Political Theory PDF

**Topic 1: Understanding Political Theory and the Period Context** **Political Theory** \- A set of concepts or ideas about political facts and the relation among them. - A theory that takes account of the activities of the state, conflict, and its resolution at all levels of society. \- **Politi...

**Topic 1: Understanding Political Theory and the Period Context** **Political Theory** \- A set of concepts or ideas about political facts and the relation among them. - A theory that takes account of the activities of the state, conflict, and its resolution at all levels of society. \- **Political theory** is a systematic and analytical approach to understanding political ideas and practices. It often involves the development of models, frameworks, and concepts to explain political phenomena. Political theorists analyze existing political ideas, propose new ones, and provide explanations for political behavior, institutions, and systems. Political theory tends to be more empirical and scientific, engaging with political thought but aiming to create coherent, logical frameworks. - - - - - - - - Theory ❖ An account or narrative that is not a product of imagination. \- Plausible account of how events come to be, as indicated by the result of data analysis. \- Positivist-epistemological tradition (funded on the belief that science is key) - A systematic explanation of **empirical** (measurable) data, usually presented as reliable knowledge. (Unlike a hypothesis (tentative assumption) Uses of Theory Explanation Prediction Bring order to data that would otherwise remain disconnected and purposeless Theoretical Statement \- A statement that describes the link or relationship between at least two named classes of things. \- A statement in which at least two concepts are linked by means of a predicate (element of a sentence that gives it meaning) +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | (e.g. Theory of Political Instability) | | | | \- The key to this is **social frustration** (if social frustration | | is present, then there is likely to be a political instability) | | | | SOCIAL MOBILIZATION | | | | \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-- = SOCIAL | | FRUSTRATION | | | | ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Context of Political Theory Historical Occasions impacted/created the condition for the rise of a particular political theory. Attributes of Political Theory Estimate of Probabilities - the thinkers have seen that if these developments happen, these factors are present, it is likely that this event will happen. Estimate of Values - any interest in the future involves preference, choices, sense of moral imperatives, belief that one outcome is better than the other. Factors of Political Theory +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Factual | Causal Valuational (associated | | | with evaluation) | +===================================+===================================+ | Statement about the | Statement to the effect that | | | | | posture of affairs that give rise | Statement that something | | to it | | | | one kind of thing is more | | | | | | ought to happen or is the | | | | | | likely to happen or maybe | | | | | | right and desirable thing to | | | | | | easily brought about than | | | | | | happen. | | | | | | another. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Double Role of Political Theory World of thought - abstract logical entities People's Minds - beliefs, factors in people's actions (operate as events) \* The theory that's just supposed to be in people's minds can be a convincing thought or idea that will lead people to take action. **Political Philosophy** \- Branch of Philosophy that analyzes the state and related concepts such as political obligation, law, social justice, and constitution \- Raise the question of what is the common good or the good of society \- Political philosophy is more normative, concerned with what should be rather than what is. It deals with fundamental questions about justice, rights, freedom, and the nature of the state. Political philosophers engage in debates about the best forms of government, the nature of democracy, the principles of justice, and the moral foundations of political authority. Political philosophy is closely related to moral philosophy and often involves abstract reasoning and argumentation about ideals. \- **Political Philosophy** is normative, focusing on ethical questions about how politics ought to be. Philosophy Beliefs that include clarifying, evaluating (weighing what is good and bad), and justifying the belief as well as examining them in the light of opposing viewpoints. Beliefs that are as conceptually clear, experientially, confined, and rationality coherent as possible. \*Philosophy focuses on the judgement of the people **Is political theory, political philosophy?** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Political Philosophy Political Theory/Causal | +=======================================================================+ | Ultimate goal of state: condition where | | | | How are the means to be selected to attain | | | | individual can fully realize their potential | | | | the goal? | | | | **SOULCRAFT** | | | | **STATECRAFT** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Political Theory and Political Philosophy both share in the attribute that they are both products of methodical thinking. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Theory - facts | | | | Philosophy - beliefs | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **TOPIC 2: Ancient Greek: Plato** **Moral Philosophy** \*Focus of the discussion is the person. A. Concept of the Soul \- A human person is a thinking person \- Soul is the essence of the human person. *(Without the soul, the body is like an inanimate object. Soul gives the body life.)* B. Cause of Evil: Ignorance/Forgetfulness \- Plato's principle stated that evil or vice is caused by ignorance. Ignorance by having false knowledge as the truth. \- No man does evil on purpose, but he mistakes evil for good. \- Plato's ontology of human nature is that the human is basically good and it is innate in the person to do good. * What is it that the person forgot that resulted in an evil act?* C. Recovering Lost Morality \- One can recover his lost morality through the process of recollection (recollecting experience) **Plato's Moral Philosophy** \- The human person is composed of the three elements of the soul. \- A human person has to live in accordance with the pursuit of justice. 3 Elements of the Soul Rational element - the thinking element in every human being, which decides what is factual and merely obvious, judges what is factual and what is untrue, and intelligently makes sensible decisions. Appetite element - seeks for the basic pleasure Spirited element - pushes for desires that are higher than what is basic If the person's **reason** is controlled by reason itself then the primary moral value that prevails in the person is **wisdom**. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- If the person's **spirit** (refers to the energy, ambition, assertiveness towards right goals) is controlled by reason, then the primary moral value is **courage** (to pursue one's energy or ambition for a purpose higher than himself.) If the person's **appetite** (control and moderation in desire for pleasure) is controlled by reason and spirit, then the primary moral value is **temperance/self control**. If the person is able to balance these three elements, then justice reigns on this person, according to Plato. (Core values of a person: wisdom, courage, temperance.) Justice is defined as the balanced harmony of all the elements in the person under the sovereignty of reason. **Plato's Political Philosophy** \- What is the state? \- Nature of political power \- Moral justifications for the use of political power Republic Only Philosophers/Scholars/Scientists are entitled to be political leaders You have to be educated to know what is good It is only when a person behaves accordingly that the person can be morally virtuous. Plato is an iconic example of an elitist theory of recruiting political leaders. Man and State **State** - if the individuals are in association with each other/conceived as a system of services in which each member both gives and receives. \- During Plato's time, the women and slaves were not considered citizens. **Citizens** - performs a particular function in the state (has an innate attribute that needs to be developed with training and education.) \*The state is comprised of citizens categorized by the function they perform in the state. **Plato's Political Theory** \- Society is a system where the needs of people are satisfied via the complimentary of each specialized function. Defects of Existing forms of Government and Cure Incompetence Extreme violence and selfishness of party-struggles (public interest vs. private interest), factionalism and party-selfishness, political instability CURE: education of rulers comes primary to education of citizens for civic welfare. Classes of Society Guardians (Philosopher Kings) - in charge of leading the society Guardians (Auxiliaries) - in charge of the security of the society Producers - secure the production and provision for the basic needs of society. THE NEXUS Reason Philosopher King ----------- ------------------------- Spirit Auxiliaries Appetite Producers Typology of Government in actual state +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Law-abiding Lawless | +=======================================================================+ | RULE OF **ONE** - Monarchy Tyranny | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | RULE OF **FEW** - Aristocracy Oligarchy | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | RULE OF **MANY** - Democracy | | | | Extreme Democracy (they do not recognize | | | | the authority but the number.) | | | | **BOLD = CRITERION** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Social justice refers to the performance of each and every function of society. By doing so, they are able to meet the needs of all. Ideal State Criterion = desire/purpose of political power of the leader. Plato's ideal state is ruled by intellectual aristocracy (Philosopher Kings/morally good) Timocracy - rulers love honor and ambition instead of good of society Plutocracy/Oligarchy - love of honor is overtaken by the love of wealth Despotism - develops out of anarchy of the democratic state. View on Women \- Plato's Philosophy is open to women leading/can take part in the society, but during his time, women were not considered citizens of the state. Abolition of the Family for the Guardians \- There should not be a family for guardians, everything should be shared ❖ Having a family is a holding back factor because guardians should focus first on the good of the society. Guardians are not allowed to have: Family Property **TOPIC 3: Ancient Greek: Aristotle** Nicomachean Ethics Central to understanding Aristotle's Political Philosophy Centers on the goal of life and the way to achieve it Elements of Nicomachean Ethics \- Happiness \- Excellence in character \- Success and fulfillment **Aristotle's Moral Philosophy** Happiness (eudaimonia) is the ultimate goal of life. Living a virtuous life is the key to attaining happiness Virtue is concerned with choice. ❖ Part of your character so it becomes a voluntary action. How to develop virtue in one's character? \- Finding the intermediate position between two extremes/vices \- Finding the mean relative to us \*Aristotle's way of knowing = empiricism (being able to understand things from what your senses reveal to you.) Analysis of Virtue as the Mean between Extremes +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ACTIVITY | VICE (EXCESS) VIRTUE (MEAN) VICE | | | (DEFICIT) | +===================================+===================================+ | Confidence in facing danger | Rashness Courage Cowardice | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Enjoying pleasure | Self-indulgence Temperance | | | | | | Being puritanical | | | | | | (In order to achieve | | | | | | this, you have to | | | | | | reflect and examine | | | | | | your life.) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Giving of money | Vulgarity Generosity Stinginess | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | (A generous heart is | | | | | | one that recognizes | | | | | | that there is a need.) | +===================================+===================================+ | Truth telling about oneself | Boastfulness Self-honesty | | | Self-deprecation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ View of State \- A state is a union of families Family - Village - City-state *(ALL INDIVIDUALS ARE PART OF THE STATE, BUT FUNDAMENTALLY, ALL INDIVIDUALS BELONG TO A FAMILY, ALL FAMILIES BELONG TO A VILLAGE WHICH FORMS THE STATE.)* Aristotle stated that in the form of social relations is what separates humans from the lowest form of animals. This occurs in the family. Families can't stand alone, they have to connect with other families, which forms the village. And a village needs to expand its social relations which forms the state. Purpose of the State Family - preservation of life (material appetites/biological urges) Village - social sentiment State - exists for the sake of the good life and noble actions (moral nature) Functions of a State \- There must be food, arts, arms, a certain amount of revenue for internal needs and for purposes of war, care of religion- worship, power of deciding what is for the public interest and what is just in dealing with one another. Constitution = Government \- The Constitution is the arrangement of magistracies in a state especially of the highest of all. Typology of the Government +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Number of Rulers | True Form (promote | | | | | | Perverted (promote private | | | | | | common interest) | | | | | | interest) | +===================================+===================================+ | ONE | Kingship/Royalty Tyranny | | | | | FEW | Aristocracy Oligarchy | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | MANY | Constitution Democracy | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Citizens = those who are fit to occupy offices (excludes women and slaves) **TOPIC 4: Early Roman Republic: Cicero** Political Faith The key to running the affairs of the state is via moderation, concord, and constitutionalism. BALANCE, HARMONY, GOVERNMENT MUST BE RUN IN ACCORDANCE TO THE RULE OF LAW - Cicero's Political Faith are only possible when there is a social stability Theoretical Framework \- Indicators of his Political Faith = data, something you can measure (e.g. crime rate, income distribution.) Key points: \- If there are societal rifts, it is impossible for the government to rule with moderation, concord, and constitutionalism. \- Political Leaders must embark to social-economic reforms in order to attain social stability. Political Beliefs 1\. Strong empire = allow people to attain liberty and self-government (federal govt.) 2. Universe is one commonwealth of which God and men are members and the thing that binds them is the law. 3\. There is a law valid for all nations and all times \- Law is a product of reason. \- Cicero recognizes that people are not equal, nevertheless if they were to live in a state with social stability, then they are to be treated equally. The law makes them equal. 4\. There is no human being of any race, who, if he finds, cannot attain to virtue - Law is the guide to attain virtue \- Not only appropriated to Philosopher Kings 5\. Rule of law, "we cannot agree to equalize men's wealth, and equality of innate ability is impossible, the legal rights of at least those who are citizens of the same commonwealth ought to be equal. For Cicer, state is (iuris societas) which means community of laws. KEY POINTS: True law is right reason in agreement with nature The foundation of law is our natural inclination to love our fellow men = consciousness of love Commonwealth \- Assemblage of people in large numbers associated in an agreement with respect to justice and a partnership for the common good. Type of Government Kings Affection for them ---------------------------- Aristocracy Wisdom Popular Government Freedom Ideal Government: Kingship/Monarchy - on condition that it retains true character; when safety, equal rights, and tranquility of the citizens are guarded by life-long authority, the justice, and the perfect wisdom of a single ruler. Aristocracy - the wisdom to know that power is not for the benefit of yourself, but for the people. Ontology of the Human Person \- Those who have reason in common must also have right reason in common conception of law and justice. KEY POINTS; Justice must be founded on love Magistrate is tasked to govern, and to give commands which are just and beneficial and in conformity with the law. Law governs the magistrate, the magistrate governs the people. **TOPIC 5: Medieval Period: St. Augustine** **\"Believe so you will know.\"** Creation is not the evidence of God\'s existence; rather, it will only enhance your appreciation of God. You do not use science to prove the existence of God. Because, no matter how much "proof" there is, if you do not believe in the first place, you can never appreciate God. The Two Cities **Earthly City** -- formed by the **love of Self** and of this world. **Heavenly City** -- formed by the **love of God** and of others. The **heavenly and earthly city has an implication over the political life of the people**. The norm: If the people want to have a **meaningful life on Earth**, **live in a manner where you have a loving relationship with God**, the life you have is **not solely dedicated to yourself but dedicated also to others**. Such virtue is what is needed for the political organizations to survive -- a virtue where the citizens live a life where they promote the good of others. The state/government should see to it that people live a life where the good of the society becomes premium to them. ○ Relates to: Plato and Aristotle on the common good and promotion of happiness of all. "Promoting common good is promoting the glory of God." The politics or government in St. Augustine's perspective has an added responsibility that cannot be traced in Plato and Aristotle's philosophy but is pronounced in the **philosophies of Cicero (consciousness of love)**. ○ Because the government must be able to bring back the people to the Father (in the way that it administers things on Earth), and they should see to it that the regime would make the people develop that relationship with God -- doing good for others, because by doing so they can help people journey back to God. Cicero -- **the government must have a consciousness of love**. Relating well with others is relating well with God. Plato and Aristotle (Common Good and Happiness), Cicero (Love), Saint Augustine (Journey back to the Father). St. Augustine on State The state is a **divine institution created by God to remedy human sins**. Authority of State must be respected because it maintains peace and protects property and other belongings of citizens. ○ Obedience to the authority of state is also observed because it is based on divine sanctions and contributed to the remedy of sins of the people. ○ Thus, he subordinated the state to the higher authority of God and obedience to the laws and authority of state is justified as long as it did not conflict with the duty towards God's. **State was made by God to help people remedy the consequences of sin.** The state is **mandated by God** to help people **live a life** that is positioned to **journey back to the father**. ○ State needs to closely cooperate with the church -- you cannot talk of separation of church and state. Because the origin of the state is God. ○ While the state has its responsibility to maintain peace and protect property, the fundamental and underlying role (premise of all this) is so that the people can journey back to the Father. ○ State that is not fully secular -- it has religious mandates. It is also a secular institution with religious mandate; **he subordinated the state to the higher authority of God.** People should only follow the laws of the state that are in line with the rules of God, if there is any rule that is against the religion, then the State cannot enforce that. God gave people the freedom and will to choose what to believe. St. Augustine on Justice Justice can be possible only in the city of God and it could be possible in the Christian state. ○ St. Augustine regarded the state as simply a part of the higher society (Kingdom of God) considered justice as domination to universal order as told by the will of God. Therefore, he resolved that Justice can be possible only in a Christian state. The **City of God** is a **state of life** where **there is love and concern for others**. Where **people live in accordance with the interest of others and not just for personal interests**. ○ That act of **being concerned for others, is an expression of love** -- if this virtue operates then you have the City of God. Justice as a virtue, is an act of giving and recognition that you are sharing this to others because they are a creation of God, because by sharing you glorify God even here on Earth. What St. Augustine added to Plato's notion of function (Justice for Plato = perform assigned task), for St. Augustine -- the individual should conform to the order and respect the duties assigned to that order, because doing so is doing what is due and is in conformity to God's rule. "What you do for the Creation of God is what you do for God. **Justice is doing what is due, but on a bigger plane, Justice is doing what is due for God.**" **In a Pagan state, only relative justice can be possible.** Not true justice, why? **Pagans don't believe in a monotheistic God.** He hinged his understanding of justice to God: "Giving what is due to others, is giving God what is due to God." St. Augustine on Peace Peace is associated with justice. (Justice is having good relations with God; there is no justice without a relationship with God; if there is justice - people treat each other with love - because they love God). ○ Different from the peace produced by a system of legal relations as in state. All men are united with one another by their common love for God. For peace to prevail - ○ One of the tasks of the government in the state is to ensure that people live a life in a loving relationship with others and with God so that eventually they journey back to the father. ○ Thus, the government must address conflicts, ensure social order. There is a need for \"**transitional justice**\" onwards to reconciliation between and among the warring parties during the revolution in order to fortify the gained relative peace. Those who have sinned must pay for their sins, those who have not should be honored, but there should also be an act of forgiveness in response also to the act of asking forgiveness (basically, you can forgive if they are asking to be forgiven). The Just War The just war is a coping mechanism for use by the righteous who aspire to citizenship in the City of God. **Jus Ad Bellum** - wars can be initiated justly only on the basis of: 1\. **Just authority** - was the decision arrived at by due legal and political process? 2. **Just cause** - is war a proportionate response to the wrong committed? 1. such as to defend the state from external invasion; to defend the safety or honor of the state, and in any case, the just cause must be at least more just than the cause of one's enemies. 3\. **Right intention** - is the response committed to correcting the wrong? (re just cause) 1. has the restoration of peace as its prime objective, takes no delight in the wickedness of potential adversaries, views waging war as a stern necessity, tolerates no action calculated to provoke a war, and does not seek to conquer others merely for conquest's sake or for territorial expansion 4\. **Last resort** - was a prior intervention done of which war is the only option left? **Jus In Bello** - wars, once begun, must be fought in a manner which: 1\. **Proportionality** - proportionality in the use of force 1\. Proportional response to the wrong to be avenged, with violence being constrained within the limits of military necessity. 2\. **Discrimination** - discrimination between combatants and non-combatants 1. Discriminates between proper objects of violence (that is, combatants) and non-combatants, such as women, children, the elderly, the clergy, and so forth. 3. **Responsibility** - the country of military force is absorb of responsibility if the following are met: 1\. Action carried to bring desired good. 2\. Unintended bad effects. 3\. Good must outweigh the damage done. 4\. **Observes good faith** i**n its interactions with the enemy**, by scrupulously observing treaties and not prosecuting the war in a treacherous manner. **TOPIC 6: Medieval Period: St. Thomas Aquinas** For happiness to be complete, it has to be filled by God (and nothing else more) If you have God in your life, there is happiness. If you believe, then you accept God\'s position in your life Greece\'s contribution: Humanism (serving humans for the sake of humans; the individual is supreme). Reason and Faith (Scholastic Philosophy) Knowing with the use of faith reigns supreme. Reason should never contradict faith. Pure faith alone relies on what is revealed to us (through the Bible). He recognized (men having) reason. "Nothing is outside of God." ○ All that is therein is of God (God is the alpha and omega of all). But because God has given the faculties he or she needs to survive, people must remember that it is for the greater glory of God. ○ Everything is given by God for the utilization of humanity. ○ For the people to move on, to cope with progress, people must use their God-given faculties to understand this world (reason). Christianity insists on the unity of belief under one God, with one central authority managing the lives of the believers. View on State and Government **State** - (shares with Aristotle's view that) man is naturally a social being and in a "state of innocence" he would have led a social life. ○ The State exists because you need to relate with each other as you could only pursue yourself in a collective setting. ○ He departs from St. Augustine's belief that the state exists because of man's sinfulness to journey back to the Father. ○ The basis of the state is human nature: man's social impulse. **Government** - it should be an organ looking for the common good. Not just for the common good in this secular world, but for the enjoyment of God and of the possession of God. ○ Purpose of the Government: The Good Life. But, the **Good Life that is defined by St. Thomas Aquinas** is one that is also intended to **glorify God** so that **eventually** you will be **reunited with God**. This notion became acceptable with the times because **St. Thomas did not say the material world is not important**; it is still **important** because right there you are **able to live through the** **creation of God** and **live a life that will lead you to the father**. The Church and the State The **Secular Government** (state) and **Spiritual Government** (church) are separate because the former is concerned with the intermediate ends whereas the latter is concerned with the ultimate end and the salvation of souls (life after death). The **Pope** takes care of the **spiritual lives**. The **King** takes care of the **secular lives**. The ultimate goal of life is the possession of God; thus, **the pope comes prior**. Ideally there should not be conflict because they are concerned with Life (the pope is also concerned with life after death). St. Thomas Aquinas, however, does not suggest theocracy. They are **two institutions**, and they **both matter in the lives of the people**. The **State** is **responsible for the basic needs and properties of the people** in order to survive. Nevertheless, even if he shares in the goal of the state (Aristotle = happiness and common good), the government must also take into account that the **lives of people are not only settled in the secular realm** but destined to the more **transcendental realm (life after death)** which belongs to the **Church**. Hence - the **Church holds predominance on the lives of the people** because its concern is to **secure the end of the people\'s lives** (life after death). Typology of an Unjust Government **Tyrannicide -** the rule of one man who seeks his own benefit from his rule; oppresses by might (strength) not by justice **Oligarchy** - the rule of the few that carries an unjust rule by means of their wealth **Democracy** - the rule of the multitude who carries an unjust rule **Preference:** a monarchy; it is ideal to have a **king** because they **tend to be enlightened** (as they **have access to education**). Typology of Just Government **Kingship** - whereas the King is elected (chosen), and they do not ascend by inheriting the position. **Polity** - a just government by many. **Aristocracy** - a just government administered by a few men of virtue "Optimates". **The End of the Government:** directed to the end of the common good (still relevant today); but, of course, must take into account the Church\'s predominance. Dealing with Tyranny **Mild Tyranny** - tolerate (find a way of bearing it with the hope that the person tempers one\'s actions) ○ This will protect the people from greater evil from the tyrant that may be instigated by people challenging tyranny (similar to stoicism; which means, to leave it as such). ○ Political power rests on the perception that people accept political power. **Worse Tyranny** - turn to God to transform the heart of the wicked, and desist from sin ○ He does not allow (invoke the power of God to change the person; i.e. pray for the person to change) For St. Thomas Aquinas, he does not want the people to revolt against tyranny. ○ In a modern sense toleration is equivalent to diplomacy. For him, toleration is important because without it, you might end up provoking the person (the ruler) into becoming a worse version of himself. Philosophy of Law **Law** - the rules and measures of one\'s actions ○ The spirit behind laws is the advancement of the common good, and nothing else. **Eternal Law** - identical to the divine reason that governs the universe; \"eternal\" because God\'s rule is not subject to time **Divine Law** - revealed to us (Bible), communicated through the Old and New Testament **Natural Law** - man\'s active and transpersonal rationality; his participation of the eternal law ○ The natural flow of things as defined by the church. ○ In the present day, this impacts our views on, for example, reproductive health and pregnancy (sex for procreation). **Human Law** - ordinance of reason for the common good, made by him who has the care of the community and promulgated. Qualifications of Human Law It is in accord with some rule of reason. It is just and in harmony with the common good. It is legitimate. It is duly promulgated ○ Ignorance of the law excuses no one; you cannot invoke ignorance to absolve you from taking responsibilities of the act you have committed. ○ In **Canon Law** (law of the Church, the Catholic Church), if you do not know about it - the laws and its implications - you are absolved from it. St. Thomas Aquinas and Science Is science compatible with faith? That is not a question for St. Thomas Aquinas, because science is a part of God's creation. Aquinas supported the **advancement of knowledge or the understanding of the world** with the use of **scientific methods** (in contrast to St. Augustine). This view would influence his views on the church and the state. **Science would broaden a person\'s mind to appreciate God\'s creations.** Even the people\'s ability to understand the world using their intellect, it is still a result of God\'s grace because humanity was also created by God. **St. Aquinas did not categorically say that you have to believe first in order to know**, but **there has to be a faith dimension in people\'s lives** such that as **people proceed to appreciate and understand the world around him/her** (which for him is a part of God\'s creation) then **humanity must always remember** that **no matter what potential progress the world has**, which can be **attributed to the capabilities of the human being** - **started with God and has to end with God**. Therefore, in the course of understanding, **it is not enough that you have to use the tools of science**; you have to **integrate the knowledge gained from science** using the synthetic contribution of the **disciplines of philosophy and theology.** In comparison to St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas encouraged the understanding of the world, but was very categorical in his statement that people should believe first in order to understand = faith precedes knowing, understanding (one cannot understand w/o faith). Doctrine on War Despite his position on tolerance in tyranny, he also recognizes the possibility of war to happen. But, he has a criteria which is manifested in the **Just War Theory**. **[TOPIC 7: Modern Period]** **Renaissance** (lit. \"Rebirth\") - rebirth in the consciousness to go back to the classical period of Greece (love of learning, rationalism, not faith-based), which during the Medieval period was not given recognition due to the predominance of faith ("believe and everything will be taken care of\'\'). ○ It recaptured the rational quality of the person, hence - enlightenment. 3 Major Revolutions **Philosophical Revolution** - assertion of the individual and the faculty of the individual to think and act (Descartes: I think therefore I am) **Scientific Revolution** - advancements in Science that led to the advancement of technology (i.e. invention of the telescope, discovery of the germ theory, etc.) **Industrial Revolution** - best exemplified by the existence of factories; advancement in the mode of production (the processing of the raw materials into another finished product, which can be sold) ○ It added to the source of living and work, which led to the rise of capitalism, which replaced mercantilism. ○ With the advancement of commerce and trade, money came flowing; it impacted the socio-economic-political arrangement, led to the rise of nation-states (because you need a central authority to manage the economy). ○ It is not enough for the feudal lord to secure the interest of the trade being sold on the territories sold outside the estate; you need to have the appropriate infrastructure and political arrangement to make this possible - dissolution of the feudal estates. ○ You need banks to pull in the revenues to generate capital. ○ You need strong political machinery to control that. **Niccolo Machiavelli** \- The **Father of Modern Political Science**. \- He has been exposed to the actual running of the government. \- Wrote *The Prince* as a handbook for power, to endear himself to the ruling power (the Medicis), dedicated the book to Lorenzo de Medici (the ruler at the time). **Realpolitik** - practical politics; how will you use power to address the problem? He is inclined to realism (to the realities); recognizes the reality and how power is embedded in that reality and recognizes the dynamics of power that makes things possible in the surface as that power plays itself in that reality He is not looking for the \"ideal situation\"; he is dealing with the \"here and now\" ○ Different from the ancient-medieval philosophers who are seeking the ideal situation. **Political Power** - the resounding theme The state should strive for justice, good life, freedom, and God (desirable to humanity); these should address the end of political power. Political power should be regarded as the end in itself. **Premise of the Reason of the State** \- **Power** \- How do you acquire power? \- How do you retain power? \- How do you expand power? \*the unit of analysis is power **Example**: The state of uprising is a challenge to the existing political power, the primary responsibility of the ruler is to secure that power - by all means. If diplomacy will work, fine; if it does not, then augment that with the coercive power of the state - doing so is fine, so long as you can secure *that* power. Why is that so? Because he is concerned with reality. He is not concerned with the life after death, with what is the ideal world. He is concerned with the fact that now your country is in disarray. Thus, the primary responsibility is to put your country under order. How? Use all means possible. Remember: the state has the monopoly of the coercive power of the state. For Machiavelli - what is politically expedient, use that for the preservation of your country. **Political Expediency** - What is the shortest way to realize your political objective? Use that power to deliver. **Political Efficiency** **Reason of the State**: Because you want to institutionalize power. It can be institutionalized in the form of the state. Power is the reason for the state. The only question should be: what course will save the life and liberty of the country? (The Discourses) ○ No restrictions. Do whatever is possible. Illegitimate Power \- reduced politics to war and revolution \- the abnormal becomes the normal \- there is a difficult transition from a revolutionary figure to a political leader - never disassociate from the premise or context \*He is less interested in the institutional framework of power (because there are boundaries). **Morality exists. Metaphysics is a fact of life. Religion is fact and has its purpose.** He did not deny the three. But all these three are **separate commodities/values from power**. Political power has to be construed (conceived) separate from morality, metaphysics, and religion. Meaning, the norms of these three should not be linked to political power. \*This thinking was considered revolutionary as it was a clear departure from the thinking of the classical and medieval thinkers. \*That is why he is referred to as the Father of Modern Politics (Why \"modern\"? Because of his secular outlook on politics) \*That is why he was also not popular in his time. \*His aim is for the state to be strong and viable. Machiavelli is a **patriot**, a **nationalist**. His obsession for power is not for the personal interest of the ruler; it is meant for the ruler to use that **power** so that the ruler can **strengthen one\'s country**. (interest of the state) He wanted to strengthen Florence - to make it a stable, orderly, and viable state. It was not meant for the personal interest of the Medici family. If it is for the personal interest of the ruler, then you have a tyrant. If it is for the interest of the state, then you have a Prince. The criterion: how strong is the prince? (which is why he must not be limited in the options he should use in the name of ensuring the stability and order of one\'s state so that its people may live in an orderly society) A Machiavellian ruler does not recognize limits; if he sees one, he side-steps that to pursue what he wants for the state. **Question**: Is a \"benevolent dictatorship\" Machiavellian? **Answer**: Yes, it can be. On the basis of his usage of the coercive powers of the state to pursue the national interest. (A Benevolent Dictatorship is a dictator but provides for the state - creates a welfare state.) "A dictator does not care about anything but himself." At the end of the day - for whom is power? for what is power? **Comparison of Norms** Politics - efficiency and inefficiency Morals - virtue and sin **Determinant of the Code of Conduct of a Statesman** Must always remember the **reason of the state** (the state must be there for the stability and order of the people) Political Efficiency - acquisition, consolidation, and expansion of power Attributes - ruler needs to be calculating, he must not be reckless and not adventurous (despite having access to any possible options, the ruler must remain **prudent and moderate** if possible) \- Prudence and moderation has something to do with informed judgement through methodological study, not instinctual. You need to study from facts. \"**Rulers must be prepared to act immorally.**\" ○ That is why it is not for the fainthearted. Prefer to be feared, for the one cannot control love but can control (and through) fear. ○ The limit to tyranny is the people\'s tolerance. Once the people overcome their fear, and can no longer tolerate it, the end is coming anytime. **Pessimistic View of Human Nature** \"**Men are so naïve, they can be deceived; they too are self-interested.**\" They are **self-interested individuals**, propelled to act according to their interests; they have two natures, the **good and bad.** The Prince must be **governed** not by conventional virtues but **by necessity**. ○ The Prince must be virtuous, but they must act by necessity. Must be prudent to avoid scandal Must avoid being despicable (being hated) ○ Hatred leads to conspiracy. \"Better to be feared than to be loved.\" As much as possible, avoid being cruel. But do not hesitate if it is necessary. People love at their will, but fear at their ruler\'s will. The **Machiavellian tactics** are always **associated** with **dictatorships and authoritarianism** because of the very **nature of his prescriptions**. But, his **prescriptions** are meant to allow the prince a **greater leverage of power** in order to **secure the interest of the state**. ○ He **did not say** that it should be **used for personal interest** - only when the stability and interest of the state is at stake. Roman Perspective: the ruler must have the military ability and wisdom to deliver and make good judgement for the interest of the people The Prince should remain prudent and moderate. Never excessive. Do not think that if it is Machiavellianism that you can be excessive, do whatever you want. ○ The end that shall justify the means is the end in reference to the interest and life of the State. The Prince must always raise one\'s caution. You cannot fully trust. Because people, according to him, move to their personal interests. In **Machiavellianism**, **violence is not a necessary feature**. What is **important** is for the **leader to be cunning**; if being cunning entails violent measures then so be it - but being cunning is not equivalent to being violent. **Machiavellianism in International Relations** The self-interestedness of an individual is the very reason for the realist perspective in the handling of international politics. Realist - believes that individuals are self-interested and states are mandated solely by their national interests. In the arena of international transactions, member states proceed in interacting with each other in light with their national interests. Henceforth, to maintain one\'s stature in the international community of nations, it is a must that the state must exude power - raw power (as in, military power). ○ Nobody is pulling the trigger first, but everybody is prepared. ○ **Ex:** In the Asean Region, we have not encountered a conflict between and among the member states because we are maximizing our diplomatic capacities. Each is maximizing the soft power the regional mechanism offers to all of the member states. Each of the member states are, in their own ways, prepared to defend themselves. The dominant view remains to be the Machiavellian perspective on politics. Popular among leaders because of its \"practicality\" and \"realism\"; it frees the leaders from any pronounced norms and allows them to do the possibilities that will do what is necessary regardless of any normative and moral implications.