Pols 230 Final Exam PDF

U.S. Electoral Rules ​ House: Elected every 2 years. ​ Senate: Elected every 6 years in 3 classes. ​ States: Set election rules unless Congress legislates. ​ President/VP: Serve 4-year terms; electors = senators + representatives. Primaries ​ What? Preliminary state elections to...

U.S. Electoral Rules ​ House: Elected every 2 years. ​ Senate: Elected every 6 years in 3 classes. ​ States: Set election rules unless Congress legislates. ​ President/VP: Serve 4-year terms; electors = senators + representatives. Primaries ​ What? Preliminary state elections to select party candidates. ​ Types: ○​ Open: Voters of any affiliation participate. ○​ Closed: Only registered party members vote. Early Primary System ​ 1789-1824: Transition from naive idealism to party caucuses. ​ 1800: Jefferson vs. Burr → 12th Amendment, formalizing separate President/VP votes. Why U.S. Electoral Institutions? ​ Key factors: Historical context, fear of tyranny, compromises, federalism, Electoral College, tradition. Articles of Confederation ​ Federal Weaknesses: No president, taxation power, military, or judiciary. ​ State Strengths: Tax/tariff power, treaties, budget contributions. ​ Result: Led to Constitutional Convention and new Constitution (1787). Representative Democracy Benefits ​ Advantages: Expertise, efficiency, protection of minority rights. ​ Elections: ○​ Replacement: Change poor-performing officials. ○​ Persuasion: Incentivize responsiveness between elections. Invisible Primary ​ Definition: Pre-primary phase to secure support, endorsements, and funds. ​ Importance: Shapes candidates’ viability before official primaries. Party vs. Candidate-Centered Politics ​ Party-Centered: Candidates appeal to party insiders for selection. ​ Candidate-Centered: Well-funded candidates dominate, forcing party support. McGovern-Fraser Commission (1969) ​ Reformed the Democratic delegate process to reduce elite control. Debates ​ Importance: Familiar campaign feature since 1988. ​ Effects: Exceeding voter expectations can shift polls. Campaign Goals ​ Focus: Activate party ID, mobilize voters, target likely supporters. ​ Negative Ads: Impact decisions early, actions late. Electoral College ​ Purpose: Balances power between populous and smaller states. Stereotyping in Elections ​ Techniques: ○​ Association: Link candidates to ideas/people. ○​ Demonizing: Cast opponents as villains. ○​ Code Words: Subtle stereotypes. ○​ Visual Cues: Images, music, colors. Candidate Types ​ Professionals: Experienced, strategic. ​ True Amateurs: Inexperienced, uncertain prospects. ​ Fake Amateurs: Famous but politically inexperienced. Underrepresentation of Women in Congress ​ Barriers: Gender bias, fundraising challenges, party resistance. Negative Partisanship ​ Effect: Voting against disliked parties, not for preferred ones. ​ Result: Increased polarization and turnout, less focus on policy. Information Shortcuts ​ Examples: Party affiliation, name recognition, endorsements, single-issue voting. Rational Voter Model ​ Equation: P×B>CP×B>C or P×B+D>CP×B+D>C. ○​ PP: Probability of impacting election. ○​ BB: Benefits of voting. ○​ CC: Costs of voting. ○​ DD: Social/civic rewards (e.g., duty). RAS Model Receive, Accept, Sample: ​ Voters do not forget information but access it through cognitive processes. Steps of the RAS Model: 1.​ Reception: ○​ Higher political engagement increases comprehension of political information. ○​ Likelihood of possessing election information depends on political awareness. 2.​ Resistance:  ○​ People resist arguments inconsistent with their political views. 3.​ Considerations: ○​ Similar to the "online bucket" analogy, political opinions are formed by selecting a few "marbles" (considerations) from a bucket. 4.​ Accessibility: ○​ Recently acquired information is easier to recall. ○​ Issues deemed important by voters are also more accessible. 5.​ Response: ○​ Decisions are made by evaluating the most important or easily accessible considerations. Role of Media in Elections ​ Monitor: Acts as a watchdog, monitoring elected officials. ​ Information Source: Provides most political news. ​ Public Opinion: Reports and shapes public opinion. ​ Communication Venue: Facilitates communication between agents (politicians) and principals (voters). Media Incentives in Elections: ​ Profit ​ Career success ​ Prestige ​ Social impact Media’s Relationship with Democracy: 1.​ Accuracy: Ensures information provided is reliable. 2.​ Informativeness: Delivers new, relevant information. 3.​ Bias: Avoids systematic distortions. Types of Bias in Media: ​ Use of official sources ​ Profit-driven motives ​ Partisan and ideological biases ​ Medium-driven distortions Media’s Relationship with Politics: ​ Agenda Setting: Determines what issues people consider important. ​ Framing and Priming: Highlights factors and determines which are accessed. Importance of Media Access: ​ Formation and Dissemination: Shapes perceptions of candidates and issues. ​ Candidate Visibility: Determines public exposure to candidates.  ​ Public Opinion: Influences perceptions through coverage and commentary. ​ Campaign Messaging: Allows candidates to connect with voters. ​ Electoral Influence: Frames issues and narratives around candidates. ​ Debates and Forums: Organizes and broadcasts voter assessments. Polling in American Elections ​ Definition: Surveys to gather public opinion on candidates, parties, and issues. ​ Conducted By: Polling firms, news outlets, research institutions. Types of Polls: ​ Pre-election Polls: Gauge voter preferences and predict outcomes before an election. ​ Exit Polls: Collect demographic and motivational data from voters on Election Day. ​ Tracking Polls: Monitor voter preference trends over time. ​ Approval Ratings: Measure public sentiment toward officials, influencing strategy. ​ Issue-Specific Polls: Assess public views on policies like healthcare or foreign policy. ​ Likely-Voter Models: Use algorithms to predict voter turnout and preferences. Purpose of Polling: ​ Provides information to voters, campaigns, and media organizations. ​ Captures voter enthusiasm, intentions, and preferences. Campaign Finance and Elections History of Campaign Finance: ​ Pendleton Act (1883): Banned political contributions from government employees. ​ Tillman Act (1907): Prohibited corporate funding of federal elections. ​ Federal Corrupt Practices Act (1925): Set spending limits and disclosure rules. Supreme Court and Congress on Policy Issues (Buckley v. Valeo): ​ Upheld: Contribution limits, contributor disclosure, aggregate limits, and public funding. ​ Struck down: Candidate and group expenditure limits. Citizens United v. FEC: ​ Federal Election Campaign Act (1972) limited advertising and campaign expenditures. ​ Citizens United decision (2010) allowed unlimited independent expenditures by corporations and unions. Effects of Campaign Finance Regulations: ​ Limits influence of money. ​ Promotes fairness and transparency. ​ Reduces corruption and encourages small donors. ​ Challenges: Compliance complexity and workarounds. Types of Contributions: ​ Individual Contributions: Limited contributions to campaigns and PACs. ​ Corporate Contributions: Direct contributions prohibited; voluntary PAC funding allowed. ​ Super PACs: Unlimited independent expenditures without direct candidate coordination. Other Key Terms: ​ Independent Expenditures: Campaign-related spending made independently. ​ Bundling: Grouping individual contributions to amplify impact. ​ Grassroots Fundraising: Relies on small individual donations via online platforms. Incumbency and Electoral Connection Incumbents: ​ Individuals who already hold office. Effect of Incumbency: ​ David Lee's experiment showed privileges of incumbency enhance reelection chances. Electoral Connection (Mayhew): ​ Assumes Congress members prioritize reelection. ​ Name recognition and perceived effectiveness aid reelection. Key Strategies: ​ Advertising: Increases name recognition. ​ Credit Claiming: Demonstrates constituency-focused efforts. Redistricting and Gerrymandering Definitions:  ​ Redistricting: Redrawing congressional districts every 10 years. ​ Gerrymandering: Strategically grouping voters to benefit a political party. Tactics: ​ Packing: Concentrating opposition voters in few districts. ​ Cracking: Splitting opposition voters across districts to dilute influence. Key Figures: ​ Tom Hoffler: Redrew maps for partisan and racial gerrymandering in North Carolina. Concepts: ​ Contiguity: Ensures districts remain geographically connected.