Eudaimonic Well Being

CHAPTER 4: Eudaimonic Well Being The Other Type of Happiness As discussed in the previous chapter, there are two camps of thought about what makes people happy and/or experience wellbeing. The previous chapter discussed the concept of subjective well being, which is a person’s satisfaction with th...

CHAPTER 4: Eudaimonic Well Being The Other Type of Happiness As discussed in the previous chapter, there are two camps of thought about what makes people happy and/or experience wellbeing. The previous chapter discussed the concept of subjective well being, which is a person’s satisfaction with their life and the experience of positive affect and low negative affect. Ryan and Deci (2000) argue that SWB is simply a definition of hedonism and that the types of activities and goals theorized to promote wellbeing may be misleading. Vitterso (2004) criticized SWB for ignoring the complexity of philosophical conceptions of happiness and completely failing to explain the dimension of personal growth, while Ryff (1989) argued that there was a failure to answer the question of what it actually means to be well psychologically. Ultimately, the concepts of meaning and purpose, which appear to be very important for a balanced sense of wellbeing, are ignored (King and Napa, 1998; McGregor and Little, 1998). Eudaimonic well being argues that wellbeing lies in the actualization of human potential. Researchers within the eudaimonic framework argue that happiness and ‘the good life’ are not simply the experiences of feeling good. There has to be more to life than just pleasure and satisfaction. Eudaimonic well being proposes that true happiness is found in the expression of virtue and doing what is worth doing. Thus, the realization of human potential is an ultimate goal (Aristotle). Individuals must therefore seek and pursue happiness through prudence (John Locke) and self-discipline (Epicurus). Eudaimonia is defined as fulfilling or realizing one’s daimon or true nature. This occurs when people’s life activities are most congruent with their deep values (Waterman, 1993), such as developing one’s true self (Vitterso, 2004), engaging in activities for their own sake (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002), and belonging to and serving institutions larger than oneself (Huta et al., 2003). Views differ, however, as to how the experiences of eudaimonic and hedonic well being relate to each other. On the one hand, it may be that eudaimonic well being always includes hedonic well being to some extent, or that they are largely independent dimensions (Ryff, 1989), or that the experience of eudaimonic well being can actively reduce hedonic well being. On the other hand, Kashdan, Biswas-Diener and King (2008) consider the constructs and hence the experiences to be identical. The question also arises as to whether eudaimonic well being is a process or an outcome, or both. The prevailing discourse is to construct it as a state (for example, Kashdan et al., 2008; Waterman et al., 2008), but some researchers have suggested that it may be more appropriate to view it as a process (for example, Ryan et al., 2008; Vittersø et al., 2009). Finally, researchers have started to look into whether there is a relationship between eudaimonic well being and personality differences, or if eudaimonic well being in itself can be seen as a personality trait. More specifically, research intends to discover whether there is such a thing as a hedonic or eudaimonic orientation (Vittersø et al., 2009) that gives a greater propensity to experience eudaimonic well being. As Boniwell (2008) has pointed out, the area of eudaimonic well being appears, at best, a mess. The next section will review the current alternative theoretical frameworks falling under the eudaimonic well being umbrella. Psychological Well Being (PWB) The concept of PWB (Ryff and Keyes, 1995; Ryff and Singer, 2006) consists of six components: ​ Self-acceptance (positive evaluation of oneself and one’s life) ​ Personal growth ​ Purpose in life ​ Positive relations with others ​ Environmental mastery (the capacity to effectively manage one’s life and environment) ​ Autonomy There is some empirical support for the six-factor model with moderate associations between two subscales of PWB (self-acceptance and environmental mastery) and SWB (the other dimensions correlated weakly or inconsistently with these indicators) (Ryff and Keyes, 1995). Ryff argues that this pattern demonstrates that traditional measures ignore the key aspects of wellbeing (Ryff, 1989). A number of researchers, however, are critical of these dimensions. Vitterso (2004) notes several findings suggesting that Ryff’s six dimensions can be accounted for by two factors corresponding to hedonic and eudaimonic well being. Keyes et al. (2002) hypothesized that SWB and PWB, although conceptually related, are empirically distinct conceptions of wellbeing. Factor analysis of data from over 3,000 respondents confirmed that SWB and PWB are two correlated but distinct factors and that they show a different pattern of relationships to demographic and personality variables. Authentic Happiness Seligman (2002) argued that there are three routes to happiness: 1.​ The pleasant life, which enables high levels of positive emotion and gratification; 2.​ The good life, which enables constant absorption, engagement and ‘flow’; and 3.​ A meaningful life, where one uses one’s strengths in the service of something greater than oneself. The latter two fall under the umbrella of eudaimonia. The important thing to note from this area of research is that people who engage in hedonic, pleasant activities experience higher levels of positive affect in the short term; however, eudaimonic pursuits may give meaning and value in the long term. Flow Have you ever started an assignment or essay only to find that five hours have gone by without you even noticing it? Have you ever played a football game, or a rugby match, or completed a dance routine, where you were so absorbed in what you were doing that you didn’t notice anything or anyone else around you? And you played your best? This feeling of ‘being in the zone’ is what researchers describe as flow. Think about it… Flow theory was created by Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi after his fascination in the 1960s with artists and their unwavering concentration. He noticed that all rewards of painting came from painting itself – a theory now known as intrinsic motivation. Flow is defined as: "The intense experiential involvement in moment-to-moment activity, which can be either physical or mental. Attention is fully invested in the task at hand and the person functions at her or his fullest capacity." (Csikszentmihalyi, 2009: 394) Flow has direct ties with consciousness and psychic energy, where it is posited that when people feel psychic entropy (chaos and anxious thoughts), they will experience depression and stress. However, the attainment of psychic negentropy or flow (exclusion of any negative thought) is ideal for enhancing the experience’s positive effect. Conditions for Flow Several conditions are needed to facilitate the flow experience. These include: ​ Structured activity with clear goals and immediate feedback​ The activity must have rules and a clear outline to help orientate the person doing it. You must be able to get a sense of progress. ​ Balance of challenges versus skills​ There must be a delicate balance between skill level and challenge.​ ○​ High challenge + low skill = anxiety ○​ Low challenge + high skill = boredom ○​ Low challenge + low skill = apathy​ ​ Complete concentration (merging of action and awareness): Full immersion in the task, with no space for consciousness or self-awareness. ​ Sense of control: Perceived balance between challenges and skills leads to a stronger sense of control. ​ Transformation of time: Time distorts — either speeds up or slows down — during the activity.  ​ Activity for the sake of activity (and a wish to repeat): The activity is intrinsically enjoyable — not done for external rewards. ​ Autotelic personality: Individuals with traits like curiosity, persistence, low self-centeredness, and intrinsic motivation are more likely to experience flow. Demographics of Flow Are you in flow? This section reviews who, when, where and with whom we are most likely to experience flow. ​ 10–15% of the US and European population have never experienced flow. ​ 10–15% experience flow every day. Using the Experience Sampling Method (ESM), Csikszentmihalyi and colleagues found: ​ Teenagers feel happiest and most motivated when with friends — the opposite when alone. ​ Flow is most often experienced during:​ ○​ Sports and physical activity ○​ Dance and creative arts ○​ Sex, socializing ○​ Studying, music, reading ○​ Surprisingly: working Activities that inhibit flow: ​ Housework, watching TV, being idle Cross-cultural research (Iran, Romania, Nepal) shows contradictions with traditional Western findings — such as people finding meaning and flow in housework and child-rearing. Benefits of Flow There are several consequences of attaining flow. In different domains: ​ Sports: Athletes and coaches report peak performance and enhanced skill acquisition. ​ Leisure: Flow leads to increased positive emotions after the activity. ​ Education: Systems designed to induce flow can lead to higher grades, commitment, and achievement. ​ Work: Employees show greater engagement and leadership development. Unexplored Areas of Flow ​ Micro flow: Short bursts of flow — seconds long. How is it created? ​ Group flow: Teams or groups experiencing flow together, such as in sports or collaborative work. Still under-researched. Dangers of Flow Students often ask whether flow is always morally good. The answer: not necessarily. ​ Flow can be found in both morally good and bad activities (e.g., gambling). ​ People can become addicted to flow-inducing activities (e.g., extreme sports, video games), to the point that the activity becomes necessary for daily functioning. Overall, engaging in challenging and flow-inducing activities (within reason) can significantly enhance overall wellbeing. Applying Flow Theory Flow doesn’t just happen by chance. Csikszentmihalyi (2002, 2009) suggested two approaches: 1.​ Change environments to facilitate flow​ ○​ Managers or educators can shape environments that foster flow  ○​ Example: Create tasks with clear goals, feedback, and balance between skills and challenges​ 2.​ Help others find flow​ ○​ Therapists can help clients identify flow-inducing activities ○​ Increase difficulty of these activities over time to maintain challenge and build skills ○​ Encourage people to spend less time on apathetic activities (e.g., TV) and more on flow-producing ones Meaning and Purpose in Life Across research and practice, meaning in life is seen as essential for fulfillment (Steger, 2009; Wong, 2009). ​ Lack of meaning is associated with:​ ○​ Existential fear of death ○​ Negative mental health outcomes ○​ Reduced wellbeing Wong (2009) argues that the search for meaning may be more important than the search for happiness. Researchers also focus on the structure of personal meaning systems, including: ​ Differentiation: Diversity in sources of meaning ​ Elaboration: Linking events and values into life purpose ​ Coherence: How well life aspects fit together These enhance mental and physical health and predict life satisfaction (Pöhlmann et al., 2006). Frankl’s Contribution Viktor Frankl’s work is foundational. His concept of the “will to meaning” identified three values of meaningful life: 1.​ Creative value 2.​ Experiential value 3.​ Attitudinal value Later studies identified seven common sources of meaning across cultures: ​ Achievement ​ Acceptance ​ Relationship ​ Intimacy ​ Religion ​ Self-transcendence ​ Fairness Happiness + Meaning = Wellbeing King and Napa (1998) concluded that well being comes from a combination of: ​ Happiness (SWB = Satisfaction with Life, Positive Affect, Negative Affect) ​ Meaning (connectedness, purpose, growth — eudaimonia) McGregor & Little (1998), Compton et al. (1996) further validated this by analyzing mental health indicators.​ They identified two main components of wellbeing: 1.​ Happiness/SWB 2.​ Personal growth (maturity, self-actualization, openness to experience) Purpose in Life & Mental Health Having life purpose helps people: ​ Cope with stress ​ Resist suicidal thoughts For example, Mei-Chuan et al. (2007) found that people with depression and hopelessness are more likely to use emotion-focused coping. However, avoidance strategies (if used in healthy ways) can redirect negative energy into constructive actions and even become life-affirming. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) Like Maslow, SDT proposes that humans have three basic psychological needs: 1.​ Autonomy ○​ Self-regulation of behaviour ○​ Acting according to personal volition, resisting coercion or external pressure 2.​ Competence ○​ Seeking learning and mastery ○​ Expressed in play, curiosity, and challenges 3.​ Relatedness ○​ Connection and care with others ○​ Promotes group cohesion and mutual protection ○​ Relatedness can sometimes conflict with autonomy but usually complements it. More Basic Needs? Besides autonomy, competence, and relatedness, researchers suggest two additional needs: ​ Physical thriving/health: Meeting basic biological needs ​ Security: Having order, structure, and predictability (as Maslow also emphasized) (Sheldon et al., 2001) Existential Psychology and Positive Psychology Existential psychology focuses on: “Human existence and the human drama of survival and flourishing” (Wong, 2009: 361) Traditionally, existential psychology has been seen as: ​ Focused on the dark side of life (e.g., accepting suffering as core to the human condition) ​ Often ignored by positive psychology Existential Positive Psychology This new wave aims to merge both fields to tackle life’s toughest topics: ​ Death ​ Freedom ​ Isolation ​ Meaninglessness ​ Identity ​ Happiness Three Types of Mature Happiness (Wong) 1.​ Authentic happiness – comes from being true to oneself 2.​ Eudaimonic happiness – comes from virtuous deeds 3.​ Chaironic happiness – a spiritual gift of happiness, not dependent on circumstances; can arise even in suffering Key ideas: ​ Happiness is a process, not a destination ​ True happiness arises when you serve something greater than yourself ​ Growth involves both positive and negative experiences Authenticity and Risk ​ Being authentic doesn’t always lead to happiness. ​ According to Wong, people must risk being themselves, even if it brings discomfort. ​ Identity crises and modern consumerism/capitalism may hinder this journey toward authenticity. Contentment can sometimes be negative — it might leave a person without goals or direction. Discontent can drive personal growth. Conclusion: ​ Pursuing happiness isn’t the ultimate goal. ​ Pursuing meaning and authenticity will eventually lead to genuine happiness. The Duality Hypothesis (Wong, 2009) “Positives cannot exist apart from negatives, and authentic happiness grows from pain and suffering.” Death and Positive Psychology Human consciousness brings awareness of mortality, which can lead to anxiety. But death, too, can be an avenue for growth and development. Positive Death / Good Dying ​ Linked to the “good life” ​ Death can have positive or negative effects, depending on how we perceive it ​ Embracing death can enhance authenticity and lead to self-actualization Meaning Management Theory This theory suggests: ​ Death can be transformed into productive energy ​ By embracing mortality, people live more meaningful and authentic lives Three Attitudes Toward Death: 1.​ Neutral Death Acceptance​ ○​ Death is a natural part of life ○​ Motivates people to live life fully​ 2.​ Approach Acceptance​ ○​ Belief in a pleasurable afterlife​ 3.​ Escape Acceptance​ ○​ Death seen as preferable to a miserable life Terror Management Theory (TMT) ​ Humans have a biological need to survive ​ Awareness of inevitable death causes anxiety Mortality Salience Hypothesis ​ When people are reminded of death, they reinforce their worldviews ​ They conform to their culture’s beliefs and behaviors more strictly ​ For people who survive trauma and bear scars, these reminders are constant ​ They use defense mechanisms to manage anxiety (Pyszczynski et al., 2002) Integrating Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well Being So how do we decide which is the “better” path to a good life? Findings: ​ People who pursue eudaimonic goals score high on life satisfaction ​ Those who pursue hedonic goals experience more positive affect, relaxation, and fewer problems ​ Eudaimonic pursuits are more tied to:​ ○​ Growth ○​ Effort ○​ Challenge ○​ Development Critiques of the Hedonic Approach: ​ Lack of clarity about what “positive affect” really means​ ○​ Should we use Fredrickson’s ten emotions? ○​ Should Satisfaction with Life (SWL) be viewed as hedonic?​ ​ Perhaps SWL is independent, needing its own category. What do we really mean by happiness and wellbeing? (Galati, Manzano & Sotgiu, 2006) Critiques of the Eudaimonic Approach ​ Lack of conceptual unity​ ○​ What exactly is meant by “personal growth”? ○​ Does eudaimonia mean development? Transcendence? Meaning? All of them? The Way Forward: ​ Conduct exploratory research ​ Develop better measures of eudaimonic well being ​ Use qualitative approaches to: ○​ Capture nuance ○​ Map the field ○​ Define and clarify core concepts ​ Most current studies use top-down analysis ​ Many focus on what people say makes them happy — rather than what happiness means to them. Summary Reflecting on the learning objectives, you should now understand the concept of eudaimonic well being. Specifically, you should know: ​ Eudaimonia is defined as the area of happiness concerned with following a meaningful life and achieving actualization. ​ Psychological wellbeing consists of six components considered to be neglected by the traditional hedonic paradigm. ​ Meaning and purpose in life are essential for wellbeing. ​ Purpose in life can reduce suicidal behaviours. ​ Flow occurs when someone engages with an activity that is intrinsic and matches his or her skill level. ​ Self-determination theory includes three psychological needs imperative for wellbeing: autonomy, competence and relatedness.