; consider teh contexts of life ○ Relativism of values: understanding value differences across people and societies. ○ Managing uncertainty Becoming and Being Wise Developing Wisdom Builds on knowledge, cognitive skills, and personality ○ Requires understanding of culture. Life experiences and tutelage. ○ Develops slowly with exposure to wise role models. Grows through problem solving. ○ ‘Two heads better than one’. Transmitted from generation to generation. ○ Observation, relationships, and modelling. Wise People and their Characteristics Greater life satisfaction Gender differences in cognitive and affective wisdom. ○ Wisdom likely integrates both, but women (college and older than 50) have higher levels of affective; people who were the wisest had high levels of both. Major development between 15 and 25 ○ No age difference for wisdom 25-75. ○ Wisdom declines after 70. Professional background ○ Clinical psychologists score high on wisdom Cultural differences: Japan and US ○ In japan, people wise over their life span ○ In US, people developed greater wisdom with age. Wisdom used as coping strategy ○ Adolescents who thought of difficult situations as ‘turning points’ had higher wisdom later on. ○ Use difficult situations as opportunities for personal growth. Benefits of Wisdom ○ Beneficial inter- and intrapersonal qualities Coherent sense of self Less investment in hedonistic pursuits ○ More interest in reflection and personal growth. ○ Reserve social judgment. ○ Understand context before making conclusions. ○ Flexible, adaptive, grateful ○ Higher subjective well-being, greater humility. Defining Features of Courage A willing/intentional act Involving danger, risk or difficulty Primarily motivated to bring about a noble good or morally worthy goal. Types of Courage Physical — acting despite physical danger Moral — doing what is right despite social opposition Civil — brave behaviour due to societal/ethical norms Psychological — facing psychological discomfort to pursue meaningful goal Vital — perseverance through a disease or disability. Becoming and Being Courageous Children’s views on courage and fear ○ Younger children think of courage as physical risk taking. Fear and courage cannot coexist. ○ Older children think of courage as psychological risk taking. They also talk about many emotions: fear, self-confidence, and an urge to act. Risks of not being courageous ○ Being reminded of what can happen when we don’t act may bolster our resolve to act courageous. Personal traits can lead to courageous actions. ○ Non-Jewish rescuers and non-Jewish bystanders after Holocaust. ○ Rescuers had greater social responsibility, empathic concern, risk taking, altruistic moral reasoning. Haase: attitudes and coping methods rather than born heroes. ○ Through daily mini-experiences of courage, a teen becomes aware that he/she is acting courageously. ○ Development of mastery, competence, accomplishment, growth. Hannah and colleagues: Courageous Mindset ○ Acting courageously leads to courageous mindset, which leads to more acts of courage. We can help teach courage to children ○ Trying new foods, challenging himself to play with big kids, trying not to cry when missing mother, etc. Relationships between Fear and Courage Not well understood Courage/fearlessness typically understood as synonymous. ○ BUT fearful people can act courageously. ○ Courageous people might have lower physiological stress response. Behavioural and physical responses to fear. ○ Moderate amount of fear, but it subsides. ○ Execution of fear-provoking behaviour reduces future fear. Benefits of Courage Higher agreeableness and openness Negative relationship with anxiety Adaptive coping, higher confidence — but is courage different from confidence? Courage and Culture Harmony viewed as courageous; deciding to keep one’s opinions to oneself. Conceptual differences in US and China ○ Responsibility is a facet of courage in China ○ Gender — courage is masculine in China Racial minorities need more courage LGBTQ+ individuals need to be more courageous Can Courage be Learned? Can be practiced, prepared, learned. Humanistic Perspectives Carl Rogers and the Fully Functioning Person ○ Self-actualizing tendency ○ What is the person like? Moves toward being. ○ Approaching and welcoming life experiences. Balancing rationality and intuition ○ Self-concordance - congruence between personality and goals. Abraham Maslow and Self-Actualization ○ Early studies of self-actualizing people. ○ Maslow’s hierarchy of inborn needs ○ Motivation in self-actualizing people. ○ Personality traits of self-actualizing people. Openness to experience Autonomy Resistance to enculturation Positive relationship with others Strong ethical standards Research on self-actualization Purpose in Life ○ Powerful motivators of behaviour ○ Intention to accomplish a goal. ○ Components of the definition: goal, personally meaningful, focused on making world better or contributing others’ welfare. ○ Purpose and wellbeing. Jack Bauer and the Quiet Ego, Purpose in Life ○ A concept on maturity ○ Growth of the self-system ○ Quiet ego leading to wellbeing. ○ Associated with eudaimonic wellbeing. Personal Growth ○ Personal growth initiative ○ Moving toward self-actualization. The Optimal Personality: Common Themes ○ Marie Jahoda and Ideal Mental Health Attitudes toward the self Growth, development, self-actualization An integrated personality; autonomy. Reality perception: environmental mastery. ○ Personality traits important for optimal wellbeing Openness to experience Curiosity Five dimensions of curiosity Children age 3-11 improved their IQ by 12 points more than their least-curious counterparts. Increases perseverance and grit. Joyous exploration, deprivation sensitivity, stress tolerance, social curiosity, thrill seeking Exploration and absorption Seeking discomfort Self-transcendence. The Future of Positive Psychology Gruber, Mauss, and Tamir, 2011 A Dark Side of Happiness Happiness might be maladaptive. Review of benefits of happiness: ○ Four Questions: ○ Is there a wrong degree of happiness? ○ Is there a wrong time for happiness? ○ Are there wrong ways to pursue happiness? ○ Are there wrong types of happiness? Benefits of Happiness Benefits of INCREASED Positive Emotion ○ Broadening of thought-action repertoires ○ Build social, physical, cognitive resources ○ Becoming more prosocial ○ Catalyzes cognitive flexibility ○ Improves physical health ○ Improves mental health. Benefits of DECREASED negative emotion ○ Reduced risk of psych/physical disorders. Questions, Addressed 1. Is there a wrong degree of happiness? ○ Intense happiness is related to more costs that capital gain. ○ Clinical data on manic individuals provides evidence that intense positive emotion inhibits a person’s ability to experience negative emotion, therefor lack of inhibition. ○ If negative emotion is not intense enough, may cause antisocial behaviours/lack of empathy Intense example; psychopathy, inflicting pain on others. ○ E.g., more risky behaviours, neglect of threats. ○ IN SUMMARY: YES, there is a wrong degree of happiness; extreme positivity or not enough negative emotion is related to adverse outcomes. 2. Is there a wrong time for happiness? ○ Happiness in different contexts, such as: Physiological factors: if we are in physical danger, feeling happy inhibits fight-or-flight responses. Cognitive Factors: if we are happy, we may not react as quickly to threats; positive emotions = more likely to rely on heuristics, stereotypes, beliefs, expectations, etc. Also more likely to engage in fundamental attribution error. Social Factors: positive emotions lead to less success in negotiation; lack of communication when feeling negative emotions. 3. Are there wrong ways to pursue happiness? ○ Cross-cultural norms, relying on this feeling of ‘happiness’ instead of wellbeing. ○ The more we strive for happiness, the more likely we will remain unhappy. ○ Pursuit of happiness related to negative effects on wellbeing. More people value happiness, less wellbeing and more depression experienced. More people value happiness, lonelier they felt. ○ How do we combat this? Mindfulness and acceptance. 4. Are there wrong types of happiness? ○ Happiness that creates social division/goes against cultural norms may have negative outcomes. Individualist (more disengagement, pride in US vs social engagement, friendliness in Japan) Individualist (happiness as personal experience) vs Collectivist (happiness is social harmony). ○ Hubristic pride - pride fuelled by arrogance/conceit likely has negative outcomes. Lack of embarrassment or guilt likely has negative social outcomes. 5. A Look Toward the Future of Positive Psychology How do we recognize a life well lived? ○ Happiness and life satisfaction Happiness as a consequence, not a goal. ○ Other noteworthy traits ○ Happiness pill ○ Defining wellbeing for oneself. ○ Other approaches; positive emotions as just one part; some value prosocial actions and socially desirable goals. ○ Independent predictors of wellbeing do not operate in a vaccuum E.g., positive thinking, optimism, and forgiveness can be adaptive or problematic depending on context. ○ Meta-positive Psychology (Huta, 2017) A set of over-arching principles common to these diverse topics. 6. New Research Methods ○ SUMM: Scientific understanding through multiple methodologies; Diener, 2017 ○ Action research: positive psychologists should make research a more collaborative process; Gergen and Gergen, 2001 ○ Search for happiness or ‘the good life’ — individual differences present. ○ Qualitative Research Methods Individual interviews, focus groups, case studies, participant observation. Examining impact of past. Constructivist research strategies — how is reality constructed? Studying human complexity. ○ Systems Theory: The Billiard Ball Model of Causality Mind, body, emotions as an integrated system. Complex causal relationships Responses to stimuli. Causal pathways of the model. ○ Systems Theory: Personality Integration Seeman, 2008: Human Systems Model Biochemical, physiological, precognitive, cognitive, interpersonal and person to environment Significance of emotion - function of all subsystems acting together. Decreasing unhappiness as a higher priority.

Positive Psychology: Exploring Wellbeing, Joy, and Resilience

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