Phonetics and Phonology.pdf

This Bri(shey Candidate Handbook belongs to If found, please kindly return to: Name: Course: Address: Telephone: Email: © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 1 Table of Contents This Bri(shey Candidate Handbook belongs to........................................................................ 1 A Le:er of Love..................................................................................................................... 12 Bri(shey Training Centre....................................................................................................... 13 Where to Find Us in Egypt..................................................................................................... 14 Accredited by three accredita(on bodies............................................................................... 15 Smoking................................................................................................................................ 16 Other Candidates.................................................................................................................. 16 Dress code for trainees:......................................................................................................... 16 The Grading System.............................................................................................................. 17 Complaints and Appeals........................................................................................................ 18 Code of Academic Integrity................................................................................................... 18 Academic Dishonesty Deﬁni(ons........................................................................................... 19 Why Might Bri(shey Training Centre Withdraw You from a Course?..................................... 20 An Introduc(on to Phone(cs and Phonology......................................................................... 22 Deﬁni&on and Dis&nc&on between Phone&cs and Phonology........................................................ 22 The Study of Language Sounds....................................................................................................... 23 Speech Produc&on and Percep&on................................................................................................. 23 Three Main Branches of Phone&cs: Ar&culatory, Acous&c, and Auditory........................................ 23 Phonological Concepts: Phonemes, Allophones, and Minimal Pairs................................................ 24 Understanding the Dynamics of Oral Communica(on........................................................... 25 The Comprehensive Study on English Consonants and Vowels............................................... 28 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 28 English Consonants: Understanding their Manner and Place.......................................................... 28 English Vowels: Diving into Monophthongs and Diphthongs.......................................................... 29 IPA Symbols for English Consonants and Vowels............................................................................ 29 Short and Long Vowels in English................................................................................................... 30 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 30 © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 2 Consonant Places of Ar(cula(on: A Comprehensive Explora(on........................................... 31 1. Introduc&on............................................................................................................................... 31 2. Consonants and Ar&cula&on...................................................................................................... 31 3. Bilabial....................................................................................................................................... 32 4. Labiodental................................................................................................................................ 32 5. Interdental................................................................................................................................. 32 6. Alveolar..................................................................................................................................... 33 7. Post-Alveolar............................................................................................................................. 33 8. Palatal........................................................................................................................................ 33 9. Velar.......................................................................................................................................... 33 10. GloUal...................................................................................................................................... 33 11. Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 34 Monophthongs as English Vowels: A Comprehensive Understanding.................................... 34 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 34 The Fundamentals of Monophthongs in English Phone&cs............................................................. 35 Short and Long Vowels: The Key Types........................................................................................... 35 Short Vowels.................................................................................................................................. 35 Long Vowels................................................................................................................................... 36 English Monophthongs and Language Dynamics............................................................................ 36 Final Thoughts: The Monophthongs Conundrum............................................................................ 36 Diphthongs as English Vowels: An In-depth Explora(on........................................................ 37 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 37 Deﬁning Diphthongs...................................................................................................................... 37 Understanding Diphthongs............................................................................................................ 38 Classiﬁca&ons of Diphthongs......................................................................................................... 38 Importance of Diphthongs in English Language.............................................................................. 39 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 39 Diﬀerences Between Phone(c and Phonemic Transcrip(ons in English Language.................. 40 Phone&cs and Phonemics: A Brief Overview.................................................................................. 40 Phone&c Transcrip&on: Detailing Ar&cula&on................................................................................ 40 Phonemic Transcrip&on: Simplifying the Speech Code................................................................... 41 Compara&ve Analysis: Phone&c vs Phonemic Transcrip&on............................................................ 42 Iden(fying Phonemes and Allophones in the English Language............................................. 42 © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 3 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 43 Phonemes and Allophones: A Brief Overview................................................................................ 43 Iden&ﬁca&on of Phonemes............................................................................................................ 43 Iden&ﬁca&on of Allophones........................................................................................................... 44 Understanding Phonemes and Allophones in English Language...................................................... 44 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 45 Exploring Phonotac(cs: The Rules of Phoneme Combina(ons in English................................ 45 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 46 Phoneme and English Phonotac&cs................................................................................................ 46 Phonotac&c Constraints................................................................................................................. 46 Onsets and Codas.......................................................................................................................... 47 The Sonority Sequencing Principle................................................................................................. 47 Importance of Phonotac&cs........................................................................................................... 48 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 48 The Syllable: Structure, Types, and Func(ons in English......................................................... 49 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 49 Overview of Syllables..................................................................................................................... 49 Types of Syllables........................................................................................................................... 50 Syllables and Pronuncia&on........................................................................................................... 50 Link Between Syllables and Stress.................................................................................................. 50 Challenges of Syllable Structure..................................................................................................... 51 Conclusions................................................................................................................................... 51 References:.................................................................................................................................... 51 The Intricacies of Linguis(c Varia(on: Understanding Diﬀerences Between Dialects, Accents, and Varie(es of English......................................................................................................... 52 Accents.......................................................................................................................................... 52 Dialects.......................................................................................................................................... 53 Varie&es of English......................................................................................................................... 53 Interplay of accents, dialects, and English Varie&es........................................................................ 54 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 54 Examples of Major English Accents: Bri(sh, American, and Australian.................................. 55 Bri&sh English Accent..................................................................................................................... 55 American English Accent................................................................................................................ 56 © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 4 Australian English Accent............................................................................................................... 56 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 57 The Role of Sociolects and Idiolects in English Language Varia(on........................................ 58 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 58 The Sociolect Spectrum.................................................................................................................. 58 The world of Idiolects.................................................................................................................... 59 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 60 The Role of Pitch, Stress, and Dura(on in Intona(on and Rhythm in the English Language.... 61 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 61 Understanding Intona&on.............................................................................................................. 61 The Role of Pitch in Intona&on....................................................................................................... 61 The Role of Stress in Intona&on..................................................................................................... 62 Understanding Rhythm.................................................................................................................. 62 The Role of Dura&on in Rhythm..................................................................................................... 62 Bringing Pitch, Stress, and Dura&on Together in Speech................................................................. 63 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 63 An Explora(on of Tonal Pa:erns in English: Rising, Falling, and Level Tones.......................... 64 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 64 Understanding Tonal PaUerns........................................................................................................ 64 Rising Tonal PaUerns...................................................................................................................... 64 Falling Tonal PaUerns..................................................................................................................... 65 Level Tonal PaUerns....................................................................................................................... 65 The Communica&on Impact of Tonal PaUerns................................................................................ 66 The Signiﬁcance of Tonal PaUerns in Language Learning................................................................. 66 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 66 The Func(ons of Intona(on: Aatudinal, Gramma(cal, and Informa(onal............................ 67 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 67 The A\tudinal Func&on of Intona&on........................................................................................... 67 The Gramma&cal Func&on of Intona&on........................................................................................ 68 The Informa&onal Func&on of Intona&on...................................................................................... 69 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 69 Rhythmic Pa:erns in English: Stress-Timed Versus Syllable-Timed Languages....................... 70 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 70 © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 5 Understanding Rhythm.................................................................................................................. 70 Stress-Timing................................................................................................................................. 70 Syllable-Timing.............................................................................................................................. 71 Rhythmic PaUerns in English.......................................................................................................... 71 Beyond Stress-&ming and Syllable-&ming...................................................................................... 72 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 72 Assimila(on in English Language Connected Speech............................................................. 73 What is assimila&on?..................................................................................................................... 73 Understanding Connected Speech.................................................................................................. 73 Types of Assimila&on..................................................................................................................... 73 Assimila&on of Manner, Place and Voice........................................................................................ 74 The Impact of Assimila&on............................................................................................................. 75 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 75 Elision in English Connected Speech: A Comprehensive Examina(on..................................... 76 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 76 Understanding Elision.................................................................................................................... 76 Examples of Elision........................................................................................................................ 76 Elision in Standard and Non-standard Dialects............................................................................... 77 Pedagogical Value of Understanding Elision................................................................................... 77 Elision and Its Rela&on to Oral Comprehension.............................................................................. 77 Elision in English Accents............................................................................................................... 78 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 78 Intrusive Sounds in English Connected Speech: Empirical Insights and Pedagogical Implica(ons............................................................................................................................................. 78 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 78 Deﬁni&on and Examples of Intrusive Sounds.................................................................................. 79 Types of Intrusive Sounds.............................................................................................................. 79 Phone&c Explana&ons.................................................................................................................... 80 Eﬀects on Speech Understanding and Intelligibility........................................................................ 80 Pedagogical Implica&ons................................................................................................................ 81 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 81 Catena(on in English Connected Speech: A Comprehensive Study......................................... 82 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 82 © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 6 The Concept of Catena&on............................................................................................................. 82 Forma&on of Catena&on................................................................................................................ 82 The principle of Convenience in Speech......................................................................................... 83 Impacts of Catena&on on English Connected Speech...................................................................... 83 The Role of Catena&on in Communica&on:.................................................................................... 83 Catena&on in Teaching English as a Second Language (ESL):........................................................... 83 Catena&on and its Usage Beyond English:...................................................................................... 84 Catena&on Prac&ces and Exercises for Advanced Proﬁciency:........................................................ 84 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 84 Understanding Weak Forms in English Connected Speech..................................................... 85 Introduc&on: The Unmapped Territory of English........................................................................... 85 The Concept of Weak Forms: A Prelude.......................................................................................... 85 Pulling Apart Weak Forms: The Core Characteris&cs....................................................................... 85 Understanding Weak Forms: The Prac&cal Use............................................................................... 86 The Regional Dimension of Weak Forms........................................................................................ 87 The Bridge to Fluent English Speaking: Study and Prac&ce............................................................. 87 Conclusion: The Symphony of English Speech................................................................................ 87 Delayed Plosion: A Comprehensive Study in English Connected Speech................................. 88 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................... 88 Understanding Delayed Plosion..................................................................................................... 88 Phone&c Manifesta&on of Delayed Plosion.................................................................................... 88 The Role of Delayed Plosion in Accent and Intelligibility................................................................. 89 Implica&ons For English Language Learners.................................................................................... 89 The Integra&on of Delayed Plosion in Text-to-Speech Systems....................................................... 90 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 90 Flipping in English Language Pronuncia(on: An In-depth Explora(on................................... 90 Explica(on of Glo:alisa(on in English Language Pronuncia(on............................................ 93 Deﬁni&on of GloUalisa&on............................................................................................................. 93 Role of GloUalisa&on in English Language Pronuncia&on............................................................... 94 Varia&ons of GloUalisa&on Across English Dialects......................................................................... 94 GloUalisa&on for Emphasis and Stylis&c Eﬀects.............................................................................. 95 GloUalisa&on in Language Comprehension.................................................................................... 95 Teaching GloUalisa&on to English Language Learners..................................................................... 95 © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 7 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 95 An Examina(on of the Schwa: The Most Common Vowel Sound in Unstressed Syllables........ 96 1. Deﬁning the Schwa.................................................................................................................... 96 2. The Origin of Schwa................................................................................................................... 96 3. Schwa: An Unobtrusive Linguis&c Phantom................................................................................ 97 4. The Posi&on and Func&on of Schwa in Linguis&cs....................................................................... 97 5. The Phone&cs and Science Behind Schwa................................................................................... 97 6. Schwa’s Cultural Implica&ons..................................................................................................... 98 7. Schwa: Invisible yet Indispensable............................................................................................. 98 8. Schwa and Language Acquisi&on................................................................................................ 98 9. The Future of Schwa................................................................................................................... 98 10. Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 99 Syllable Stress in Words: Rules and Pa:erns........................................................................ 100 What is Syllable Stress?............................................................................................................... 100 Importance of Syllable Stress....................................................................................................... 100 General Rules of Syllable Stress.................................................................................................... 101 PaUerns in Syllable Stress............................................................................................................ 101 Challenges and Solu&ons regarding Syllable Stress....................................................................... 102 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 102 Understanding Primary, Secondary, and Ter(ary Stress in English Language Pronuncia(on 102 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................. 102 Primary Stress.............................................................................................................................. 103 Secondary Stress.......................................................................................................................... 103 Ter&ary Stress.............................................................................................................................. 104 The Func&on of Stress in English Language Pronuncia&on............................................................ 104 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 104 Sentence Stress and Prominence in English Language Pronuncia(on................................... 105 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................. 105 Understanding Sentence Stress.................................................................................................... 105 Signiﬁcance of Sentence Stress.................................................................................................... 106 Understanding Prominence.......................................................................................................... 106 Importance of Prominence.......................................................................................................... 106 Interplay of Sentence Stress and Prominence............................................................................... 107 © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 8 Prac&cal Applica&ons................................................................................................................... 107 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 107 The Intricate Dance of Rhythm in Spoken English Language................................................ 108 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................. 108 Understanding Rhythm................................................................................................................ 108 English Rhythm PaUerns.............................................................................................................. 109 Contras&vely Stressed Elements.................................................................................................. 109 Accentua&on and Emphasis......................................................................................................... 109 Intona&on and Rhythm................................................................................................................ 109 Importance of Pausing................................................................................................................. 110 Rhythm and Pace......................................................................................................................... 110 Rhythm in English For Non-Na&ve Speakers................................................................................. 110 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 111 Analysing Learners’ Pronuncia(on Errors in English Language............................................ 111 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................. 111 Understanding Pronuncia&on Errors............................................................................................ 112 The Role of First Language........................................................................................................... 112 Analy&cal Approaches................................................................................................................. 112 Addressing Pronuncia&on Errors.................................................................................................. 113 Challenges and broadening the perspec&ve................................................................................. 114 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 114 Teaching Strategies for Improving English Pronuncia(on.................................................... 115 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................. 115 Understanding the Role of Phone&cs........................................................................................... 115 Enhancing Phonological Awareness............................................................................................. 116 Importance of Listening............................................................................................................... 117 The Importance of Prac&ce.......................................................................................................... 118 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 118 Integra(ng Phone(cs and Phonology in the English Language Classroom........................... 119 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................. 119 Understanding Phone&cs and Phonology..................................................................................... 119 Their Importance in English Language Teaching............................................................................ 119 Integra&ng Phone&cs and Phonology in the Classroom................................................................ 120 © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 9 Technology in Phone&cs and Phonology Teaching........................................................................ 121 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 121 Correc(ve Feedback and Error Correc(on for Pronuncia(on in the ELT Classroom............... 122 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................. 122 Understanding Correc&ve Feedback and Error Correc&on............................................................ 122 Ra&onale for Correc&ve Feedback and Error Correc&on in Pronuncia&on..................................... 123 Types of Correc&ve Feedback in the ELT Classroom...................................................................... 123 Strategies for Error Correc&on in Pronuncia&on........................................................................... 124 Implemen&ng Feedback and Error Correc&on in the Classroom................................................... 124 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 125 Techniques for Teaching Segmental Features: Consonants and Vowels in English................ 126 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................. 126 Understanding Segmental Features.............................................................................................. 126 Teaching English Consonants........................................................................................................ 126 Teaching English Vowels............................................................................................................... 127 Interac&ve Techniques................................................................................................................. 128 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 128 Ac(vi(es for Teaching Suprasegmentals: Stress, Intona(on, and Rhythm in the ELT Classroom........................................................................................................................................... 129 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................. 129 Suprasegmentals: An Overview.................................................................................................... 129 I. Teaching Stress............................................................................................................................................ 129 II. Teaching Intona1on.................................................................................................................................... 130 III. Teaching Rhythm....................................................................................................................................... 131 Integrated Ac&vi&es..................................................................................................................... 131 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 132 Evalua(ng Learners' Pronuncia(on Progress in the ELT Classroom...................................... 132 Introduc&on................................................................................................................................. 132 Understanding Pronuncia&on in ELT............................................................................................. 133 Assessing Pronuncia&on: The Criteria.......................................................................................... 133 Enhancing Percep&on Skills: The Founda&on of Pronuncia&on..................................................... 133 Pronuncia&on Evalua&on Methods.............................................................................................. 134 Impact of Feedback on Pronuncia&on Progress............................................................................ 134 Considera&on of Individual Diﬀerences........................................................................................ 135 © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 10 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 135 The Importance of Phonics in English Language Learning and Development....................... 135 Cri&cisms of Phonics Instruc&on.................................................................................................. 137 Balancing Phonics Instruc&on...................................................................................................... 138 Decoding Strategies and Le:er-Sound Rela(onships: The Pivotal Role in Teaching Phonics in the English Language.......................................................................................................... 138 Understanding Phonics................................................................................................................ 139 Decoding Strategies..................................................................................................................... 139 LeUer-Sound Rela&onships.......................................................................................................... 140 Synthe&c Phonics......................................................................................................................... 140 Analy&c Phonics.......................................................................................................................... 140 Analogy-Based Phonics................................................................................................................ 141 Embedded Phonics...................................................................................................................... 141 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 141 Phonics Ac(vi(es and Games for Various Age Groups in the ELT Classroom......................... 141 Phonics for Pre-schoolers............................................................................................................. 142 Elementary School Students........................................................................................................ 142 Middle School Students............................................................................................................... 143 High School Students................................................................................................................... 143 Adults in ELT Classroom............................................................................................................... 144 © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 11 Introduc*on A Le%er of Love Dear Phone*cs and Phonology Enthusiast, Gree*ngs from the bustling world of sounds, pitches, and nothing less than the orchestra*on of our dear English language - welcome to the level 5 cer*ﬁcate in Phone*cs and Phonology! I'm Shady R. Abuyusuf, your fearless leader into this linguis*c wilderness, serving as your guide, your mentor, and, yes, occasionally, your well-inten*oned court jester. Together, we'll tackle the symphony of syllables and the melody of morphemes, the arpeggios of accents and the composi*on of consonants - all under the humble (yet ridiculously awesome) roof of the Bri*shey Training Centre. Worried this might be a dry, stuﬀy old handbook? Fear not my courageous linguist, we've deﬁbrillated the 'deﬁnitely drab', CPR'd the 'characteris*cally colourless', and resuscitated the 'rive*ngly rou*ne', to present you an engaging journey into the wild world of Phone*cs and Phonology. A word of cau*on before we begin: this is not 'Hooked on Phone*cs' for the meek. This is a s*mula*ng, pulse-pounding dive into the bea*ng heart of the English language itself. You'll tangle with the nefarious Phone*c Alphabet, and its motley crew of transcrip*on symbols. And have you ever been kept awake at night by the mystery of the long-lost sound of 'th'? Prepare to put those sleepless nights to bed! What's more, you'll tackle phonology and phonemes, squeezing out meaning in minimal pairs, and wrestling the rambunc*ous rasp of English aspirated consonants (I'm looking at you "p," "t," and "k"). In conclusion, buckle up, my brilliant phone*c bandicoots, and brace yourself for the wildly thrilling word-winds of the Level 5 Cer*ﬁcate in Phone*cs and Phonology. May your journey through this manual enlighten your educa*onal aspira*ons, and don't forget to share a chuckle or two as we unravel the tongue-twis*ng marvels of our boun*ful English language. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 12 In phone*c ﬁdelity, Shady R. Abuyusuf, CEO & Unapologe*c Word-Nerd Bri,shey Training Centre Introducing Bri-shey Training Centre (BTC), a beacon of excellence in the sector of language and teacher training. Based in the heart of Egypt, we extend globally, delivering a dynamic and interac-ve virtual study experience like no other. At BTC, we aim to foster conﬁdence and ignite a profound passion for learning, turning today’s learners into tomorrow's leaders. One salient aspect that highlights the excep-onal standard of BTC is its aﬃlia-ons with world-renowned ins-tu-ons. We take great pride in being a validated course provider for illustrious teacher training organisa-ons such as Cambridge Assessment English, Trinity College London, Learning Resource Network, American Accredita-on Associa-on, World Cer-ﬁca-on Ins-tute, Interna-onal TEFL Accredita-on Council and Oxford TESOL Accredita-on Centre. These are mammoth names that enjoy global acclaim for their educa-on standards, and our associa-on with them underscores our commitment to providing supreme quality educa-on. At BTC, our educa-onal ethos is centred on fostering growth, innova-on, and knowledge. We understand that the teacher's role extends far beyond the four walls of the classroom. Our comprehensive, hands-on training courses are exquisitely designed to reﬂect this, preparing educators not just to teach, but to inspire. Op-ng to study through BTC is to embark upon an exci-ng journey of personal and professional development. Our expertly craSed courses, aTen-ve support, and ﬁrst-rate resources combine to foster an environment in which you're not just studying - you're evolving. Welcome to © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 13 Bri-shey Training Centre, where the pathway to becoming an excep-onal educator begins. Where to Find Us in Egypt Britishey Training Centre (BTC) Alnozha, Ard Algolf, Almaza & Althawra Crossroads, Masr Algadeeda, Cairo, Egypt Email: [email protected] www.britishey.com Britishey Training Centre (BTC) Algalaa street, Bon Albasuny Building, Damietta, Egypt Email: [email protected] www.britishey.com © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 14 Accredited by three accredita,on bodies The Cer-ﬁcate in Phone-cs and Phonology oﬀered by Bri-shey Training Centre is a pres-gious program accredited by three renowned bodies: the American Accredita-on Associa-on, the Interna-onal TEFL Accredita-on Council, and the Oxford TESOL Accredita-on Centre. These accredita-ons ensure that the course adheres to the highest interna-onal standards in language educa-on. The program equips par-cipants with a comprehensive understanding of phone-cs and phonology, essen-al components for eﬀec-ve language teaching. With the backing of these reputable accredi-ng bodies, graduates of this course can be conﬁdent that they have received world-class training, enhancing their creden-als in the global ELT (English Language Teaching) community. This cer-ﬁca-on not only adds value to the professional proﬁles of teachers but also assures employers that they have the necessary exper-se in pronuncia-on, sound systems, and language ar-cula-on. General Information © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 15 Smoking Smoking is not allowed anywhere on the school premises. If you smoke outside, please do not stand in the main entrance or drop cigarette ends in front of the building. Other Candidates During the course you will be working with other candidates who are also following this three-way-accredited course. Remember you are working as a team and that co-operation and support are an essential part of the overall success of this, or any, course, and of the teaching profession in general. There may also be candidates in the centre who are following other training courses at the same time as yours, and who need to use the same facilities. Dress code for trainees: Please, remember that a school is a professional environment and rules for smart casual attire apply. Clean, combed hair No torn jeans Clean hands / nails No very low hipsters Clean, ironed clothes No short belly tops or low Clean shoes, no beach flip- necklines flops No shorts or very short skirts © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 16 Closed shoes in the colder seasons, smart sandals in the warmer season or trainers The Grading System § In order to be eligible for a PASS grade on this course, you need to pass at least nine assignments out of eleven. § When you pass your assignment on ﬁrst submission, you are granted 100 marks, on a resubmission, 50 marks and on a second resubmission, 25 marks. If your second resubmission does not pass, you fail the assignment. 1. "PASS A": This indicates excellent performance. 2. "PASS B": This highlights good performance. 3. "PASS": This denotes acceptable or sa-sfactory performance. Here is the grading system: 1. "PASS A": (Score of 880 -1100). This region cons-tutes the top 20%. For a candidate to receive a "PASS A", they would need to score 80% or higher (880 points or more). 2. "PASS B": (Score of 660 - 879). This region cons-tutes next 20% of scores. Candidates who score between 60% and 79.9% (660 to 879 points) would receive a "PASS B". 3. "PASS": (Score of 550 - 659). This implies mee-ng the minimum requirements. Candidates who score 50% to 59.9% (550 to 659 points) would be given a "PASS". Anyone scoring below 550 (less than 50%) would not pass. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 17 This grading system ensures fair performance criteria by considering the distribu-on of scores. The rankings of "Pass," "Pass B," and "Pass A" are generally seen in systems where simply passing is not enough informa-on. A student, or employee in a training exercise, may pass with the bare minimum, while another may go above and beyond. Depending on their exact score, a passer could land in any of these three categories, each providing a more speciﬁc measure of their abili-es. Complaints and Appeals If course par-cipants have any complaints which your course tutors cannot address, the CEO and Head of Teacher Training [Mr. Shady Abuyusuf] will be course par-cipants’ next point of contact. You can send an email with details of your complaint to the following email: [email protected] Please remember that your complaint will not be processed if you have not talked to your direct tutor about your problems ﬁrst. Code of Academic Integrity Since Bri-shey Training Centre is an academic community, its fundamental purpose is the pursuit of knowledge. Essen-al to the success of this educa-onal mission is a commitment to the principles of academic integrity. Every member of Bri-shey community is responsible for upholding the highest standards of honesty at all -mes. Trainees, as members of the © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 18 community, are also responsible for adhering to the principles and spirit of the following Code of Academic Integrity. Academic Dishonesty Deﬁni,ons Ac-vi-es that have the eﬀect or inten-on of interfering with educa-on, pursuit of knowledge, or fair evalua-on of a student’s performance are prohibited. Examples of such ac-vi-es include but are not limited to the following deﬁni-ons: Chea%ng: using or aTemp-ng to use unauthorized assistance, material, or study aids in tasks or other academic work or preven-ng, or aTemp-ng to prevent, another from using authorized assistance, material, or study aids. Example: altering a graded task and resubmikng it for a beTer grade, etc. Plagiarism: using the ideas, data, or language of another without speciﬁc or proper acknowledgment. Example: copying another person’s task, ar-cle, or computer work and submikng it for an assignment, cloning someone else’s ideas without aTribu-on, failing to use quota-on marks where appropriate, etc. Fabrica%on: submikng contrived or altered informa-on in any task. Example: making up data for an experiment, fudging data, ci-ng non- existent ar-cles, contriving sources, etc. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 19 Mul-ple submission: submikng, without prior permission, any work submiTed to fulﬁl another academic requirement. Misrepresenta%on of academic records: misrepresen-ng or tampering with or aTemp-ng to tamper with any por-on of a student’s transcripts or academic record, either before or aSer coming to Bri-shey. Example: forging a change of grade slip, tampering with computer records, falsifying academic informa-on on one’s resume, etc. Facilita%ng academic dishonesty: knowingly helping or aTemp-ng to help another violate any provision of the Code. Example: working together on a task, etc. Unfair advantage: aTemp-ng to gain unauthorized advantage over fellow trainees in a task. Example: obstruc-ng or interfering with another trainee’s eﬀorts in a task, lying about a need for an extension for a task, etc. Why Might Bri,shey Training Centre Withdraw You from a Course? © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 20 We may feel that it is necessary to give you a formal warning. This will occur as early as possible in the course, dependant on the speciﬁc circumstances and may be for the following reasons: § Poor aTendance or repeated lateness § Tasks not submiTed within the deadlines. Excep-ons may be made under extenua-ng circumstances following a wriTen applica-on for an extension, within reasonable advance of the due date. § If, based on your coursework, your tutors feel that you lack the academic skills necessary to be successful on the course and do not see that you would be able, for whatever reason, to be able to develop these suﬃciently within the -me given. § If you are not able to demonstrate your commitment to your training and approach it as someone entering a professional role, conduc-ng yourself, at all -mes, accordingly. Your wriTen warning will explain clearly what the problem is and explain what you need to do in order to meet the course requirements. You will be invited to a tutorial to discuss the issue with your tutor and given targets appropriate to the situa-on. If you are unable to comply with those targets you may be withdrawn from the course. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 21 Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology An Introduc,on to Phone,cs and Phonology Human communica-on has come a long way since the era of simple gestures and grunts. With the development of language, it has become vastly complex, characterized by a remarkable capacity to convey an inﬁnite array of meanings. This ability largely depends on our use of sounds, a phenomenon studied within the scien-ﬁc ﬁelds of Phone-cs and Phonology. These are two principal areas of study in linguis-cs concerned with, among other things, the physical proper-es of sounds (phone-cs) and how these sounds func-on in par-cular languages (phonology). Deﬁni0on and Dis0nc0on between Phone0cs and Phonology Phone-cs and Phonology, while closely linked, are two branches of linguis-cs that study diﬀerent aspects of human speech. Phone-cs is the study of the produc-on, transmission, and percep-on of speech sounds. It concerns the physical proper-es of sounds (or phonemes), their ar-culatory, acous-c aTributes, and the way they’re perceived by the human ear. On the other hand, Phonology delves deeper into the abstract aspect of these sounds, how they organize within a par-cular language, and how they interact with each other. It centres around the concept that sounds func-on in a system of mental representa-ons, which determine their role and signiﬁcance in a speciﬁc language. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 22 The Study of Language Sounds The study of language sounds forms the core basis of both Phone-cs and Phonology. In Phone-cs, this involves purely physical aspects such as tongue placement, lip movement, voice box ac-vity, and the resul-ng acous-c resonances. In Phonology, it involves the analysis and classiﬁca-on of sounds within a language, their func-on, and the rules for their combina-on. Speech Produc0on and Percep0on Speech produc-on is a complex process that entails a coordinated eﬀort between the lungs, the vocal cords, and the ar-culatory parts such as the tongue, lips, and palate. This immense orchestra-on precisely shapes the air stream to produce a myriad of dis-nc-ve speech sounds that are then perceived by the listener's auditory system. Understanding this process lies at the heart of Phone-cs. The percep-on of speech goes beyond the mere hearing of sounds. It involves the cogni-ve processing of these sounds into meaningful elements of a language, which is the realm of Phonology. Three Main Branches of Phone0cs: Ar0culatory, Acous0c, and Auditory Ar-culatory Phone-cs pertains to the physical ar-cula-on of phonemes. It delves into the ac-ons of the vocal organs during speech and how diﬀerent conﬁgura-ons result in diﬀerent sounds. Acous-c Phone-cs focuses on the physical proper-es of the sounds themselves. It measures aTributes like pitch, loudness, and dura-on, u-lizing tools such as spectrograms to analyse the sound waves produced in speech. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 23 Auditory Phone-cs, on the other hand, inves-gates the percep-on of these sounds, studying how sound waves are interpreted and processed in the brain to be understood as language. Phonological Concepts: Phonemes, Allophones, and Minimal Pairs Phonology introduces some key conceptualiza-ons such as phonemes, allophones, and minimal pairs. Phonemes are the dis-nct sound units in a language that can diﬀeren-ate meaning. For example, the English words 'bit' and 'pit' only diﬀer in the ini-al phoneme, changing the meaning en-rely. Allophones are varia-ons of a single phoneme that do not change the meaning of a word. For example, the 'p' sound in 'spin' and 'pin' are allophones in English because, despite the slight diﬀerence in pronuncia-on, they do not modify the meaning of the words. Minimal pairs, such as 'bit' and 'pit', are pairs of words that diﬀer by only one phoneme, demonstra-ng the phonemes' role in dis-nguishing word meaning. To conclude, Phone-cs and Phonology together provide a comprehensive understanding of human speech. Phone-cs seeks to understand the concrete physical mechanisms of speech produc-on and percep-on, while phonology seeks to elucidate the abstract structures of sounds within speciﬁc languages. Both ﬁelds play pivotal roles in the realm of linguis-cs, from language learning and teaching to speech therapy and beyond. Understanding these disciplines and their interrela-on is integral to fully appreciate the intricacies of human communica-ons. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 24 Basic Principles of Articulation and Speech Sounds Understanding the Dynamics of Oral Communica,on Ar-cula-on and speech sounds are the fundamental components of human communica-on, which involves a complex process of producing, transmikng, and receiving language. Several linguis-c subsystems and physiological systems, including the vocal tract's organs, the essen-al proper-es of speech sounds, and the classiﬁca-on of these sounds into vowels and consonants, underpin this interac-on. Addi-onally, the Interna-onal Phone-c Alphabet (IPA) helps transcribe and represent these sounds. The Vocal Tract: Organs Involved in Speech Produc-on The vocal tract serves as the primary human speech apparatus. It comprises several organs, including the lungs, larynx, pharynx, oral cavity (mouth), and nasal cavity (nose), each contribu-ng uniquely to sound produc-on. 1. Lungs: They func-on primarily for respira-on, but they also supply the forceful airﬂow necessary for vocal sound produc-on. This func-on is precisely why speech produc-on is considered an aerodynamic process. 2. Larynx: OSen termed the voice box, the larynx houses the vocal folds. When air passes from the lungs through the larynx, it causes the vocal folds © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 25 to vibrate, crea-ng pitched sounds, which become the basis for spoken language. 3. Pharynx: This cavity in the throat serves as a resona-ng space and a pathway to direct airﬂow from the larynx into the oral or nasal cavi-es. 4. Oral Cavity: Comprising the tongue, hard palate, soS palate (or velum), teeth, and lips, the oral cavity is integral to altering the shape and volume of the resona-ng space, which modiﬁes the speech sound generated. 5. Nasal Cavity: It plays a crucial role in producing nasal speech sounds (like 'm', 'n', and 'ng') when the velum lowers and allows air to ﬂow into the nasal tract. Proper-es of Speech Sounds: Place, Manner, and Voicing of Ar-cula-on Speech sounds, scien-ﬁcally known as phonemes, exhibit unique proper-es, described in terms of their place, manner, and voicing of ar-cula-on. 1. Place of Ar-cula-on: This refers to the speciﬁc point in the vocal tract where the airﬂow is constricted or blocked. An example is bilabial sounds ('p', 'b'), ar-culated with both the upper and lower lips. 2. Manner of Ar-cula-on: It refers to how airﬂow is obstructed or modiﬁed in the vocal tract to create dis-nc-ve sounds. For instance, frica-ves ('f', 'v') involve a con-nuous airstream forced through a narrow constric-on. 3. Voicing: The state of the vocal folds during sound produc-on deﬁnes voicing. If the vocal folds vibrate, the sound is voiced, such as 'b' in 'bat.' Conversely, if they don't vibrate, the sound is voiceless, like 'p' in 'pat.' Classiﬁca-on of Speech Sounds: Vowels and Consonants Speech sounds are broadly classiﬁed into two categories: vowels and consonants. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 26 1. Vowels: They are voiced sounds produced with an unobstructed vocal tract. The posi-on of the tongue and lips primarily shape vowels. They can also vary in height, backness, roundness, and tense-lax quality. 2. Consonants: These sounds involve more signiﬁcant constric-on in the vocal tract than vowels. They are classiﬁed based on their place, manner, and voice of ar-cula-on. Phone-cs Transcrip-on Using the Interna-onal Phone-c Alphabet (IPA) The Interna-onal Phone-c Alphabet (IPA) is an invaluable tool for transcribing speech sounds, oﬀering a unique symbol for each phonemic sound. It enables linguists to accurately represent speech sounds across languages, including subtle phone-c details that may not be captured in regular wri-ng. For instance, the aspirated 'p' in English 'pat' is transcribed as [pʰ] in the IPA nota-on, indica-ng the burst of air accompanying 'p.' Similarly, the nasal vowels in French can also be explicitly symbolized. In conclusion, understanding the basic principles of ar-cula-on and speech sounds necessitates a grasp of the integral role and interplay of the vocal tract organs, speech sound proper-es, the classiﬁca-on of these sounds, and how the IPA eﬀec-vely transcribes them. Such knowledge is crucial for any linguis-c or speech science study, and also broadly for grasping the human communica-on phenomenon. It provides a fascina-ng insight into our interac-on, allowing us to appreciate the intricacy of spoken language. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 27 English Consonants and Vowels The Comprehensive Study on English Consonants and Vowels Introduc0on In the realm of phone-cs, sounds of any language are oSen represented using an Interna-onal Phone-c Alphabet (IPA), a system of nota-on. This system enables us to depict diﬀerent vocal sounds in wriTen form accurately, dispensing the ambiguity oSen arose with the tradi-onal alphabe-c system. Here, we will delve into examining the precise nature of English Consonants and Vowels, their manner and place, the monophthongs and diphthongs in vowels, the IPA symbols associated with them, and the concept of short and long vowels. English Consonants: Understanding their Manner and Place At the heart of the English language, consonants reﬂect the varied, intricate means by which our vocal apparatus manipulates airﬂow. They are classiﬁed based on two prime aspects – manner of ar-cula-on, that is, how the sound is produced; and place of ar-cula-on, where in the vocal apparatus the sound is craSed. English consonants can be categorized depending on their manner into stops, frica-ves, aﬀricates, nasals, liquids, and glides. Stops or Plosives are produced when the airﬂow is completely obstructed, crea-ng pressure build-up, which when released, characterizes p ('p), b ('b), t ('t), d ('d), k ('k), and g ('g). © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 28 Frica-ves happen when the ar-culators are close enough to cause fric-on but not complete blockage. This generates sounds like f ('f), v ('v), th ('θ and 'ð), s ('s), z ('z), sh ('ʃ), and h ('h). Aﬀricates stra-fy both the stop and frica-ve quali-es and instances in English include church ('tʃ) and judge ('dʒ). Nasals are sounds wherein the air escapes through the nose due to the closure of oral passage. English nasals encompass m ('m), n ('n), and ng ('ŋ). Liquids include lateral ('l), where the air escapes around the sides of the tongue, and rho-cs ('ɹ) where the tongue bunches up or curls back. Glides or Semivowels are vowel-like sounds that func-on as consonants and include w ('w) and y ('j). Further, the place of ar-cula-on represents where exactly in the vocal tract the airﬂow is interrupted or rerouted. These can be alveolar, lateral, bilabial, velar, post-alveolar, interdental, gloTal, labio-dental, and palatal. English Vowels: Diving into Monophthongs and Diphthongs Vowels in English can be classiﬁed into monophthongs and diphthongs. Monophthongs are pure vowel sounds, wherein the ar-culatory posi-on remains constant, including short vowels: pit ('ɪ), pet ('ɛ), pat ('æ), pot ('ɑ), puT ('ʌ) and put ('ʊ); and long vowels: peat ('iː), pert ('ɜː), part ('ɑː), pool ('uː), and pout ('ɔɪ). On the contrary, diphthongs gradually glide from one vowel sound to another within the same syllable, including sounds like pie ('aɪ), poy ('ɔɪ), pow ('aʊ), peer ('ɪə), and poor ('ʊə). IPA Symbols for English Consonants and Vowels © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 29 The IPA uses a set of symbols to represent each consonant and vowel sound characteris-cally, thus oﬀering a universal system that transcends varied alphabets. English consonants resonate with the following IPA symbols: p, b, t, d, ʈ, ɖ, c, ɟ, k, g, q, ɢ, ʔ, m, ɱ, n, ɳ, ɲ, ŋ, p̪, b̪, t̪, d̪ , s, z, ʃ and others. The vowels too have dis-nc-ve symbols like i, y, ɨ, ʉ, ɯ, u, e, ø, ɘ, ɵ, ɤ, o, ə, ɛ and more. Short and Long Vowels in English In English phone-cs, the dura-on of vowel sounds is a cri-cal dis-nguishing factor two main groups: short vowels and long vowels. Short vowels are brief and occur in words like 'hit', 'met', 'sat', 'not', 'cut', represented by the IPA symbols ˈhɪt, mɛt, sæt, nɒt, ʌt. On the other hand, long vowels are generally moments longer in dura-on, appearing in words like 'heat', 'heard', 'hard', 'pool', 'poured', with IPA symbols as hiːt, hɜːrd, hɑːrd, puːl, pɔːrd respec-vely. In English, long vowels oSen signal a diﬀerent meaning than their short counterparts. Conclusion Decoding English's phone-c complexity, we journey through the intrinsics of consonants and vowels, their various types and manners, and how they posi-on in the vocal tract. Exploring the IPA's crucial role in elimina-ng confusions, governing these sounds universally, we perceive the impera-ve variability that the length of vowels adds into the mix. This diverse lingual orchestra, through its synchrony and modula-on, craSs the rich, vivid tapestry of the English language. Understanding this, we don't only learn a language beTer, but also appreciate the variable, dynamic nature of human speech. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 30 Consonant Places of Ar,cula,on: A Comprehensive Explora,on 1. Introduc0on Speech sounds, also known as phonemes, are an integral part of human communica-on. Linguis-cs, the scien-ﬁc study of language, presents various classiﬁca-ons for these phonemes. In ar-culatory phone-cs, one such classiﬁca-on is based on where in the vocal tract the air is constricted or blocked, known as the 'Place of Ar-cula-on.' Our focus will primarily encompass consonants and their diverse ar-cula-on places: alveolar, lateral, bilabial, velar, post-alveolar, interdental, gloTal, labiodental, and palatal. 2. Consonants and Ar0cula0on A consonant is a speech sound produced when airﬂow is obstructed in some way by the ar-culatory organs. They form the backbone of speech sounds, impar-ng necessary literal and rhythmic structures to spoken language. Ar-cula-on, in linguis-cs, iden-ﬁes the manipula-on of airﬂow during speech by various organs, such as the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate. These © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 31 organs collaborate to obstruct, impede, or restrict airﬂow, thus producing diﬀerent sound eﬀects. 3. Bilabial 'Bilabial' ar-cula-on refers to consonant sounds produced by the convergence of the two lips — the upper and lower lip. Examples in English include sounds represented by 'p' as in 'pat,' 'b' as in 'bat,' and 'm' as in 'mat.' These phonemes share the common feature of lip closure during ar-cula-on. 4. Labiodental In 'labiodental' sounds, the lower lip contacts the upper teeth. Familiar examples involve the sounds depicted by 'v' as in 'van' and 'f' as in 'fan.' These sounds, though might seem similar to bilabials, have dis-nct, uniquely resonant signatures owing to the lip- to-teeth connec-on. 5. Interdental 'Interdental' phonemes are ar-culated when the -p of the tongue is placed between the upper and lower front teeth. The English language showcases two primary interdental sounds, voiced 'ð', as in 'this', and voiceless 'θ', as in 'thing.' © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 32 6. Alveolar The 'alveolar' placement involves the tongue--p or blade making contact with the alveolar ridge, located right behind the upper front teeth. Sounds such as 't,' 'd,' 's,' 'z,' 'n,' and 'l' in English words like 'tap,' 'dog,' 'sip,' 'zoo,' 'nun,' and 'lip' are alveolar consonants. 7. Post-Alveolar Post-alveolar consonants are ar-culated with the -p or blade of the tongue near the back of the alveolar ridge. Examples in English encompass 'sh' in 'ship,' 'ʒ' in 'measure,' 'tʃ' in 'chop,' and 'dʒ' in 'gem.' 8. Palatal 'Palatal' consonants involve the tongue's body making contact with the hard palate, or roof of the mouth. 'Y' in 'young' and 'j' in 'jar' provide examples in English, though true palatals are more prevalent in other languages. 9. Velar 'Velar' phonemes are ar-culated with the back of the tongue touching or nearing the soS part of the roof of the mouth, known as the velum. Sounds in English represented by 'k' in 'kick,' 'g' in 'gig,' and 'ŋ' in 'singer' showcase velar ar-cula-on. 10. GloUal 'GloTal' refers to sounds ar-culated using the gloks, which is the part of the larynx consis-ng of the vocal cords and the © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 33 opening between them. English’s primary gloTal sound is the voiceless gloTal frica-ve, symbolized as 'h' in 'hat.' 11. Conclusion The diversiﬁed panorama of consonants relies on the organs of speech and their minute mo-ons to construct a vast lexicon of sounds. Recognizing the place of ar-cula-on, while deﬁnitely a technical challenge, paves the way for deeper linguis-c and phone-c understanding, thus oﬀering signiﬁcant beneﬁts for language learners, educators, linguis-cs professionals, and anyone interested in the intricate workings of human speech. The crux of this study can thus be summarized as: All aforemen-oned consonants, alveolar, lateral, bilabial, velar, post-alveolar, interdental, gloTal, labiodental, and palatal, are paramount in the broad domain of verbal communica-on, heavily contribu-ng to the rich tapestry of languages and dialects that color our world. Monophthongs as English Vowels: A Comprehensive Understanding Introduc0on Monophthongs, or pure vowels, are an integral part of the English language phone-cs. They hold a signiﬁcant presence in English speech sounds and form an integral part of phone-cs, the study of human sounds, a sub- discipline of linguis-cs. Despite their ubiquitous existence, their complexity oSen renders them an overlooked aspect in elementary English learning stages. This ar-cle aims to delve into the nature of monophthongs, their types, usage, and their cri-cal role in shaping contemporary English language dynamics. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 34 The Fundamentals of Monophthongs in English Phone0cs Predominantly, a monophthong is a simple or pure vowel sound with a deﬁni-ve phone-c value. The varying posi-ons of the tongue and the lips during speech produc-on characterise these sounds. Unlike diphthong and triphthong sounds, monophthongs maintain phone-c stability and do not change the quality of sound produc-on throughout the uTerance. There is a total of 12 monophthongal sounds in the English language, each with dis-nc-ve roles in communica-on. They are divided into two categories based on their length: short vowels and long vowels. Short and Long Vowels: The Key Types The classiﬁca-on into short vowels (also referred to as lax vowels) versus long vowels (or tense vowels) is largely a tradi-onal one, da-ng back to the Old English language. However, it's important to clarify that this diﬀerence is not strictly about the dura-on of vowel sounds; it's also about qualita-ve diﬀerences - dis-nct features in the way these sounds are produced. Short Vowels The short vowel category contains seven monophthongs: /æ/ as in 'cat', /ɪ/ as in 'bit', /e/ as in 'pen', /ʌ/ as in 'cut', /ɒ/ as in 'lot', /ʊ/ as in 'put', and /ə/ also known as the schwa. The schwa is speciﬁcally interes-ng because it is considered the most neutral vowel and the most frequently occurring vowel in spoken English. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 35 Long Vowels Long vowels comprise ﬁve monophthongs: /ɑ:/ as in 'card', /i:/ as in 'see', /ɜ:/ as in 'her', /ɔ:/ as in 'all', and /u:/ as in 'you'. They are typically held longer than their short counterparts and are observed to carry dis-nc-ve qualita-ve values. Despite the simplis-c nature of their categorisa-on, pronuncia-on of these monophthongs is subject to dialec-c diﬀerences. For instance, American English has fewer long vowels compared to Bri-sh English due to the implementa-on of the rho-c 'r'. English Monophthongs and Language Dynamics One cri-cal aspect of monophthongs is their role in shaping the dynamics of the English language. Monophthongs serve as the core of syllable forma-on, thus inﬂuencing word stress and intona-on which are fundamental to English prosody. Regarding language proﬁciency, mastering these sounds is also vital in improving pronuncia-on, enabling eﬀec-ve communica-on, and diminishing accent bias. Language evolu-on is yet another dynamic where monophthongs play a signiﬁcant part. Over centuries, English has experienced massive phone-c shiSs, with a conspicuous example being the Great Vowel ShiS between the 14th and 18th centuries. This change primarily aﬀected the monophthongal sounds, altering the pronuncia-on of long vowels but not changing their wriTen representa-on. Final Thoughts: The Monophthongs Conundrum Teaching and learning monophthongs can be challenging due to their subtle dis-nc-ons and complex rules entwined with their use. Methods such as the phonemic transcript or IPA (Interna-onal Phone-c Alphabet) are beneﬁcial in accurately represen-ng these sounds beyond their regular orthographic © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 36 representa-on. However, con-nual prac-ce — especially in speech produc-on — is the key to mastery. Moreover, bearing cultural and geographic inﬂuences in mind is also important. Pronuncia-ons vary widely from Bri-sh to American, Australian to Indian English, and these varia-ons commonly involve the usage of monophthongs. Understanding these regional nuances fosters rich linguis-c diversity, which is a characteris-c that makes the study of English a fascina-ng endeavour. In conclusion, monophthongs, despite being overlooked at -mes, are paramount in shaping the versa-lity and richness of the English language. Understanding, prac-cing, and mastering these sounds embody the pathway towards eﬃcient communica-on and morphing language literacy. Diphthongs as English Vowels: An In-depth Explora,on Introduc0on In the realm of phone-cs and linguis-cs, exploring the nuances of speech sounds reveals an intricate world. Among these intriguing sounds are the diphthongs, an integral part of the English language. As English vowels, diphthongs add depth to our spoken and wriTen communica-on, contribu-ng to the nuances and texture that hallmark this global language. This ar-cle discusses diphthongs extensively, delving into their deﬁni-on, features, classiﬁca-ons, and usage. Deﬁning Diphthongs Diphthongs are complex vowel sounds occurring within a single syllable, where two diﬀerent vowel quali-es blend together. Unlike monophthongs, © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 37 which feature a sta-c vocal quality, diphthongs represent a glide from one vowel sound to another, giving a dis-nct pronuncia-on paTern. For example, in the word "ﬂow," the vowel sound represented by 'ow' is a diphthong. Understanding Diphthongs Diphthongs align with the basic deﬁni-on of vowels in that they involve an unobstructed airstream within the vocal tract. However, they introduce a dynamic element due to the presence of two vowel quali-es. The transi-on between these two sounds typically begins with a more prominent or “stronger” vowel (the nucleus) and ends with a less prominent or “weaker” vowel (the oﬀglide), crea-ng a seamless, smooth phone-c journey. Comprehending this complexity is key to mastering the pronuncia-on of numerous words in Standard English. Classiﬁca0ons of Diphthongs The English language consists of eight diphthongs commonly divided into two types: 1. Centring Diphthongs: These comprise a vowel plus /ə/ or /ɪ/. Examples include /ɪə/ as in "hear," /eə/ as in "bear," and /ʊə/ as in "tour." They are vibrant diphthongs that start with a vowel sound and end with a schwa sound or a /ɪ/ sound. 2. Closing Diphthongs: These comprise vowel combina-ons that start with a strong pure vowel and end with a weak one that approaches a semi-vowel. Examples include /ɔi/ as in "boy", /ei/ as in "say," and /au/ as in "how." The transi-on from the stronger to the weaker vowel creates a unique sound composi-on. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 38 Importance of Diphthongs in English Language 1. Richness of Pronuncia-on: Diphthongs contribute to the richness and variety of spoken English. The unique blending of vowel sounds lends a speciﬁc ﬂavour to words, crea-ng beau-ful linguis-c diversity. 2. Accurate Communica-on: Mastering diphthongs assists non-na-ve speakers in achieving a more natural and accurate English pronuncia-on, thereby improving their overall communica-on skills. 3. Spelling Accuracy: An understanding of diphthongs also aids in spelling accuracy. Recognising diphthong usage in a word can provide clues to its correct spelling. 4. Linguis-c Analysis: For linguists and language specialists, the study of diphthongs oﬀers valuable insight into language paTerns, evolu-on, and regional dialects. Conclusion As a subtle yet signiﬁcant component of spoken English, diphthongs deepen our understanding of this mul-faceted language. By bridging two dis-nct vowel sounds in an intricate auditory dance, they create pronuncia-on paTerns and add a unique rhythm to speech. In this intricacy, we ﬁnd the beauty and complexity of the English language, underscoring the intriguing world of phone-cs and linguis-cs. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 39 Phonetic and Phonemic Systems Diﬀerences Between Phone,c and Phonemic Transcrip,ons in English Language In the ﬁeld of English linguis-cs, transcrip-on plays a key role in the explora-on and analysis of spoken language, par-cularly between two dis-nct types: phone-c and phonemic transcrip-ons. The dis-nc-ons between these two transcrip-on types are considerably nuanced, and understanding their dispari-es is fundamental to fully grasp the complexity of English language sounds. Phone0cs and Phonemics: A Brief Overview Phone-cs and phonemics refer to two facets of linguis-cs that inves-gate the use of sounds in languages. More speciﬁcally, phone-cs is concerned with the study and classiﬁca-on of sounds within human spoken languages, focusing on their physical, physiological and acous-c characteris-cs. On the other hand, phonemics, also termed phonology, explores the func-onal arrangement of these sounds in speciﬁc languages. Phone0c Transcrip0on: Detailing Ar0cula0on Phone-c transcrip-on serves as a tool to illustrate the way sounds are uTered, enuncia-ng the physicality of speech's sound produc-on in accuracy and detail. The transcrip-on employs the Interna-onal Phone-c © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 40 Alphabet (IPA), a comprehensive phone-c symbol system intended to painstakingly specify speech sounds. The precision of phone-c transcrip-on lies in its capability to account for dis-nct sounds. Phonemes, which are discrete sound units that might alter the meanings of words, are divided into ﬁner units through allophones, showcasing how these phonemes vary according to their context and posi-on in speech. For example, the 'p' sound in 'pin' and 'spin' in English has notably diﬀerent ar-cula-on. In 'pin', the 'p' is aspirated - pronounced with a burst of air, recorded as [pʰ] in phone-c nota-on, whereas in 'spin', the 'p' has no aspira-on, recorded simply as [p]. The precisely detailed phone-c transcript is capable of illumina-ng these subtly varying ar-cula-on diﬀerences that are vital in dis-nguishing speech sounds. Phonemic Transcrip0on: Simplifying the Speech Code Phonemic transcrip-on, on the other hand, presents a more simpliﬁed and abstract form of represen-ng speech sounds, recording only those dis-nc-ons necessary for dis-nguishing meaning within a speciﬁc language. It uses slashes, also known as virgules, to dis-nguish itself, relying on simpler symbol sets largely congruent with a language's wri-ng system. While phone-c transcrip-on is preoccupied with details, phonemic transcrip-on priori-zes prac-cal simpliﬁca-on, excluding informa-on not vital for the diﬀeren-a-on of meaning within a language. Hence, the same 'p' sound in 'pin' and 'spin' is represented simply as /p/ in phonemic transcrip-on, ignoring the aspira-on detail because it is not signiﬁcant in dis-nguishing English word meanings. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 41 This approach allows phonemic transcrip-on to focus on phonemes — the broad categories of sound that can dis-nguish word meanings, rather than the precise ar-culatory or acous-c details of each speciﬁc uTerance. Compara0ve Analysis: Phone0c vs Phonemic Transcrip0on The primary dis-nc-on between phonemic and phone-c transcrip-on centers on the level of detail in represen-ng speech sounds. Phone-c transcrip-on, marked by brackets, tends to be more detailed, providing speciﬁc ar-culatory or acous-c proper-es, including allophonic varia-ons. Conversely, phonemic transcrip-on, denoted by slashes, is a simpliﬁed representa-on, focusing only on the lexical dis-nc-ons that are intui-ve to na-ve speakers of a language. Moreover, phone-c transcrip-on oﬀers insights valuable for speech and language pathologists, linguis-c anthropologists, and others working in ﬁelds demanding me-culous accuracy of sound produc-on. It fosters understanding of how physical and physiological factors inﬂuence sound ar-cula-on. Meanwhile, the phonemic transcrip-on is more prac-cal for language learners and educators. It simpliﬁes English sounds to their basic contrasts, asser-ng that each symbol corresponds to a phoneme that holds poten-al for meaning alterna-on. It strips away non-essen-al informa-on to oﬀer a manageable way for language acquisi-on. In essence, both phone-c and phonemic transcrip-ons serve as tools in capturing the complexity of language's spoken form, although they diﬀer considerably in approach, focus, and applica-on. Their combined use deepens the understanding of the mul-faceted nature of speech sounds, fostering enhanced communica-on and enriched language comprehension. Iden,fying Phonemes and Allophones in the English Language © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 42 Introduc0on Phone-cs and phonology are vital branches of linguis-cs, rela-ng to the physical sounds of human speech and their system of organisa-on, respec-vely. Within these ﬁelds lies the classiﬁca-on and study of phonemes and allophones — the building blocks of spoken language. Phonemes are dis-nct units of sound, whereas allophones are varia-ons of these phonemes. Deciphering the rela-onship between phonemes and allophones is fundamental to gaining a deeper understanding of the English language's phonological rules. This ar-cle discusses the complexi-es of iden-fying phonemes and allophones in the English language. Phonemes and Allophones: A Brief Overview A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that dis-nguishes one word from another. For instance, the words ‘bet’ and ‘bet’ have diﬀerent meanings due to the phone-c diﬀerence cons-tuted by the phonemes /b/ and /v/. On the other hand, an allophone is a variant form of a phoneme. Each allophone represents a diﬀerent physical realisa-on of a speciﬁc phoneme, and the usage oSen depends on the phone-c environment. To illustrate, 'l' in light (/laɪt/) and 'l' in bell (/bɛl/) are examples of the phoneme /l/ appearing as diﬀerent allophones in diﬀerent contexts. Iden0ﬁca0on of Phonemes Iden-fying phonemes oSen involves the recogni-on of minimal pairs. In linguis-cs, a minimal pair refers to a pair of words that diﬀer only by one sound, situated in the same posi-on, which causes the meaning to change. For instance, 'pin' and 'bin' are a minimal pair, diﬀering only by the ini-al sounds 'p' and 'b,' marking two dis-nct phonemes /p/ and /b/. This concept is crucial in iden-fying and dis-nguishing phonemes, demonstra-ng that a slight change in sound can change a word's meaning. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 43 Another method of iden-fying phonemes is through phonemic analysis, a process that determines the inventory and distribu-on of phonemes in a language. Phonemic analysis is simplifying speech sounds within a par-cular language to a coherent phonemic system, dissec-ng every spoken syllable into speciﬁc phoneme units. This simpliﬁca-on allows linguists to interpret the language's sound paTerns and establish underlying phonemes. Iden0ﬁca0on of Allophones Iden-fying allophones involves understanding the posi-onal and complementary distribu-on. Allophones appear in a speciﬁc phone-c environment, which means the context or surrounding sounds inﬂuence their pronuncia-on. For instance, consider the phoneme /l/ in English. The 'l' sound in 'leaf' and 'feel' are allophones due to their diﬀerent pronuncia-ons aﬀected by their posi-ons in words. Furthermore, varying allophones typically follow rules of complementary distribu-on, implying that they do not contrast but complement one another. They occupy systema-c space within a language structure and context, never appearing in the same environment. In English, the /p/ sound has allophones which exemplify complementary distribu-on. The aspirated [pʰ] occurs at the beginning of a word or stressed syllable (as in 'pin'), while the unaspirated [p] typically appears elsewhere (like the 'p' in 'spin'). Understanding Phonemes and Allophones in English Language The English language consists of around 44 phonemes, which combine and recombine to form words. Recognising these phonemes is an essen-al step towards pronuncia-on and comprehension. Understanding allophones, in contrast, enhances the subtle-es of accent, speech ﬂow, and pronuncia-on nuances. Interes-ngly, what may be an allophone in one language can be a dis-nct phoneme in another. For instance, in Spanish, the English allophones [s] and © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 44 [z] for /s/ are treated as separate phonemes. Therefore, understanding the dis-nc-on is also vital for language learners, enabling them to avoid confusion when transi-oning from one language to another. The study of phonemes and allophones deepens our understanding of language, not just as a means of communica-on, but as a complex, dynamic system. These concepts highlight the rich tapestry of spoken language, underlining the minute diﬀerences that can en-rely change word meaning and the rules governing these contras-ng sounds' deployment. Conclusion The complexi-es of English phone-cs and phonology resides in its phonemes and allophones. As minimal units of sound, phonemes hold within them the power to dis-nguish meanings, while allophones, as their varying forms, can subtly change pronuncia-on based on their context. Iden-fying these building blocks of spoken language requires a keen understanding of minimal pairs, phonemic analysis, and distribu-on rules. The knowledge of phonemes and allophones elaborates on the systema-c sound paTern in language, ul-mately aiding in improving pronuncia-on, communica-on, and language acquisi-on. Exploring Phonotac,cs: The Rules of Phoneme Combina,ons in English Phonotac-cs refers to the set of constraints and rules in a language that prescribe how phonemes, the smallest individual units of sound, can be arranged and conjoined. Given that the phonemic inventory varies between diﬀerent languages, so does the speciﬁc phonotac-cs of each language. This ar-cle will delve into phonotac-cs with a speciﬁc emphasis on the English language. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 45 Introduc0on Phonotac-cs is an unseen but omnipresent force shaping the forma-on of linguis-cs. It provides a way to decode the mys-cal rhythmic cadence and melodic tonal variety of languages. Phonotac-c rules specify permissible sequences and posi-ons of phonemes in a word and contribute greatly to the characteris-c sound of each language. Understanding phonotac-cs can make clear why we ins-nc-vely pronounce and combine sounds the way we do when we learn a language, in this case, English. Phoneme and English Phonotac0cs Phone-cs, the study of speech sounds, puts phonemes at the heart - the smallest discrete segment of sound capable of conveying a dis-nct seman-c diﬀerence in a language. English, for instance, contains approximately 44 phonemes. They form the DNA or the basic building blocks of English phonotac-cs. However, not all combina-ons of phonemes are permissible. The cri-cal element that divides possible and impossible phoneme combina-ons is the phonotac-c constraints inherent in the English language. Phonotac0c Constraints In linguis-cs, constraints are essen-ally rules—delinea-ng boundaries of permissible and impermissible combina-ons. In English, these constraints shape the order and place of phonemes, in the onset (beginning), nucleus (middle), and coda (end) of the syllables. An understanding of these constraints is vital for ar-cula-ng non-na-ve words or novel names in the English language. Non-na-ve speakers oSen encounter problems pronouncing certain English words due to diﬀerent phonotac-c constraints within their na-ve language. For instance, English allows certain clusters of consonants at the beginning of syllables (like 'str' in 'stripe') that other languages might not support. Similarly, the sounds 'ng' together at the beginning of a word, as in 'ngoma,' a term from Swahili, would be strange to an English speaker because English phonotac-cs only allows 'ng' at the end of a syllable or word. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 46 Onsets and Codas In English phonotac-cs, onsets and codas—the beginning and end sounds of syllables—get par-cular aTen-on. Several constraints sculpt these parts of syllables. First, there are restric-ons on which consonants can combine; for instance, in English, we can start a word with 'pl' as in 'play' but not with 'lp'. Second, certain phonemes are permissible in the onset that is not allowed in the coda. For example, 'h' is found in onsets, such as 'hot', but not in codas, as you would not ﬁnd an English word ending with an 'h' sound. The Sonority Sequencing Principle One of the key theories within the ﬁeld of phonotac-cs is the Sonority Sequencing Principle (SSP). The SSP provides a hierarchal structure for understanding the sequen-al arrangement of phonemes. According to SSP, sounds rise in sonority from the onset to the peak (usually a vowel) and again fall in the coda. Sonority refers to the resonance or loudness of a sound. Following this principle, certain phoneme arrangements come to be preferred over others. Devia-ons from SSP some-mes occur and are marked as phonotac-cally unusual, depending on the language. Phonotac-c Probability and Neighbourhood Density Phonotac-c Probability (PP) and Neighbourhood Density (ND) are two signiﬁcant parameters inﬂuencing the phonotac-cs. PP denotes the frequency of phoneme occurrence in a speciﬁc language. Phoneme combina-ons with high PP are more likely perceived as words in that language. On the other hand, ND refers to the number of words a par-cular word is phonemically similar to. High ND words have more 'neighbours' and are faster and easier to recognise and process. Both PP and ND signiﬁcantly aﬀect language learning, speech produc-on, and percep-on. © Britishey Training Centre is a teacher training provider accredited from more than 10 prestigious bodies. 47 Importance of Phonotac0cs Body: Phonotac-cs plays a pivotal role in spontaneous speech recogni-on and language acquisi-on. Its rules aid listeners in determining where one word ends, and the next begins—a process termed 'speech segmenta-on.' Language learners subconsciously accumulate knowledge about the permissible phoneme sequences of their language, facilita-ng their language processing skills. It also assists in dis-nguishing na-ve words from non-na-ve words and improving pronuncia-on skills. Moreover, an understanding of phonotac-cs implica-ons is invaluable in the domain of speech therapy and linguis-cs research, where phonotac-c probability measures can contribute toward the diagnosis and remedia-on of language impairments. Conclusion Phonotac-cs, the study of permissible phoneme combina-ons, shines a light on the intricate design of language sounds, epitomised by an ordered cacophony that dances to explicit rules. Knowledge of these rules aids in understanding how English or any language behaves, feels, and evolves. In essence, Phonotac-cs presents a unique way to appreciate the beauty of the overall soundscape of English, shedding light on its intriguing intricacies and methodical music. By grasping the dynamics of this phonological mechanism, we gain an insigh›ul perspec-ve into not just the mechanics of En

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