Politics, Government and the State PDF

Politics, Government and the State ***Politics*** - exercise of power or authority, as a process of collective decisionmaking, as the allocation of scarce resources, as an arena of deception or manipulation - 1^st^ - politics is an activity. - 2^nd^ - politics is a social activity...

Politics, Government and the State ***Politics*** - exercise of power or authority, as a process of collective decisionmaking, as the allocation of scarce resources, as an arena of deception or manipulation - 1^st^ - politics is an activity. - 2^nd^ - politics is a social activity - 3^rd^ - politics develops out of diversity, the existence of a range of opinions, wants, needs or interests. - 4^th^ diversity linked to existence of conflict: politics involves the expression of differing opinions - 5^th^ - politics is about decisions - through decisions conflict is resolved - politics is better thought of as the search for **[conflict-resolution]** rather than its achievement - if majority decides, that will be final Three distinct conceptions of politics -politics is always true to fam., groups(lowest level of politics) 1. politics been associated with formal institutions of government 2. politics is linked to public life and public activities (private or personal) 3. related to distribution of power, wealth and resources ***The art of government*** ***Ignorantia legis non excusat --*** ignorance of the law excuses no one - Bismarck declared 'politics is **[not a science but an art]**' - art was the art of government, the exercise of control within society through the making and enforcement of collective decisions - Athens - model of classical democracy - male citizens entitled to attend ***Assembly or Ecclesia*** (town-meeting) - Athenian - rigidly hierarchical system **[excluded]** overwhelming majority -- women, slaves and foreign residents -- from political life - Polis -- State David Easton- politics as the 'authoritative allocation of values' Polity - system of social organisation centred upon machinery of government - Politics, in this sense, is confined to governmental institutions: it takes place in **[cabinet rooms, legislative chambers, government departments]**, and it is engaged in by limited and specific groups of people, notably **[politicians, civil servants and lobbyists.]** - ***'the art of the possible'***, as a means of resolving conflict by compromise, conciliation and negotiation Bernard Crick in In Defence of Politics -- 'that solution to the problem of order which chooses conciliation rather than violence and coercion' - enemy of politics is 'the desire for certainty at any cost' 'Political' solution - negotiation and rational debate Nonpolitical' - use of violence, force or intimidation link between politics and affairs of state has generated negative conceptions. Politics a '**dirty'** word. It implies **[deception, dishonesty and even corruption]**. Niccolo\` Machiavelli - Second Chancellor - *The Prince -* provide guidance for the ruler of a future united Italy - portrayed politics in realistic terms - political leaders are **[cunning, cruelty and manipulation]** - 'Machiavellian' - scheming and duplicitous - Discourses - provides a fuller account of Machiavelli's republicanism, but commentators disagreed conception of politics has taken root which associates self-seeking, two-faced and unprincipled behaviour, evident in **['office politics' and 'politicking']**. British historian Lord Acton's -'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.' ***Public affairs*** - In **Politics**, Aristotle declared '**[Man is by nature a political animal']**, means it is only within a political community that human beings can live ***'the good life'.*** - Politics - '**[master science']**; ethical activity concerned with creating a **'just society'**. - distinction between public realm and he private realm conforms to **[division between the state and society]** - sometimes difficult to establish line between 'public' life and 'private' life (**socialism** -- all rights are subordinate to state) - State - defined as political association which exercises sovereign power within a defined territorial area - often refer to cluster of institutions, **[courts, police, army, nationalized industries, and social security system]** (regarded as '**public'** they are responsible for collective organisation of community life, funded at the public's expense, taxation) - '**private'** they are set up and funded by individual citizens to satisfy their own interests Hegel - '**civil society'**, refer to intermediate socio-economic realm, distinct from the state Importance of distinction between political and private life has been underlined by **[both conservative and liberal thinkers.]** **Conservatives** such as Michael Oakeshott - politics regarded as **[strictly limited activity]** - Politics may be necessary for maintenance of public order, but should be restricted to its proper function: the regulation of public life. - In ***Rationalism in Politics*** - most people are security-seeking, cautious and dependent creatures. - **inner core** of human existence is '**[private']** world of family, home, domesticity and personal relationships. - regarded rough-and-tumble of political life as **[inhospitable, intimidating]** **Liberal Viewpoint** - maintenance of the 'public/private' distinction is vital to the preservation of individual liberty - If politics is regarded as '**public'** activity, centred upon the state, it **[will have coercive character]**: state has power to compel obedience of its citizens. On the other hand, '**private'** life is a realm of **[choice, freedom and individual responsibility]** - society rather than the state - 'private' rather than the 'public - **politics** be '**[kept out of']** private activities or institutions, and should, be left to individuals themselves - liberals have regarded '**private'** life as a realm of **[harmony and freedom]** Hannah Arendt - The Human Condition - '**[action']** above both **'labour' and 'work'** - hierarchy of worldly activities - **politics** is mo**[st important form of human activity]** because it involves interaction among free and equal citizens - Advocates of **[participatory democracy]** have also portrayed politics as a **moral, healthy and even noble activity.** - fled Germany to escape from Nazism - 'thinking without barriers' - The Origins of Totalitarianism - examine nature of **Nazism and Stalinism** - developed critique of modern mass society, pointing out link between **tendency to alienation and atomization**, caused by the **breakdown of traditional norms**, and the **[rise of totalitarian movements]** - The Human Condition - important philosophical work - political action is the central part of a proper human life - portrayed public sphere as realm in freedom and autonomy are expressed - On Revolution - each had abandoned the 'lost treasure' of the revolutionary tradition, the **former** by [leaving the mass of citizens] outside the political arena, the **latter** by its concentration on the ['social question' rather than freedom.] - Eichmann in Jerusalem - used **fate of Nazi** war criminal Adolf Eichmann **[as basis for discussing the 'banality of evil']** Jean-Jacques Rousseau - political participation was the very stuff of freedom itself - 'general will' - **direct and continuous participation** of all citizens in political life can the state **be bound to the common good** John Stuart Mill - Involvement in 'public' affairs is **educational** it promotes the **[personal, moral and intellectual development of the individual]**. - presents politics as a form of public service, benefiting practitioners and recipients Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ('young Hegelians) - founder of modern idealism - *Phenomenology of Spirit* - develop rational system that substitute for traditional Christianity by interpreting process of human history, in terms of **[progress of absolute Mind towards self-realisation.]** - history - march of the human spirit towards a determinant end-point**[.]** - *Philosophy of Right* - organic theory state that portrayed it as **[highest expression of human freedom]** - 3 'moments' of social existence: - **Family**- 'particular altruism' operates, encouraging people to set aside their own interests for the good of their relatives. - **civil society**- sphere of 'universal egoism' in which individuals place their own interests before those of others - **state -** ethical community underpinned by mutual sympathy, and is thus characterised by 'universal altruism' ***Power and resources*** Adrian Leftwich - *What is Politics?* - politics is at the heart of all collective social activity, formal and informal, public and private, in all human groups, institutions and societies' Carl Schmitt - politics reflects immutable reality of human existence: the **[distinction between friend and enemy]** - political - linked to the **production, distribution and use of resources** - Politics - arises out of **existence of scarcity** - Politics - comprises any form of activity through which conflict about resource allocation takes place. - Clausewitz's famous dictum, '*[War is nothing more than the continuation of politics by other means']* - politics is **[power]**, the **[ability to achieve a desired outcome]**, through whatever means - **Harold Lasswell** summed up this aspect of politics in book *Politics: Who Gets What, When, How?* - Marxist concept of politics - politics' in a **conventional sense** to refer to the **[apparatus of the state]** - **Marx's** **view** - politics, together with law and culture, was part of a '**[superstructure']**, ***distinct*** ***from the economic 'base'***, which was the real foundation of social life **Radical feminists** attacked the 'public/private' dichotomy, proclaiming slogan ***'the personal is the political'.*** **Kate Millett in *Sexual Politics*** as 'power-structured relationships, arrangements whereby one group of persons is controlled by another' (Politics takes place whenever and wherever power and other resources are **unequally** distributed.) **LOWEST LEVEL of political activity** - personal, family and domestic life, conducted through regular f2f interaction. **SECOND LEVEL of politics** - community level, addressing local issues or disputes but moving away from f2f interaction (include the activities of community, local or regional government) **THIRD LEVEL** **of politics** - national level, focusing upon institutions of ***nation-state*** and acts. of major political parties and pressure groups. **FINALLY** - international or supranational level of politics. Concerned with cultural, economic and diplomatic relationships (includes the activities of supranational bodies, such as the United Nations and the European Union, multinational companies, NGOs and even international terrorists) ***Feminism*** - attempt to advance the social role of women. **'FIRST WAVE'** **of feminism** **-** associated with ***women's suffrage movement***, emerged in 1840s and 1850 \- achievement of female suffrage in most Western countries in early 20^th^ century meant **campaign for legal and civil rights** **[assumed lower profile]** and **[deprived women's movement of a unifying cause.]** **'SECOND WAVE' of feminism** -- 1960s \- demands of growing **Women's Liberation Movement.** \- famous slogan of second-wave feminism being ***'The personal is the political.'*** **Feminist political thought has primarily been concerned with two issues.** 1. analyses the institutions, processes and practices through which women have been subordinated to men; 2. it explores most appropriate and effective ways which subordination can be challenged. **Patriarchy -** central concept in feminist theory of sexual politics - a term that draws attention to totality of oppression and exploitation **[Most feminists]** view gender as a **political construct,** based upon stereotypes of '**[feminine']** and '**[masculine']** behaviour and social roles. The **[earliest feminist]** ideas derived from liberalism and commitment to individualism and formal equality **[Socialist feminism]** derived from Marxism, highlighted links between **female subordination and the capitalist mode of production**, drawing attention to economic significance of women being confined to the family or domestic life. [**Radical feminists**] portray gender divisions as most fundamental and politically significant cleavages in society Black Feminism, Psychoanalytic Feminism, Ecofeminism and Postmodern Feminism **Postmodern feminists** questioned whether 'woman' is a meaningful category. ***Key figures*** Mary Wollstonecraft - *A Vindication of the Rights of Women* - regarded as **first** text of modern feminism - women should be entitled to same rights and privileges as men (they are 'human beings') Simone de Beauvoir - helped reopen issue of gender politics - masculine is represented as positive or norm, while the feminine is portrayed as 'other' - 'otherness' limits women's freedom and prevents them from expressing full humanity - key feminist work is *The Second Sex* Kate Millett - developed radical feminism into systematic theory - portrays **patriarchy** as a **['social constant']** running through all political, social and economic structures - supports **consciousness-raising** as a means of [challenging patriarchal oppression], and has **advocated** the [abolition and replacement] of the [conventional family] - major work is *Sexual Politics* Juliet Mitchell - most influential theorists of socialist feminism - patriarchy has cultural and ideological roots, it cannot be overthrown by replacing capitalism with socialism - first feminists to use **psychoanalytical theory** - major works *Women's Estate, Psychoanalysis and Feminism, and Feminine Sexuality* Shulamith Firestone - developed theory of radical feminism, adapted Marxism to the analysis to the role of women - argues sexual differences stem from a 'natural division of labour' within the 'biological family' - Society is structured through process of **[reproduction]** - Women can achieve emancipation only if transcend biological natures and escape from **'curse of Eve'** - *The Dialectic of Sex* Catherine A. MacKinnon - absence of gender equality, the 'normal' status of women is defined through application of male values and practices - argued female oppression is based in sexuality and pornography is the root cause - *Sexual Harassment and Working Women (1979), Towards a Feminist Theory of the State (1989) and Only Words (1993).* ***Government*** '**govern'** to rule or exercise control over others **activity of government** involves ability to make decisions and to ensure they are carried out **Government** exists whenever and wherever ordered rule occurs - set of established and permanent institutions whose function is to maintain public order and undertake collective action - institutions of government are **concerned** with the [making, implementation and interpretation] of law **three functions**: 1. **legislation** or the making of laws 2. **execution** or implementation 3. **interpretation** of law, the adjudication of its meaning **executive branch** of government alone is referred to as 'the [Government'], making government almost synonymous with '**the rulers' or 'the governors'** **Government** identified with specific group of ministers or secretaries, operating under a chief executive (prime minister or president) - occurs in parliamentary refer to **Blair Government', 'the Schro¨der Government' or 'the Howard Government'** ***Why have government?*** **Anarchism '**without rule' **Social-contract theory** constitutes basis of modern political thought *Leviathan* **Hobbes** rational human beings should respect and obey government because without it society would descend into a civil war 'of **every man against every man'** **Hobbes** described life in the state of nature as being ['solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short'] - human beings were power-seeking and selfish creatures - without government, order and stability would be impossible **Social-contract theorists** they see government as a [defence] against evil and barbarity *Summa Theologiae*, Aquinas portrayed the state as 'the perfect community' **Anarchist view** government and all forms of political authority are not only [evil] but also [unnecessary] - optimistic conception - capacity for rational understanding, compassion and cooperation - Anarchists supported arguments by use of historical examples, the medieval city-states or Russian peasant commune **William Godwin** *An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice* - 'Man is perfectible, or in other words susceptible of perpetual improvement' - In the state of nature a '[natural'] order will prevail, making a 'political' order quite unnecessary Sociologists identified highly egalitarian societies **Bushmen of the Kalahari** **Traditional societies** - solve problem of maintaining order through maintenance of traditions and customs, often rooted in **[religious belief]** - serves to ensure consistent and predictable social behaviour - small, social intercourse conducted on personal - **Social rituals** help entrench set of common values **Modern societies** - are large, complex - **Industrial societies** consist of sprawling urban communities containing many thousands of people - lack a unifying set of common values and cultural beliefs [In short, the hallmarks of modern society are size, diversity and conflict.] Murray Rothbard - tried to reverse growth in government by demonstrating complex economies can be entirely gulated by the market mechanism ***Governments and governance*** - during cold war period common for regimes to be classified as belonging to the [First World, the Second World or the Third World] **Modern political scientists** attempted to develop ['science of government'] to study activities of government in different countries without making value judgements **Democratic** - to describe a particular system of government - a term that indicates general approval by suggesting that in such societies government is [carried out both by and for the people] **Aristotle** One of the earliest attempts to classify forms of government was -. In his view, governments can be categorized on the basis of 'Who rules?' and 'Who benefits from rule?' - **six forms of government**: Tyranny, oligarchy and democracy, monarchy, aristocracy and polity - **tyranny** the worst of all - **Monarchy and aristocracy** impractical bc based upon god-like willingness - **Polity** most practicable of constitutions, but feared that masses might resent wealth of few and too easily come under the sway of a demagogue Aristotle - 'peripatetic school' - *Politics* study of the nature of political life and the forms - In describing politics as the '[master science'], he emphasized that it is in the **public** domain that human beings strive for justice and live the 'good life'. - **Polity** mixture of democracy and oligarchy **1^st^ Liberal democratic government** is constitutional - **constitution** defines the duties, responsibilities and functions institutions of government **2^nd^** Government is limited by the fact that power is fragmented and dispersed **3^rd^** government is limited by existence of vigorous and independent civil society, consisting of autonomous groups **Liberal democracies** 'democratic' in the sense that government rests upon the consent of the governed. **USA and France** republics whose heads of state are elected **UK and Netherlands** constitutional monarchies **UK, Germany, India and Australia** the government is both drawn from the legislature and accountable **USA** the classic example of a presidential system - strict separation of powers between the legislature and the executive **majoritarian democracies** possess two-party systems in which power alternates between two major parties **'tiger' economies** South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore and Malaysia **Confucian principles** loyalty, discipline and duty it is possible to have 'governance without government'