Phonetics and Phonology PDF

1. the lungs and associated structures, which are responsible for moving air in and out of the system. As we will see, movement of air through the vocal apparatus is an essential part of speech production; 2. the larynx, which is responsible for creating the mai...

1. the lungs and associated structures, which are responsible for moving air in and out of the system. As we will see, movement of air through the vocal apparatus is an essential part of speech production; 2. the larynx, which is responsible for creating the main sound source for speech production; 3. the vocal tract, defined here as the airways above the larynx, within which sound is “shaped” and amplified. The vocal tract consists of a branching tube. From the larynx, the airway passes up through the pharynx, behind the tongue, and then divides into two branches. The main branch of the vocal tract for sound production goes forward through the mouth, but a side branch leads up through the nose. The lips: Their movements allow the entrance to the mouth to be expanded or constricted both vertically and horizontally, and they can be protruded forward or (to a lesser extent) pulled back against the teeth and gums. At the center of the lips, the back surface of the lower lips extends downward to attach at the bottom of the lower gum, while the back surface of the upper lip attaches at the top of the upper gum. At the sides, the inner surface of the lips merges with the inner surface of the cheeks. THE TEETH AND JAWS The teeth are rooted in two horseshoe-shaped arches of bone, which are parts of the upper and lower jaws. The upper jaw (maxilla) is an integral part of the facial skeleton and fused with the main part of the skull. The lower jaw (mandible) is jointed with the skull close to the ear, and pivots vertically from this attachment to open and close the mouth. It is also capable of some lateral and forward movement. In most people (though not all) the upper arch of teeth is slightly larger than the lower one, so that the upper teeth overlap the lower ones both at the sides and at the front. Although we can define a typical number and arrangement of teeth for humans, many people will have lost one or more teeth by the time they reach adulthood, as a result of disease, accidental damage, or planned removal. There is considerable individual variation in details of dentition and in the relationship between the upper and lower sets of teeth, and this may have some influence on details of speech production. THE ALVEOLAR RIDGE Behind the upper teeth the arch of bone supporting the teeth forms a horizontal bony shelf, known as the alveolar ridge. The width of this shelf is greatest in the center, behind the central upper teeth (incisors), and narrows toward the sides and back of the dental arch. The alveolar ridge is an important landmark in speech production. THE HARD PALATE Behind the alveolar ridge, the roof of the mouth arches up, so that the front part of the roof of the mouth is shaped somewhat like half an inverted bowl. This part of the roof of the mouth is described as the hard palate because it is, like the alveolar ridge, formed from bone with an overlying layer of mucosal tissue. As a result it is fairly rigid and feels hard to the touch. THE SOFT PALATE (VELUM) AND UVULA The bony hard palate extends back about as far as the back of the upper dental arch. Behind that the roof of the mouth consists of an arched muscular sheet, curving down toward the back of the oral cavity. This part of the roof of the mouth is known as the soft palate, or velum. The back edge of the soft palate curves down to a projecting piece of tissue, which hangs down from the center of the velum. This is the uvula. When seen from the front, two arches of muscle are visible, extending downward and outward from the sides of the velum. The upper, outer arch of muscle runs from the velum to the walls of the pharynx (the airway at the back of the mouth), whereas the lower, inner arch runs from the velum to the sides of the tongue. These muscles, together with the muscles within the velum itself, control the position of the velum and uvula. At rest, the back of the velum and uvula hang down at the back of the oral cavity, but the velum is able to move upward and backward so that it blocks the airway into the nose. It therefore acts as a valve, controlling the flow of air through the nose and preventing food and liquid from passing into the nasal cavity when eating and swallowing. Tongue: In phonetics, the upper surface of the tongue is divided into zones, according to the adjacent part of the roof of the mouth. The tip of the tongue is self-explanatory, being the frontmost part of the tongue. This is the part that forms a point when the tongue is protruded or raised. Immediately behind that is the blade, which typically lies below the alveolar ridge when the tongue is at rest. The part of the tongue that lies below the hard palate is described as the front of the tongue. For people who are beginning to learn their way around the vocal apparatus, this label sometimes seems somewhat counter-intuitive, as this part of the tongue surface actually looks quite far back when viewed from the outside world. If you look again at the diagram in Fig. 3.2, however, you will see that this is still a large part of the tongue behind and below this zone. The part of the tongue that lies below the velum and uvula is the back of the tongue, and the part of the tongue that faces backward, within the pharynx, is described as the root of the tongue. The distribution of nerve endings within the tongue is much more dense around the tip and blade. This means that people have a much greater awareness of touch in this area of the tongue, and find it much easier to feel speech movements involving the tip and blade. It is not possible to view the structures described from here on without specialized mirror techniques or fiberoptic endoscopes, so readers will need to refer to the diagrams provided. THE EPIGLOTTIS The epiglottis is a relatively rigid projection from the root of the tongue. It is often described as being leaf-shaped, but could equally well be compared to the blade of a rounded canoe paddle. Its rigidity derives from cartilage, and it behaves as if it were attached by a horizontal hinge fixed toward the lower part of the root of the tongue. If it swings down, it therefore blocks the airway. Its function is primarily to prevent food from passing into the lungs during swallowing, and it does not seem to play a very important role in speech production. However, the epiglottis may be involved in the production of some rather rare speech sounds. THE PHARYNX The airway running from the back of the oral and nasal cavities down to the larynx is called the pharynx. It is sometimes subdivided into three approximate zones: the nasopharynx (behind the nasal cavity) the oropharynx (behind the oral cavity and tongue), and the laryngopharynx (above the larynx), but such subdivision is probably not important at this stage. THE LARYNX The larynx acts as a kind of valve, opening and closing the airway. It consists of a skeletal framework of cartilages, and a complex set of muscles that support and control the position of two adjustable ledges or folds of tissue, which protrude into the airway. These folds of tissue can either be pulled back against the walls of the airway or brought together as to prevent the passage of air, liquid, or solid in or out of the lungs. Although the primary biological function of this valving system is to prevent anything other than air from entering the lungs, the human larynx has evolved in such a way as to play an important role in speech production. When the tissue folds are brought together, and air is pushed past them from the lungs, they vibrate rapidly and create a noise. It is because of this that they are known as the vocal folds or, more colloquially, as vocal cords. The term “vocal fold” is generally preferred in phonetics, because it reflects the structure more accurately. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM BELOW THE LARYNX Below the larynx, the airway passes through the trachea, and then divides into two bronchi, which lead down into the lungs, dividing and subdividing into the airways and airspaces of the lungs. The lungs and chest are involved in moving air in and out of the body. Their primary role is in the process of respiration, bringing oxygen-rich air into the body, and expelling carbon dioxide, but they are also essential for speech production, in controlling the movement of air through the vocal apparatus. The lungs have a broad base, more or less like a semi-oval in shape, and they then taper toward the top. The tissue of the lungs is very rich in blood and consists of a network of airsacs and air tubes. This gives them a spongy structure, so that they absorb air when they are expanded, and squeeze it out when they are contracted. The rib cage encircles the lungs and the muscular diaphragm separates the thoracic (chest) cavity from the abdomen. The lungs are enclosed in an airtight membrane, so that when the space around them expands, air is sucked into the lungs until the air pressure is the same as that outside the body. When the space around the lungs is reduced, air pressure inside the lungs increases and air is squeezed out. The expansion and contraction of the lungs is controlled by muscles in the chest walls and diaphragm. THE NASAL CAVITY The structures described so far can be thought of as a tube, or series of connected cavities, leading from the lungs to the outside through the mouth. There is, of course, another route between the lungs and the outside air, leading through the nasal cavity. The airway from the lungs branches at the back of the oral cavity, with one branch leading directly forward through the oral cavity and the other leading up behind the soft palate (velum) and then forward into the nasal cavity. The side walls of the nasal cavity are rather convoluted, and the airway is divided into two channels by a vertical sheet of tissue running from the bridge to the floor of the nose, known as the nasal septum. Speech process: 3 components The speech process can be described in terms of the combined activity of the three components of: 1.initiation: airstream mechanism 2. phonation: the action of the vocal folds 3. articulation: the place and manner of production. Initiation The mechanism involved in setting an airstream in motion as well as in the subsequent direction of flow of this airstream. Direction of the flow of air of this airstream: egressive: flow of the air is outward; ingressive: flow of the air is inward. The “universal airstream” The sounds initiated by the airstream involving the lungs are referred to as pulmonic. The default or “universal airstream” (Ashby, 2011, p. 68) is pulmonic, with a direction of airflow which is egressive. Most speech sounds can therefore be said to be pulmonic egressive (default). Two other airstreams can be used in producing speech sounds: glottalic and velaric. Glottalic airstream Air trapped in the pharyngeal cavity can be used to produce linguistically significant sounds. The articulators involved are the pharynx wall and the larynx, both of which have very limited movement. A piston-like effect can be created using the air passing through the vocal folds with air either pushed out of the pharynx (egressive) or drawn in (ingressive). The glottalic egressive airstream mechanism results in the production of ejectives, e.g.: [k’] or [z’]; The glottalic ingressive airstream mechanism results in implosives, e.g.: [ɓ] or [ʄ]. Velaric airstream The tongue can be used to trap a body of air within the mouth, compressing or rarifying the air caught in the enclosed space. Sounds created in this way, using an ingressive velaric airstream, are referred to as clicks. The production of all clicks involves the back of the tongue making a closure against the velum, with another closure occurring at a variety of places of articulation. 5 clicks are known be used linguistically in the languages of the world (but these can also have different paralinguistic functions) [ʘ] (bilabial), [ǀ] (dental), [ǃ] ((post-)alveolar), [ ǂ] (palato-alveolar), ǁ (alveolar lateral). Clicks can also involve a paralinguistic function (e.g. in motherese when we attempt to signal a horse sound, or as an alternative way of saying ‘no’) but are also used linguistically. Phonation Phonation refers to the different ways in which the laryngeal structures can be used to produce sound. As Laver (1994: 184) puts it, speech sounds result from: “the use of the laryngeal system, with the help of an airstream provided by the respiratory system, to generate an audible source of acoustic energy which can be modified by the articulatory actions of the rest of the vocal apparatus”. “Use of the laryngeal system" leads to an important CONTRAST between sounds: Vocal folds wide apart – voiceless sounds; Vocal folds vibrating – voiced sounds. Other types of phonation Voicing can involve regular modal vibration or slower, more “sluggish” vibration, which results in creaky phonation. Creak, as it is also called, involves a very low-pitched sound that, for example, can occur at the end of the falling intonation of some speakers of English (e.g. http://www.ims.unistuttgart.de/institut/arbeitsgruppen/phonetik/EGG/creak.wav). Phonation can also involve whisper which results from air being allowed through vocal folds pulled together at the anterior (front) end whilst being held apart at the posterior (back) end. Breathy phonation (also called murmur) results from air being allowed to escape through vocal folds held in a relatively relaxed posture rather than in the taut posture involved in the regular modal vibration of fully voiced sounds Vocal fold vibration and pitch Vocal fold vibration is also responsible for pitch functioning in different ways: Non-linguistically e.g. male/female/child, bass/tenor/alto/soprano voices Paralinguistically e.g. use of lower than normal pitch to indicate the gruff voice of a grumpy person or the exceptionally high-pitched (and possibly irritating) voice of a complaining child zones of segment-articulation: Labial, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, epiglottal, glottal The vocal organ which is more moveable/mobile is referred to as the active articulator. The stationary part of the vocal tract which the active articulator moves towards is called the passive articulator. Segmental constrictions, made in isolation, are made by the active movement of the articulator that lies anatomically below the passive articulator. Places of articulation: Bilabial both the upper and lower lips are ACTIVE articulators in this case, e.g. [p b m] in English pay, bay, may the two lips come together with air being completely blocked off momentarily Labiodental ACTIVE: the lower lip PASSIVE: the edge of the upper front teeth Dental ACTIVE: the tongue =p PASSIVE: the back / edge of the upper front teeth Alveolar ACTIVE: the =p / blade of the tongue PASSIVE: the alveolar ridge Postalveolar, and subcategory Palatoalveolar Some types of segments can be made with the back part of the alveolar ridge as the PASSIVE articulator TYPE 1 ACTIVE: the tongue tip the tongue tip moves towards or makes contact with the alveolar ridge TYPE 2 ACTIVE: the blade / front of the tongue the tongue is raised towards the back part of the alveolar ridge and the hard palate Retroflex ACTIVE: the tongue tip PASSIVE: the hard palate the tongue is curled back so that it approaches the roof of the mouth Palatal ACTIVE: the front of the tongue PASSIVE: the hard palate the front of the tongue approaches or touches the hard palate Velar ACTIVE: the back of the tongue PASSIVE: the soft palate or velum Uvular ACTIVE: the back of the tongue PASSIVE: the uvula, in other words, the very back of the velum Pharyngeal ACTIVE: the root of the tongue PASSIVE: the rear wall of the pharynx these sounds are made by pulling the root of the tongue back towards the back wall of the pharynx Glottal the vocal folds are both ACTIVE, and are held =ghtly together, blocking the airflow from the lungs The oro-nasal process: Velum raised, ORAL sounds. Velum lowered, NASAL sounds Stricture Describing stricture when talking about manner of articulation involves thinking about the gesture which the ACTIVE articulator (often the tongue) makes in relation to the passive one in such a way as to “restrict the airstream”. In a general way, we can say that gestures can involve the articulators making three main types of stricture: close off the oral cavity for an instant or a relatively long period; narrow the oral cavity considerably; simply modify the shape of the oral tract by approaching each other. Degree of stricture Degree of stricture refers to how narrow the gap is between the passive articulator and the active one at the narrowest point in the vocal tract. Complete closure is the result of closing off of the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period. (stops) Close approximation involves the articulators coming close together without touching, thus narrowing the space in the oral cavity. (fricatives) Open approximation involves the articulators coming close enough together to modify the shape of the oral tract but without causing friction. (approximants) Stops Can be oral or nasal Oral stops (sometimes called plosives) have velic closure (soft plate raised, making contact with the rear wall of the pharynx) – air CANNOT escape via the nasal cavity, e.g. [p b], [t d], [k g] Nasal stops velum is lowered, so no velic closure – air goes through the nasal as well as the oral cavity , e.g. [m n ɲ ŋ] Here is what goes on in the production of stops: Articulatory gesture: complete closure of the articulators. Acoustic: airstream blocked from escaping for a while Fricatives Articulators are held close together with a very narrow gap between them resulting in turbulent airflow which gives the fricative sounds a characteristic hissing quality, e.g. [ɸ β], [f v], [θ ð], [s z], [ʃ ʒ] Here is what goes on in the production of fricatives: Articulatory gesture: close approximation of two articulators. Acoustic: the airstream has to travel through a narrow opening which results in a turbulent airflow / hissing sound Approximants: degree of stricture The articulators come together but the gap between them is not narrow enough to cause a rise in air pressure and turbulence, e.g. [j] Here is what goes on in the production of approximants: Articulatory gesture: articulators are close together but not narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. Acoustic: the airstream is allowed to escape through the mouth without turbulence Apart from the degree of stricture, the nature of the stricture also needs to be considered in the case of many approximants Approximants: nature of stricture The articulators come together in such a way that the gap between the articulators is not narrow, and therefore allows the air to resonate, without friction. The nature of the gesture can be one of two types: it can be made in the midline of the mouth, with air escaping “centrally” – this gives sounds described as (central), e.g. [j] or one of the many different kinds of r-sound; it can be lop-sided, with the tongue body against one side of the mouth, allowing (uni)lateral release of air, or hunched up in such a way as to allow (bi)lateral release of air, e.g. different kinds of l-sound. Here is what goes on in the production of all approximants, laterals included: Articulatory gesture: articulators are close together but not narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced Acoustic: the airstream resonates in the mouth without turbulence Vowels: In terms of manner of articulation, vowels are ALL made with open approximation, so technically they are all approximants. Labels useful for describing consonants in terms of place of articulation are not useful for describing vowels since the active articulator (the tongue) does not make contact with any specific point on the roof of the mouth in the case of vowels. The Cardinal Vowel system was developed by Daniel Jones with the aim of describing the vowels of the languages of the world. The idea is that there are “limits” to the position that the tongue can take within the oral cavity, in the vertical as well as the horizontal dimension. The shape of the lips can also be impacted by the movements made. The primary cardinal vowels Moving the tongue from high to low in the mouth, at four equidistant intervals, first at the Front, then at the Back from low to high, gives us the primary cardinal vowels. - The position of the tongue in the vertical dimension Height of the tongue within the oral cavity close mid (combines with close and open to give close-mid and open-mid) open - The position of the tongue in the horizontal dimension Whether the tongue is raised more towards the front central back - Lip shape Whether the lips are rounded unrounded (spread) In addition to the three parameters of vowel height, frontness/backness, and lip shape, languages can also distinguish words by their length e.g. English distinguishes pitch (short vowel /ɪ/) from peach (long vowel /i:/), whilst Maltese has bott ‘tin’ (short vowel /ɔ/) which is distinct from bogħod (long vowel /ɔ:/). You will notice that the diacritic used to indicate length is /:/.The terms lax vs tense are often used to distinguish short from long vowels. As for consonants, it is possible to have composite vowels or diphthongs. These vowels constitute a unit whose quality changes at some point e.g. English /aɪ/ in fine or Maltese /aɪ/ in rajt ‘I saw’, as compared to the monophthongs /ɪ/ in English fin or /ɐ/ in Maltese rat ‘she saw’.