PHL 1B Ethics (1) PDF - Tarlac State University

1 2 This module is exclusively made and designed, in good faith, for the STUDENTS OF TARLAC STATE UNIVERSITY ONLY to address the flexible learning scheme for A.Y. 2020-2021 as implemented by the Commission on Higher Education brought by the COVID -19 pandemic. Furthermore, this is particularly int...

1 2 This module is exclusively made and designed, in good faith, for the STUDENTS OF TARLAC STATE UNIVERSITY ONLY to address the flexible learning scheme for A.Y. 2020-2021 as implemented by the Commission on Higher Education brought by the COVID -19 pandemic. Furthermore, this is particularly intended and strictly limited for EDUCATIONAL and NON- COMMERCIAL purposes only. Many parts of the module were lifted or adapted from different sources; for this, the designer claims no ownership. All credits and rights remain and are reserved to the authors and owners. No reproduction of any part of this module may be used, sold or distributed for commercial purposes or be changed or edited for other business, work or publication, whether in print or electronic copies. 3 FACULTY MEMBERS IN CHARGE DR. ALOYSIUS T. MADRIAGA Professor V [email protected] DR. ALOYSIUS TRINIDAD A MADRIAGA is a graduate of AB Philosophy at St. Louis University, Baguio City. He also finished his Master of Public Administration (MPA) and Doctor of Education major in Educational Management (Ed. D) at Tarlac State University (TSU). He is also a License Professional Teacher. His teaching of philosophy, specifically Logic, Ethics, Social Philosophy, and Philosophy of Man for the last for the last 30 years obtained for him much experience in the field of philosophy. present, he is the dean of the AtArts and Social Science at TSU and College of at the same time still teach philosophy subjects for the general education curriculum of the university. He is also a volunteer professor at the Our lady of Peace College Seminary where I teach Logic, Aesthetics and Social Sciences subjects. As a researcher, he has published articles land researches locally and internationally. You can reach him at 0919—086-7905 for any concerns. PROF. GHEROLD C. BENITEZ Associate Professor V Gherold Cortes Benitez is a graduate of Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy with academic distinction at Colegio De San Juan de Letran, Manila; he completed his academic requirements for Masters in Philosophy at the University of Santo Tomas, Manila; he finished his Master in Public Administration at Tarlac State University, Tarlac City; and he earned his Legum Baccalaureus (Bachelors of Law) in the same university. Sir GB taught Philosophy and Humanities at the Our Lady of Peace College Seminary, Tarlac City. He is, at present, an attached faculty member of the Department of General Education, College of Arts and Social Tarlac State University, while serving as Head of Office of the Student Sciences, Development Service Unit and concurrently the Head of Student Discipline Unit. He has been teaching Philosophy for 20 years now. He was once the 4 National President of the Confederation of Faculty Associations of State Universities and Colleges in the Philippines from FY 2014 – FY 2017. PROF. RODEL P. MACASAQUIT Asst. Professor, ELS Department [email protected] Mobile:09215478805 Sir Rodel P. Macasaquit is a graduate of the degree, AB Philosophy, minor in English from Our Lady of Peace College Seminary and MAEd- English at the Angeles University Foundation, Angeles City, Philippines. Currently, he’s taking up his PhD- Curriculum and Instruction from the same university. He is an Assistant Professor and also the CASS College’ Student Discipline Coordinator and the Adviser of the College of Arts and Social Sciences Student Council. PROF. LOUIS ADONIS G. SILVESTRE Asst. Prof. 2 –General Education Department LOUIS ADONIS G. SILVESTRE,LPT, MDM- PM is an pro-active faculty member of the College of Arts and Social Sciences with a Bachelor of Arts major in Philosophy degree. For his professional growth, he undertook Masters in Development Management major in Public Management and Masters in Education major in Communication Arts at Pangasinan State University. In addition, he is on his way to becoming Doctor of Philosophy major in Development Education. He is a board passer in the Licensure Examination for Professional Teacher, has been engaged to in-campus and off-campus speaking engagements and is active to Community Development Programs of the University. Currently, he is the Director of the National Service Training Program of Tarlac State University. 5 PHL 1b: ETHICS Course Introduction and Expectation Setting Hello, my student! Welcome to your course in Ethics. PLEASE MAKE SURE TO READ ALL OF THE CONTENTS OF THIS MODULE FIRST IN ORDER TO HAVE THE WHOLE PERSPECTIVE OF HOW THIS COURSE WILL GO THROUGH. This course provides an overview of Ethics as a general education course. Through this class, you will be able to learn and hopefully practice the principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the person, society and in interaction with the environment and others hared resources.Given our transition to the new normal set-up in learning, please take note that YOU NEED TO FOCUS ON STUDYING INDEPENDENTLY AND YOUR LEARNING IS YOUR OWN RESPONSIBILITY. Rest assured that I, as your Instructor, will provide as much assistance and considerations as probable, through the course of this semester. Course Description This course discusses the context and principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the person, society and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources. This course also teaches the students to make moral decisions by using dominant moral frameworks and by applying a seven-step moral PHL 1b ethics reasoning model to analyze and solve moral dilemmas. This course is organized according to the three (3) main elements of moral experience: a) agent including context- cultural, communal and environment; b) the act and c) the reason or framework (for the act). Course Outline This course is structured to comprise learning blocks which we refer to as chapters. There are five (5) chapters and eleven (11) modules designed. For your better understanding of the chapters and modules, you can refer to this overview: Chapter I: Introduction : Key Concepts in Ethics Module 1: Ethics, and Its Key Concepts Chapter II: The Moral Agent Module 2: Culture in Moral Behavior and Developing Virtue as a Habit 6 Chapter III: The Act Module 3: The Human Act and Act of Man Module 4: The Act as Knowingly Done Module 5: The Act as Wilfully Done Module 6: The Act as Freely Done Module 7: The Determinants of Morality Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles behind Our Moral Disposition Module 8 : Basic Theories as Frameworks in Ethics Normative Ethics (Kantian Ethics and Utilitarianism) Module 9: Virtue Ethics and Justice as Fairness Module 10: Applied Ethics Chapter V. Ethics through Thick and Thin, And Ethic and Religion Module 11: New Challenges to Ethics and the Role of Religion in Ethics As this semester has duration of eighteen (18) weeks, PLEASE REFER TO THE OBTL SYLLABUS for the schedule of module topics and instructions on requirements. Any adjustments on the schedule or changes regarding the requirements will be communicated to you accordingly. The requirements that you have to comply in order to evaluate your completion of this course are the following: Student Performance Evaluation Lecture Assignment/Output 25% (Oral presentation, Reflective Writing, Online Quiz, Reflective Essay etc.) Quiz 25% Attendance/Online Class Participation 10% (Students response to teacher-posted comprehension questions. Students reflection on class required readings.) Term Exam 40% Credit Grade = (Midterm Grade + Final Term Grade)/2 Guidelines on Requirements For the Online Discussion Forum, please adhere to the following guidelines: Address in an informed and well considered manner the given discussion topic or question. The discussion topic or question will be found in the “Learning Activities” section of each module. Write clearly, following the conventions of written English or Filipino. Use the language you are most comfortable with. Do not use abbreviations and acronyms unless these are introduced in the readings, and do not write in text speak. Do not post lengthy contributions, do not beat around the bush. Your post should be short yet concise. When you agree or disagree on something, please explain clearly why. 7  Respond to one or two posts by other co-learners in a courteous and constructive way. Be polite or civil when arguing a point. Do not be rude and do not make remarks that may be construed as a personal attack. Refer to ideas/statements, not the person. Avoid jokes or humorous statements in text that may be misunderstood by your classmates, and ask only questions that sincerely interest you. For all the Assignments/Outputs, please use the following format: Use 8.5 x 11 inches paper, 1-inch margins maximum. Choose Font Type Times New Roman, Calibri or Arial, size 11, 1.5 line spacing. Use APA Format for references and citations. Choose Black ink only. As TSU students, you should know that the university upholds the value of integrity therefore, your commitment to academic integrity is fundamental in completing this course. Cheating in any form will not tolerated by the university and offenders will be dealt with accordingly. YOU NEED TO COMPLY TO THIS HONOR CODE AS THE UNIVERSITY’S STANDARDS OF ACADEMIC INTEGRITY. You commit that your outputs to requirements and answers to exams must be your own work (except for those which required collaboration as instructed and permitted by your Instructor.) You commit that you will not share any solutions or answers to requirements and exams with anyone. You commit that you will not engage in any other activities that will dishonestly improve your results or dishonestly improve or damage the results of others. You commit that your work will not be in any form of plagiarism – copying words, ideas, or any other materials from another source without giving credit. Reference: Coursera Honor Code (n. d.). Retrieved from https://learner.coursera.help/hc/en-us/articles/209818863-Coursera-Honor- Code Your work shall be rated at the end of each term in accordance with the Grading System documented in the Tarlac State University Student Manual. 1.0 – Excellent 1.25-1.5 – Very Good 1.75-2.0 – Good 2.25-2.5 – Satisfactory 3.75-3.0 – Passing 4.0 – Conditional Failure 5.0 – Failing INC. – Incomplete Class Management This course will be delivered using two modalities: (1) Online Class and (2) Self-learning Modules. You are assigned to either one of these modalities 8 based on the available and accessible resources that you have. Kindly take note of the following reminders in the management of these class modalities. 1. Online Class Microsoft Teams will be used as the primary platform thus, you are advised to download and install the aforementioned application. Go to office.com and login using your @student.tsu.edu.ph account. Choose Teams from the list of applications, from there your enrolled subjects will appear. Scheduled class discussions through video conferencing, will be hosted and posted here. FaceBook Messenger Group Chat will also be used as the supplementary platform for communication. Ask your class representative to add you in the Group Chat. Textbooks that you will be using as main references for this course are uploaded in Microsoft Teams. PLEASE DO NOT UPLOAD OR SHARE THESE REFERENCES TO ANY OTHER PLATFORMS. If you want to purchase the hard copy of these textbooks, kindly coordinate with your class representative. 2. Self-learning Modules TSU in partnership with your Local Government Unit (LGU) placed a Distribution and Retrieval System of modules, references and other documents hence, you are encouraged to check on this set- up with your Barangay/LGU officials. Text messages will also be accommodated as the supplementary platform for communication. Check on my contact information below for reference. Textbooks that you will be using as main references for this course are coordinated by your class representative and will be distributed by your LGU. PLEASE COMMUNICATE TO THEM ACCORDINGLY. INSTRUCTIONS ON HOW TO USE THE SELF-LEARNING MODULE The Self-learning Module is crafted for you, given your limited resources and access to participate in the online class. This is designed as a remote, self- study guide in going through the topics covered by this course. The Self-learning Module is divided into seven (7) sections namely: I. Introduction II. Learning Objectives III. Contents IV. Synthesis/Generalization V. Evaluation VI. Assignment VII. References The Introduction section provides the theme, and coverage of topics which will be discussed in the module. A Pre-Test is also included here to gauge your initial familiarity with the topics which will be tested again after completing the module. 9 The Learning Objectives section states the target knowledge, skill and ability that you may acquire after completing the module. This support the desired learning outcomes cited in the OBTL syllabus. The Contents section contains (1) Preparatory Activity which serves as a warm-up for the discussion of theories and concepts; (2) Developmental Activity which contains narrative texts, tables and figures. The majority of the discussion of theories and concepts covered in the module is located in this section and (3) Closure Activity which summarizes what was learned and checks for your understanding. The Synthesis/Generalization section gives the key concepts discussed in the module. The Evaluation section comprises (1) Post-Test as a gauge of familiarity after topics were now discussed and (2) Study Questions to further assess or reflect on what your learnings are. The Assignment section includes the learning activity/ies intended to assess your learning of the module contents. These learning activities correspond to the required Assignment/Output which will contribute to 25% of your computed grades. The References section lists all the books and other resource materials used in the module. Read the discussion thoroughly and try to understand them. If you have queries or problems with the lessons, find time to communicate with your professor. Answer the activities presented and please be honest in doing them, it means do them alone and do not cheat. The Self-Learning Module also uses icons in order for you to visually navigate through its content better. Please take note that if a section of the module has an icon, it means that YOU ARE REQUIRED TO DO THE INSTRUCTIONS AS GIVEN in order to ensure optimal learning. This icon means that you are presented with a new Unit or Module. This icon refers to the introduction that discusses the theme and coverage of topics which will be discussed in the module. This icon stands for the learning objects that states target knowledge, skill and ability that you may acquire after completing the module. This icon stands for the Pre-Test to gauge your initial familiarity with the topics covered in the Module. This icon corresponds to the Preparatory Activity which serves as a warm-up for the discussion of theories and concepts. This icon refers to the Developmental Activities which contain narrative 10  texts, tables and figures or the majority of the discussion in the Module. This icon stands for the Closure Activity which summarizes what was learned and checks for your understanding. You will input this in your Learning Log. This icon corresponds to the Post-Test/evaluation as a gauge of familiarity after topics were now discussed. This icon corresponds to the assignment/leaning activity/ies intended to assess your learning of the module contents. This icon refers to the generalization which is the simplification of the content; hence, it contains key ideas for you to remember the content. This icon represents the references that consist of books, online open access sites, and other resources in PDF that were used in preparing the module. You may also use them for further reading if you can access them. 11 Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION: KEY CONCEPTS IN ETHICS Module 1: Ethics, and Its Key Concepts Introduction This module is concerned with developing your understanding of Ethics as one of the key areas under the division of practical philosophy. The discussion, description and explanation in this module hope to equip you students with ideas on the importance of ethics and the key concepts related to the moral experience. Make use of this module to provide you with insights and ideas to help you understand difficult and pressing experiences that need proper discernment. Test Yourself (place your answer on p. 84) Instruction: Identify whether the following is a moral (M)or non-moral (MS)standards 1. Thou shall not kill 4. Honor your father and 2. No trespassing your mother 3. Do not talk when your 5. No over speeding mouth is full. Learning Objectives With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to: 1. Illustrate knowledge of what ethics is and its importance 2. Recall rules you have to follow and why you need to follow them 3. Differentiate moral from non-moral standards 4. Recall a moral experience and detect the moral dilemma present in it. 5. Define why only human beings are moral Content Preparatory Activity Exercise (place your answer on p. 84) List down a rule (one each) you find in your home, and in your school 12 and assess why you need to follow them. a. Home b. School Developmental Activities A. Ethics: Its Definition And Importance Have you experience a situation where it requires that you have to choose on what to do and part of it is to decide which of the choices is right or wrong? Can you recall an experience where you really felt bad and sad because you hurt somebody because of your wrong action? Did you ever wonder why people need to be good and avoid what is evil? Did it ever come to your mind why we need to be pleasing in our action? There are many people who ask why study ethics? Why be moral? Webster’s dictionary has a number of definitions for moral including: - of or relating to principles of right and wrong in behavior - conforming to a standard of right behavior. This is an important question for a course on ethics - is being moral important to you, why (or why not)? Most people think doing well in life is associated with being “good”. (philonotes.com) For example: do you think a person who gains money dishonestly is a success? Is a politician who beats his wife and children a success? Is Mother Theresa a success - she had very few of the things society commonly associates with doing well. Most people like fairness, justice, truthfulness, compassion in society. Ethics help give direction to societies and people who think they cannot flourish without some form of morality. Morality is said to be breaking down in society today - juvenile crime, drug abuse, alcoholism, teenage pregnancies, crime rates - all seem to indicate that the moral fabric of society is breaking down. Moral questions are at the heart of life’s vital issues - including those affected by the actions above. “Morality is primarily concerned with the questions of right and wrong, the ability to distinguish between the two, and the justification of the distinction. (phlionotes.com) Montemayor (1994) mentions in his introduction on his book Ethics: The Philosophy of Life that Ethics is the philosophy of life and that it delves into the deepest whys and wherefore of human existence, men’s actions, problems and destiny. He further mentions that to live well and happy, we must know what we are living for. He says this is taught by Ethics that investigates the meaning and purpose of human life. He mentions that according to Socrates the unexamined life is not worth living for man. Montemayor (1994) also states that Plato one of the greatest philosophers of all times proclaimed Ethics as the supreme science, the highest in the hierarchy of human values, as it is Ethics that is concerned with the attainment of life’s greatest Good and Goal – Happiness. 13 Definitions of Ethics The book of Montemayor (1994) provides the following definitions of Ethics: 1. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human actions. 2. Ethics is the science of human acts with reference to right and wrong 3. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality. 4. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human conduct 5. Ethics is the human conduct from the standpoint of morality. 6. Ethics is the science which lays down the principles of right living 7. Ethics is the practical science that guides us in our actions that we may live rightly and well. 8. Ethics is normative and practical science, based on reason, which studies human conduct and provides norm for its natural integrity and honesty. 9. According to Socrates, ethics is the investigation of life. Looking into these definitions we can say that they are similar to each other. The definitions speak of the field of study of ethics as human conduct; and of the investigation of such human conduct in terms of its morality. The important terms that can be seen in them are: 1. Science-systematic study or a system of scientific conclusions clearly demonstrated, derived from clearly established principles and duly coordinated 2. Morality – the quality of human acts as right, wrong or indifferent, moral immoral or amoral. 3. Human acts –acts done with knowledge, freedom and free will or consent. Importance Of Ethics Montemayor (1994) proclaims that the importance of the study of ethics follows immediately from the importance of ethics itself. His idea is manifested in the following: 1. Ethics means right living and good moral character and it is in good moral character that man finds his true worth and perfection. All the great teachers of the ages maintain that the supreme purpose of human living lies not in the acquisition of material good or bodily pleasures, nor in the attainment of bodily perfections such as health and strength; nor even in the development of intellectual skills but in the development of the moral qualities which lift man far above brute creation. 2. Education is the harmonious development of the whole man-of all ma’s faculties: the moral, intellectual, and physical powers in man. Now then highest of man’s power are his reason and will. Hence, the primary objective of education is the moral 14  development of the will B. Rules And Its Importance To Social Beings (lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society) You find rules everywhere. But did you ever ask yourself why you need to follow them? Try to recall an experience where you followed a rule and assess what you did. Did you just follow it without asking yourself why you need to follow it? Did you have any doubt about following it? Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles governing conduct within a specific activity or sphere. Rules tell us what is or is not allowed in a particular context or situation. In many ways, rules serve as a foundation for any healthy society. Without rules, society would like fall into anarchy. Rules benefit social beings in various manners: 1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behaviour. Rules build boundaries that place limits on behaviour. Rules are usually coupled with means to impose consequences on those who violate them. One of the reasons people follow accepted rules is to avoid negative consequences. 2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain right and freedom. Rules form frameworks for society. Nations are generally nations of laws and the governing principles are outlined in what is called constitution. Because the majority has agreed to follow and consent to be governed by such a constitution, the freedoms outlined exist. 3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings. Rules are needed in order to keep the strong from dominating the weak that is to prevent exploitation and domination. Without rules, schemes in which those with the power control the system, would take over. In effect, rules generate a stable system that provides justice, in which even the richest and the most powerful have limitations on what they can do. If they transgress rules such as laws and ordinances and take advantage of people, there are consequences both socially and criminally. 4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system. Without rules regulating business, power would centralize around monopolies and threaten the strength and competitiveness of the system. Rules are needed to ensure product safety, employee’s safety and product quality. Copyright and patents help protect people’s intellectual property. Rules and regulations also keep the banking system stable so as to avoid depression and the like. In short, society could not soundly functions without rules and regulations. Rules are necessary to protect the greater good. Even the freest societies ought to have rules in order to avoid exploitations and tyranny while 15 upholding the common good. C. Moral Standards versus Non-moral Standards (lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society) Do you know the meaning of standards? Have you been in a situation where you were chosen because you met the standards or you were disregarded because you did not meet the standards? But are you aware that there are different kinds of standards and the kind is dependent on their implication or effect on people and situations? Why do you think there is the need to distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones? It is important to note that different societies have different moral beliefs and that our beliefs are deeply influenced by our own culture and context. For this reason, some values do have moral implications, while others don’t. Let us consider, for example, the wearing of hijab. For sure, in traditional Muslim communities, the wearing of hijab is the most appropriate act that women have to do in terms of dressing up. In fact, for some Muslims, showing parts of the woman’s body, such as the face and legs, is despicable. However, in many parts of the world, especially in Western societies, most people don’t mind if women barely cover their bodies. As a matter of fact, the Hollywood canon of beauty glorifies a sexy and slim body and the wearing of extremely daring dress. The point here is that people in the West may have pitied the Muslim women who wear hijab, while some Muslims may find women who dress up daringly despicable. Again, this clearly shows that different cultures have different moral standards. What is a matter of moral indifference, that is, a matter of taste (hence, non-moral value) in one culture may be a matter of moral significance in another. Now, the danger here is that one culture may impose its own cultural standard on others, which may result in a clash in cultural values and beliefs. When this happens, as we may already know, violence and crime may ensue, such as religious violence and ethnic cleansing. This is where the importance of understanding the difference between moral standards (that is, of what is a moral issue) and non-moral ones (that is, of what is a non-moral issue―thus, a matter of taste) comes in. This issue may be too obvious and insignificant for some people, but understanding the difference between the two may have far-reaching implications. For one, once we have distinguished moral standards from non-moral ones, of course, through the aid of the principles and theories in ethics, we will be able to identify fundamental ethical values that may guide our actions. Indeed, once we know that particular values and beliefs are non-moral, we will be able to avoid running the risk of falling into the pit of cultural reductionism (that is, taking complex cultural issues as simple and homogenous ones) and the unnecessary imposition of one’s own cultural standard on others. The point here is that if such standards are non-moral (that is, a matter of taste), then we don’t have the right to impose them on others. But if such standards are moral ones, such as not killing or harming people, then we may have the right to force others to act accordingly. In this way, we may be able to find a common moral ground, such as agreeing not to steal, lie, cheat, kill, harm, and deceive 16 our fellow human beings. Now, what are moral standards, and how do they differ from non-moral ones? Moral Standards and their Characteristics Moral standards are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed to be morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on what we believed to be morally good or morally bad. Moral standards normally promote “the good”, that is, the welfare and well-being of humans as well as animals and the environment. Moral standards, therefore, prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights and obligations. According to some scholars, moral standards are the sum of combined norms and values. In other words, norms plus values equal moral standards. On the one hand, norms are understood as general rules about our actions or behaviors. For example, we may say “We are always under the obligation to fulfil our promises” or “It is always believed that killing innocent people is absolutely wrong”. On the other hand, values are understood as enduring beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not. For example, we may say “Helping the poor is good” or “Cheating during exams is bad”. According to many scholars, moral standards have the following characteristics, namely: 1) Moral standards deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit humans, animals, and the environment, such as child abuse, rape, and murder; 2) Moral standards are not established or changed by the decisions of authoritative individuals or bodies. Indeed, moral standards rest on the adequacy of the reasons that are taken to support and justify them. For sure, we don’t need a law to back up our moral conviction that killing innocent people is absolutely wrong; 3) Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take precedence over other standards and considerations, especially of self-interest; 4) Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. Hence, moral standards are fair and just; and 5) moral standards are associated with special emotions (such as guilt and shame) and vocabulary (such as right, wrong, good, and bad). Non-moral Standards Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way. Examples of non-moral standards are standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad, standards we call the law by which we judge something as legal or illegal, and standards of aesthetics by which we judge art as good or rubbish. Hence, we should not confuse morality with etiquette, law, and aesthetics or even with religion. As we can see, non-moral standards are matters of taste or 17 preference. Hence, a scrupulous observance of these types of standards does not make one a moral person. Violation of said standards also does not pose any threat to human well-being. Finally, as a way of distinguishing moral standards from non-moral ones, if a moral standard says “Do not harm innocent people” or “Don’t steal”, a non-moral standard says “Don’t text while driving” or “Don’t talk while the mouth is full”. D. Dilemma and Moral Dilemma (lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society) Do you have any idea of what a dilemma is? Have you ever encountered a situation where you need to choose between two alternatives, yet choosing any could lead to a negative consequence on what you did not choose? What did you do? How did you feel? The term dilemma refers to a situation in which a tough decision has to be made between two or more options, especially more or less equally undesirable ones. Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas. Also called ‘ethical dilemmas’, moral dilemmas are situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two courses of action, either of which entails transgressing a moral principle. At the very least, a moral dilemma involves conflicts between moral requirements. What is common to moral dilemmas is conflict. In each ethical dilemma, an agent regards himself as having moral reasons to do each of two actions, but doing both actions seems to be ethically not possible. The key features of a moral dilemma are these: a.) the agent is required to do each of two (or more) actions; b.) the agent can do each of the actions; but the agent cannot do both (or all ) of the actions. In a moral dilemma, the agent thus seems condemned to moral failure no matter what he does, he will do something wrong, or fail to do something that he ought to do. Some ethicists propose that when one of the conflicting moral requirements overrides the other, the case is not a ‘genuine moral dilemma’. Thus in addition to the features mentioned above, in order to have a genuine moral dilemma, some add that it must also the case that c) neither of the conflicting moral requirements is overridden. Three Levels of Moral Dilemma Moral Dilemmas can be categorized according to these levels: 1. Personal Dilemmas. Personal Dilemmas are those experienced and resolved on the personal level. Since many ethical decisions are personally made, many if not most of moral dilemmas fall under, or boil down to this level. If a person makes conflicting promises, he faces a moral conflict. When an individual has to choose between the life of a child who is about to be delivered and the child’s mother, he faces an ethical dilemma. 18  2. Organizational Dilemma. Organizational moral dilemmas refer to ethical cases encountered and resolves by social organization. This category includes moral dilemmas in business, medical fields and public sector. A medical institution which believes that human life should not be deliberately shortened and that unpreventable pain should not be tolerated encountered a conflict in resolving whether to withdraw life support from a dying patient. This is common moral dilemma faced by healthcare organizations. Administrative bodies in business are confronted with situations in which several courses of action are possible but none of them provide a totally successful outcome to those affected by the decision or actions taken. Moral dilemmas in business involve issues about corporate practices, policies, business behaviors, and the conducts and relationships of individuals in the organizations. In a public sector, government leaders and employees have a moral duty to act in a manner that is fair and unbiased, that is loyal to the public by putting public interest, accountability and transparency. In fulfilling these responsibilities, public officials may encounter foreseeable moral dilemmas. These dilemmas include whether or not to favour family, friends, or campaign contributors over other constituents; favoring the agenda of one’s political party over a policy one believes to be good for the community; dealing with conflicting public duties inherent in serving both as a council member and as a member of an agency or commission; resigning from organizations in which membership may give rise to future conflicts; becoming a whistle blower even if it means potentially derailing a policy objective one is pursuing; and accepting gifts if it is legally permitted but creates the appearance of impropriety. 3. Structural Dilemmas. Structural moral dilemmas refer to cases involving network of institutions and operative theoretical paradigms. As they usually encompass multi-sectoral institutions and organizations, they may be larger in scope and extent than organizational dilemmas. Case in point is the prices of medicine in the Philippines which are higher compared to other countries in Asia and in countries of similar economic status. Factors affecting medicine prices include cost of research, presence of competition in the market, government regulations, and patent protection. Institutions concerned may want to lower the costs of medicine, thereby benefiting the Filipino public, but such a move may ruin the interests of the involved researchers, inventors or discoverers, and pharmaceutical companies which own the patent of the medicines or healthcare technologies. E. Only human beings can be Ethical (lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society) 19  Oftentimes we experience something that test our being and often also we wonder whether we deserve to be the highest form of animal. If we commit something, we often hear “animal ka”. But we are as Aristotle say “rational animasl”. We are animals minus the rationality. Another basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only human beings can truly be ethical. Most philosophies hold that unlike animals, human beings possess some traits that make it possible for them to be moral. Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious. The qualities of rationality, autonomy, and self-consciousness are believed to confer a full and equal moral status to those that possess them as these beings are the only ones capable of achieving certain moral values. Closure Activities (place your answer on p. 84) 1. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module. 2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right now on finishing this module. 3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in developing your moral behaviour. Synthesis/Generalization 1. As ethics is defined as the science of the morality of human act, it provides as with set of rules or principles needed so we can be guided in our actions in society. 2. Rules are important to social beings as they protect the greater good avoiding exploitations and tyranny in society. Society could function soundly without rules and regulations. 3. Not all rules are moral rules and not all standards are moral standards as moral standards are equated by some ethicists to moral values and moral principles. 4. Moral Dilemmas are situations in which a difficult choice has to be made between two courses of actions, either which entails transgressing a moral principles. They involve conflicts between moral requirements and they can happen in the personal, organizational or structural level. 5. Only human beings can be ethical as only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious, can act morally and immorally, and are part of the moral community. Evaluation 20  Knowledge Check (place your answer on page 85) A. Answer the following meaningfully: According to Socrates, “The unexamined life is not worth living for man”. Explain this in connection with the definition by Socrates that ethics is the investigation of life. B. Instruction: Identify whether the following is a moral (M)or non-moral (MS)standards 1. Thou shall not kill 4. Honor your father 2. No trespassing and your mother 3. Do not talk when your 5. No over speeding mouth is full. Assignment (place your answers on pp. 86-87) 1. Ask somebody to relay a difficult experience where he/she has to choice between two pressing outcome or result. Make a reflection essay about his/her story. 2. Write an essay on your thoughts about Ethics and its importance to Today’s Society. References: Agapay, R. B.(1995, 2008) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students and Educators, 2ns ed. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc. Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great Books Trading, Inc. Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1 st ed. Manila, Philippines, Rex Book Store. Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc. De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc. Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound Professional and Civil Life. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. ` Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill Trading Co. Inc. 21 Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint) Manila: National Bookstore. ____________. (1994) Contemporary Social Philosophy. Manila: Goodwill Trading Co. Inc. Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines: National Book Store ____________.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of Man. 2nd ed. Manila: National Book Store, Inc. Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook Series Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/ethics/ 22 Chapter 2: THE AGENT Module 2: Culture in Moral Behavior and Developing Virtue as a Habit Introduction This module is concerned with developing your understanding of Ethics on the aspect of the moral agent. The discussion, description and explanation in this module hope to equip you students with ideas on the role of culture in developing your moral character. As man belongs to home and communities, social relationships are build that create ways of life. In one way or the other, people living together influence each towards creating beliefs, practices and character which to them are necessary for their lives together. Make e of this module r to provide you with insights and ideas to help you understand the role of culture in moral behavior and in developing virtue as a habit. Test Yourself (place your answer on p. 88) Instruction: Identify whether the following is a is an expression of (GC)good character or bad character (BC). 1. Helping somebody to steal 4. Writing libelous articles 2. Telling bad stories 3. Giving good remarks for an 5. Fighting for what is right enemy Learning Objectives With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to: 1. Articulate what culture means and attribute facets of your personal behavior to culture 2. Recognize and appreciate the differences of moral behavior in different culture. 3. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism 4. Analyze crucial qualities of the Filipino moral identity in your moral experiences 5. Identify universal values and explain why universal values are necessary for human survival 6. Recall defining moments in your moral formation and the relationship between individual act and moral character you find in your moral formation 23  Content Preparatory Activity Exercise (place your answer on p. 88) 1. List down a practice in your home you find worth having and emulating and explain why? 2. List down an attitude in school which you find bad and wrong and why explain why? Developmental Activities (most discussions here are lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society) Culture in Moral Behavior To understand the role of culture in moral behavior, it is important to first of all have an understanding of what culture is and its necessary relationships with man. It is commonly said that culture is all around us. Practically, culture appears to be an actual part of our social life as well as our personality. The term culture is so complex that it not easy to define. In one sense, culture is used to denote that which is related to the arts and humanities. But in broader sense, culture denotes the practices, beliefs, and perceptions of a given society. The following are other definitions of the term culture: 1. Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religions, notion of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. 2. Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behaviour acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artefacts, the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values, culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action on the other hand as conditioning influence upon further action. 3. Culture is the sum total of the learned behaviour of a group of people that are generally considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from generation to generation 4. Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behaviour; that is the totality of a person’s learned, accumulated experience which is socially transmitted, or more briefly, behaviour through social learning. 5. Culture is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include a group’s skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and deliberately perpetuated in a society through its institutions. 24  Defined broadly therefore, culture includes all the things individuals learn while growing up among particular group: attitudes, standards of morality, rules of etiquette, perceptions of reality, language, notions about the proper way to live, beliefs about how females and males should interact, ideas about how the world works and so forth. We call this cultural knowledge. Culture’s Role in Moral Behavior Based on the definitions of culture above, it is not hard to pinpoint the role of culture in one’s moral behavior. A culture is a ‘way of life’ of a group of people, and this so called way of life actually includes moral values and behaviors, along with knowledge, beliefs, symbols that they accept, ‘generally without thinking about them, and that they are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next. Culture is learned as children grow up in society and discover how their parents and others around them interpret the world. In our society, we learn to evaluate what is (morally) good and bad and to judge when an unusual action is appropriate or inappropriate (Manebog & Pena, 2016). Many aspects of morality are taught. People learn moral and aspects of right or wrong from transmitters of culture: respective parents, teachers, novels, films, and television. Observing or watching them, pole develop a set of what is right and wrong and what is acceptable and what is not. Even experientially, it is improbable, if not impossible, to live in a society without being affected by its culture. It follows too that it is hard to grow up in a particular culture without being impacted by how it views morality or what is ethically right or wrong. Social learning is the process by which individuals acquire knowledge from others to which they belong as a normal part of childhood. The process by which infants and children socially learn the culture including morality, of those around them is called enculturation or socialization. Moral Standards as Social Convention and the Social Conditioning Theory Among the popular notions which attempt to give account for basic concepts in Ethics, such as the existence of moral rules, the senses of moral obligation, and the moral accountability, are the so called social conventions and social conditioning theories. These views are upshot of the fact that we can learn from morality culturally or through socialization. Theories Explained. The things we regard as moral laws (moral standards or rules) some purport are nothing but just social conventions. By convention, they mean those things agreed upon by people like through their authorities. Convention also refer to the usual or customary ways through which things are done within a group. Since it is observed that morality is something that is handed down to us primarily by education or socialization, either through parents and elders or though teachers, some believe that moral standards are merely a human invention., like those other inventions we learn from school or home. Essentially, to theorize that moral law is a social convention is to say that it is something which human beings had just made up for themselves and might have been different had they liked. 25  However, just because something is learned at home or school does not necessarily mean that it is a social convention. Mathematical operations, geographical facts and scientific laws are also taught in those institutions, yet they are never considered as mere human fabrications. Meaning, whether or not people know and like them, they are as they are. The philosopher C.S. Lewis offers two reasons for saying that morality belongs to the same class as mathematics: 1. Although there differences between the moral ideas of one time or another country and those of another, the difference are not really very great. 2. We affirm that the morality of one people is better or worse than that of another which means that there is a moral standard or rule by which we measure both moralities and that standard is real. Culture Relativism in Ethics Cultural Relativism is the most famous and dominant form of moral relativism. Moral Relativism fundamentally believes that no act is good or bad objectively. It also submits that different moral principles apply to different persons or group of individuals. Cultural Relativism defines ‘moral’ as what is ‘socially approved’ by the majority in a particular culture. It maintains that an act is ethical in a culture that approves of it, but immoral in one that disapproves of it. Cultural relativists claim the following: 1. Different societies have different moral codes. 2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong within that society. 3. There are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times. 4. The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is but one among many. 5. It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We should always be tolerant of them It is concluded that morality differs in every society as concepts of right and wrong vary from culture to culture. Cultural relativism: an analysis 1. Valuable lessons from ethical relativism In proposing that there’s no independent standard in Ethics, moral relativism does encourage tolerance. Without a doubt, tolerance is necessary for people of different cultural origins to co-exist and live peacefully in a society. The theory also teaches us to be open minded, thereby being more open to discovering truth. Cultural relativism warns against being judgmental as it reminds us that some of our beliefs and practices are mere conventional, and thus not absolutely and exclusively correct. 26  2. The theory’s ethical faults Cultural relativism discourages analytical thinking and independent decision-making in Ethics as it requires unsuspecting compliance and subscription to social norms. The theory teaches that to be ethical, folkways and cultural norms should be followed uncritically. Cultural Relativism is inconsistent in promoting tolerance while teaching that no culture is morally superior or more progressive than others. The theory is practicable only if people do not belong to more than one institution. Moral relativism is fundamentality self-defeating. 3. Rachels’ evaluation of cultural relativism Philosophy professor James Rachels (1941-2003) made a compelling assessment of Cultural Relativism. The Cultural Differences Argument Rachels explained that cultural relativists’ approach is to argue from facts about the differences between cultural outlooks to a conclusion about the status of morality. Thus we are invited to accept reasoning like these: The Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the dead, whereas the Callatians (an Indian Tribe) believed it was right to eat the dead. Therefore eating dead is neither objectively wrong. It is merely a matter of opinion, which varies from culture to culture. The Eskimos see nothing wrong with infanticide, whereas we believe infanticide is immoral. Therefore, infanticide is neither objectively right nor objectively wrong. It is merely a matter of opinion, which varies from culture to culture. Different cultures have different moral codes. Therefore, there is no objective “truth” in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture. Rachels call these cultural differences argument. It is nonetheless unsound because its conclusion does not follow from its premise. Against cultural differences argument, this counter-argument could be submitted: People in some societies (e.g. Primitive Tribes) believe that the Earth is flat, whereas Europeans hold that truth that the Earth is spherical. This argument is obviously unsound because some societies might simply be wrong in their beliefs Cultural Relativism goes wrong in drawing a conclusion about an issue from the mere fact that people disagree about it. The Disagreements among Cultures There are many factors, Rachel further explains, which work together to 27 produce the customs of a society. Since the difference in customs may be because of some other aspects of social life, then it’s wrong to conclude that there is a disagreement about values and morality just because customs differ. Therefore there may be less ethical disagreements that there appears to be (1997, p. 27). The Case of Eskimos and Callatians In sociology and Anthropology, the Eskimos are popular for killing normal infants, especially girls. This makes them appear to possess significantly different values from ours. It is not that Eskimos have less affection for their children or less respect for human life. An Eskimo will always protect its babies if conditions permit. But they live in a harsh environment where food is in short supply that “life is hard, and the margin of safety is small” (1999, p. 28). In Eskimo’s very special case, Infanticide is thus a recognition that drastic measures are sometimes needed to ensure the family’s survival. The Bad Consequences of Cultural relativism If we took cultural relativism seriously, we would be necessitated to deal with the following corollaries enumerated by Rachels (1999, pp.25-27) 1. We could no longer say that the customs of other societies are morally inferior to our own 2. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just by consulting standards of our society. 3. The idea of moral progress is called to doubt. ASIAN AND FILIPINO UNDERSTANDING OF MORAL BEHAVIOUR Because culture has an impact on morality, people from different cultures appear to have seemingly, but not essentially different sets of ethics. This is particularly apparent in ethics of groups of people from the Eastern or Asian Culture as compared to those from Western culture The Difference Between Western and Eastern Ethics Western Ethics Eastern Ethics Focus Finding the Truth Protocol and Respect Basis Rational Thought Religious Teachings Emphasis Logic, Cause, and Effect Respect Towards Family Roots in Athens, Rome and Judeo Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity Confucianism and Taoism Approach Rational Holistic and Cultural Conflict and Good must triumph over Evil Good and Bad, Light Harmony and Dark all exist in equilibrium Filipino Moral Character: Strength and Weakness 28  Filipino cultural morality, especially that which concerns social ethics, centers on ideally having a ‘smooth interpersonal relationship’ (SIR) with others. The definition of SIR in Philippine culture is principally supported by and anchored on at least six basic Filipino values. Six Basic Filipino Values 1. Pakikisama is having and maintaining good public relation. 2. Hiya is described as a feeling of lowliness, shame or embarrassment, and inhibition of shyness which is experienced as somewhat distressing. 3. Amor propio has been characterized as the high degree of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to criticism and causes him to have an easily wounded pride. 4. Utang na loob is likewise a fundamental aspects of upholding group harmony and relationships that demand the balancing of obligation and depts. 5. Filipino hospitality refers to the innate ability and trait of Filipinos to be courteous and entertaining to their guest. 6. Respects for Elders. Filipinos are not only respectful to elders, but also have unique ways of expressing this respect. These Filipino social values are important to maintain harmony in Filipino relationships in social institutions such as family, school and community. Universal Values By Universal values, we mean those values generally shared by cultures. The existence of the so-called universal values is a strong proof that cultural relativism is wrong. If certain values exist both in Western and Eastern cultures (including Filipino culture) despite the distance, then cultural relativism’s claim that culture’s moralities radically differ from each other is mistaken. Going back to the contention that Eskimos are also protective of their children, Rachel submits the following sound argument (1999, p.29) Human infants are helpless and cannot survive if they are not given extensive care for a period of years. Therefore, if a group did not care for its young, the young would not survive and the older members of the group would not be replaced. After a while, the group would die out. Therefore, any cultural group that continues to exist must care for its young infants that are not cared for must be the exceptions rather than the rule. The same argument could be used to reasonably show that other values must be generally shared by many cultures. Given value on 1) truth telling, for instance is indispensable in the existence of a society, for without it there would be no reason to pay attention to what anyone communicates with anyone. Rachels also mentions of the case of 2) valuing or respecting life which necessitates the prohibition of murder. In a society where no one thought there 29 was anything wrong with killing at will, everyone would have to be constantly on guard. A. Developing Virtue as A Habit 1. Moral Character and Virtues The term “character” is derived from the Greek word “charakter”, which was initially used as a mark impressed upon a coin. It means a distinct mark or qualities by which one thing was distinguished from others. At the beginning of Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics, the Greek philosopher Aristotle tells us that there are two distinct of human excellences: 1. Excellences of Thought 2. Excellences of Character Excellences of Character Excellences of character is often translated as ‘moral virtue(s)’ or ‘moral excellence(s)’. ‘Ethikos’ (ethical) is the adjective cognate with ‘ethos’ (character). So when we speak of ‘virtue’ or excellence of moral character, the highlight is on the blend of qualities that make a person the sort of ethically admirable individual that he/she is. Moral Character Moral character refers to the existence or lack of virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty. If one lacks virtue, he/she may have any moral vices, or he/she may be marked by a condition somewhere in between virtue and vice. Moral character means that you're a good person and a good citizen with a sound moral compass. Moreover, philosophers usually think that moral character traits, unlike other personality or psychological traits have an irreducibly evaluative dimension; that is, they involve a normative judgment. The agent is morally responsible for having the moral character trait itself or for the outcome of that trait. Hence, a certain moral character trait is a trait for which the agent is morally responsible. The Circular Relations of acts and character There are some ACTS THAT BUILD character and moral character itself. But not all acts helps to build moral character. A person’s actions determine his/her moral character, but moral character itself generates acts that help in developing either virtue or vice. Habitual practice of moral and intellectual excellences, or ‘virtues.’ For Aristotle, the function of human being consists in activities which manifest the best states of his rational aspects, that is , the virtues. To determine regularity and reliability, what individual acts are appropriate and reasonable in certain situations. It is not easy to define in rules which acts deserve moral praise and blame, and that, these matters require the judgment of the victorious person, that is , someone with good moral character Moral Characters as Dispositions The moral characters that constitute a person’s moral character are 30 characteristically understood as behavioral and affective dispositions. Generally speaking dispositions are particular kinds or characteristics that objects can possess. Among human beings, moral character traits-either virtue or vices are also considered as dispositions. Moral character traits are those dispositions of character for which it is suitable top hold agents morally responsible. A moral character which a person is deserving of a positive reactive attitude such as praise or gratitude is a virtue. On the other hand, a vice is amoral character trait for which the agent is deserving of a negative reactive attitude such as resentment or blame. Six Stages of Moral Development The American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg is best known for his theory of stages of moral development. In Heinz dilemma, Kohlberg found a pattern in how people justified whether or not they would steal the drug as people age. By analyzing the answers from various children, Kohlberg discovered that the reasons tend to change as the children got older. Kohlberg’s Theory consist of 3 levels and 6 stages of Moral Development Level Age Range Stage Level 1: Pre- Pre – school children, Stage 1: Obedience and Conventional Elementary, Some HS Punishment Orientation Morality students Stage2: Individualism and Exchange Level 2: Seen in a few older Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Conventional Elementary and many Relationships Morality high school students Level 2: Seen in a few older Stage 3: Good Conventional Elementary and many Morality high school students Interpersonal Relationships Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order Level 3: Rarely seen before Stage 5: Post - college (Stage 6 is Social Contract and Conventional extremely rare even in Individual rights Morality adults) Stage 6: Universal Principles Six Stages of Moral Development Level 1 – Pre-Conventional Morality Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation 31  Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange Level 2 – Conventional Morality Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order Level 3 – Post- Conventional Morality Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights Stage 6. Universal Principles Closure Activities (place your answer on p. 89) 1. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module. 2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right now on finishing this module. 3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in developing your moral behaviour. Synthesis/Generalization 1. As Culture includes all the things individuals learn while growing up among particular group: attitudes, standards of morality, rules of etiquette, perceptions of reality, language, notions about the proper way to live, beliefs about how females and males should interact, ideas about how the world works and so forth, it is without doubt that culture has role in the development of man’s moral behaviour. 2. Moral law is not a social convention; it is not something which human beings had just made up for themselves and might have been different had they liked. Whether or not people know and like them, they are as they are. 3. Cultural relativism has both positive lessons and bad consequences to provide. Let us make ourselves the judge of its worth. 4. Eastern, Western, and Filipino cultures provide different perspectives about ethics and morality. Nevertheless all of them contribute in making man become better equipped to face moral issues and problems. 5. Universal values are present in society. They help create peaceful and harmonious communities and societies. 6. The moral character that man projects are dependent on his acts. Good moral character elicits virtuous actions; bad moral character elicits vicious actions. Virtuous actions make a good character and vicious actions make a bad character 7. Kohlberg believes that man’s moral development has to undergo stages. 32 Evaluation Knowledge Check (place your answer on page 89) A. Instruction: Identify whether the following is an expression of (GC)good character or bad character (BC). 1. Helping somebody to steal 4. Writing libelous articles 2. Telling bad stories 3. Giving good remarks for an 5. Fighting for what is right enemy B. True or False. Write T if the statement is true and F if false. ______1. A certain moral character trait is a trait for which the agent is morally responsible. ______2. A moral character trait for which a person is deserving of a positive reactive attitude,, such as praise or gratitude is a vice. ______3. Moral character traits are those dispositions of character for which it is suitable to hold agents morally responsible. ______4. In the process of moral development, there is the circular relation between acts that build character and moral character itself. ______5. In stage 1 of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development, children are disposed to be egotistic or self-serving. Assignment (place your answers on pp.89-90) 1. Cite a person who has influenced your character and explain why? 2. Cite a cultural belief that you find in your community and make a reflection paper on its meaning, its influence on your behaviour and the behaviour of other people in your community and whether you endorse or not to other communities. References: Agapay, R. B.(1995, 2008) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students and Educators, 2ns ed. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc. Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great Books Trading, Inc. Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1st ed. Manila, Philippines, Rex Book Store. Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc. De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc. 33 Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound Professional and Civil Life. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. ` Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill Trading Co. Inc. Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint) Manila: National Bookstore. ____________. (1994) Contemporary Social Philosophy. Manila: Goodwill Trading Co. Inc. Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines: National Book Store ____________.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of Man. 2nd ed. Manila: National Book Store, Inc. Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook Series Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/ethics/ Chapter 2: THE AGENT 34  Module 3: The Human Act Introduction As Ethics is defined as the practical science of the morality of human actions, it is imperative to have a clear understanding of the act, the human actions. Human actions may either be moral, immoral or amoral depending on the circumstances that surround them. This module is dedicated for you to get acquainted with the act, the human act. It is hoped that the discussion, description and explanation in this module will further help in your journey to the understanding of ethics. Make use of this module to provide you with insights and ideas to help you understand the object of study in ethic, the human act. Test Yourself (place your answer on p. 91) Instruction: Identify whether the following is a Deliberate (D) or Instinctive (I) 1. Breathing 4. Writing 2. Reading 3. Dreaming 5. Cooking Learning Objectives With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to: 1. Describe the difference between human act and act of man. 2. Illustrate knowledge of the essential attributes of human act. 3. Differentiate elicited from commanded acts Content Preparatory Activity Exercise (place your answer on p. 91) 1. List down 5 actions that men consciously do. 2. List down 5 actions that men unconsciously do Developmental Activities Human Act versus Act of Man (Some discussions are lifted from Agapay”s book Ethics and the Filipino) 35  Ethics deals with the study of man and particularly with his actions. But not every act which proceeds from man is a human act, as used and understood in ethics. By human act acts in ethics, we mean: The free voluntary acts of man The acts with knowledge and consent Acts which are proper to man as man; because, of all animals, he alone has knowledge and freedom of will. Acts which, we are conscious are under our control and for which we are responsible. Human acts are those which man is master, which he has the power of doing or doing as he pleases. Acts therefore, in order to be truly human, must be done willfully, knowingly and freely. Without will or consent, knowledge and freedom, there can be no human act properly so called. Only human acts have moral significance. When one shoots and kills another by a revolver, the act is morally wrong, but the moral evil is not in the action of the revolver but in the act of the one who pulled the trigger that released the bullet. The biological or physiological functions or processes which occur in man’s body, such as the circulation of the blood, the growth of hair and nails, the opening and closing of the valves of the hear, breathing, etc., are not human acts and have no moral bearing or significance. They are instinctive and are not within the control of man. They are called acts of man. As such, they are not wilfully done, knowingly done and freely. Examples of acts under this category: acts of person asleep or under hypnosis, reflex actions where the will has no time to intervene and acts performed under serious physical violence such as hostage obliged to do an evil action. Human acts are either elicited or commanded acts. Elicited acts are those performed by the will and are not bodily externalized. Paul Glenn enumerated the following elicited acts: Wish is the tendency of the will towards something, whether this this be realizable or not. The object of wishing may include the impossible, or that which is remotely possible such as winning the sweepstakes. 36  Intention is the tendency of the will towards attainable but without necessarily committing oneself to attain it. Such is our intention to study the lesson, to attend a party, or to spend a vacation in Baguio Consent is the acceptance of the will of those needed to carry out the intention. Thus a woman is said to show consent when she consciously attract attention to herself. Election is the selection of the will of those means effective enough to carry out the intention. A salesman shows election when he opts to visit a client instead of just writing him a letter. Use is the command of the will to make use of those means elected to carry out the intention. It is this act of the will which moves the salesman to dress up and take a ride to see his client. Fruition is the enjoyment of the will derives from the attainment of the thing he had desired earlier. The joy of the woman on being complimented for her attractiveness, or the satisfaction of the salesman in closing a deal with his client is fruition. Commanded acts are those done either by man‘s mental or bodily powers under the command of the will. Commanded acts are either internal or external actions. Examples of internal actions are conscious reasoning, recalling something, encouraging oneself, controlling aroused emotions and others. Examples of external actions are walking, eating, dancing, laughing, listening, reading and others. Some actions are combinations of internal and external actions such as listening, studying, reading, driving a car, writing a letter or playing chess. 37 38 39 40  Closure Activty (place your answer on p. 91) 4. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module. 5. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right now on finishing this module. 6. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in developing your moral behaviour. Synthesis/Generalization 1. An act to have moral significance must be a human act. 2. A human act is an act that is knowingly done, wilfully done and freely done. 3. An act is an involuntary and reflexive action; it is not knowingly done, wilfully done and freely done 4. Elicited acts are acts performed by the will but not bodily externalized 5. Commanded acts are acts performed by the will and are bodily externalized. Evaluation Knowledge Check (place your answer on page 92) A. Identify the following: 1. An instinctive action 2. An act performed and completed by the will but not bodily externalized. 41  3. Action which is knowing, free and willful. 4. The enjoyment of the will coming from the attainment of something previously desires. 5. Acts done either by man’s mental or bodily powers under the command of the will. B. Instruction: Identify whether the following is a Deliberate (D) or Instinctive (I) 1. Breathing 4. Writing 2. Reading 3. Dreaming 5. Cooking Assignment (Place your answer on coupon bond) Make a research on the topic crime of passion. Read and understand what it Is all about. Then write an essay describing what it is, why is it wrong, and what is needed to prevent it. References: Agapay, R. B.(1995, 2008) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students and Educators 2ns ed. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc. Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great Books Trading, Inc. Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1st ed. Manila, Philippines, Rex Book Store. Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc. De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc. Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound Professional and Civil Life. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill Trading Co. Inc. Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint) Manila: National Bookstore. ____________. (1994) Contemporary Social Philosophy. Manila: Goodwill Trading Co. Inc. Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines: National Book Store ____________.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of Man. 2nd ed. Manila: National Book Store, Inc. Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook Series 42 Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/ethics/` 43 Chapter 3 : THE ACT Module 4: The Human Act as Knowingly Done Introduction This module is concerned with developing your understanding of what human act as knowingly is, the modifier of knowledge and, reason and impartiality as minimum requirement of morality. It is hoped that the discussion, description and explanation in this module will further help in your journey to the understanding of ethics, especially knowledge as an essential attribute of human act. Make use of this module to provide you with insights and ideas to help you understand knowledge as an essential attribute of a human act. Test Yourself (place your answer on page 93) Instruction: Identify whether the following is knowingly done (K) or not knowingly done (WK) 1. Praying 4. Biking 2. Breathing 3. Snoring. 5. Seeing something Learning Objectives With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to: 1. Describe knowledge as an essential attribute of human act. 2. Cite and explain the principles related to ignorance as a modifier of knowledge. 3. Interpret what it means by saying reason and impartiality are the minimum requirements of mortality. Content Preparatory Activities Exercise (place your answer on page 93) 1. List down 3 actions you do which is reasonable (with good reason). 2. List down 3 actions you do which is unreasonable (without good reason). 44  Developmental Activities Acts as knowingly Done Another essential attribute for human act is knowledge. It means that you should be sure that you know what you are doing. To will something, one has to know beforehand. Man cannot choose or act unless he know which is a better good. When a person chooses to act according to what he knows, he acts freely. What can make man know what he is doing is his reason.. But the intellect does not always determine the will. Modifier Of Knowledge: Ignorance We are familiar with the saying, “Ignorance of the law excuses no one”. This implies that one should not act in the state of ignorance and the one who has done wrong may n0ot claim ignorance as a defense. Ignorance is the absence of knowledge which a person ought to possess. A lawyer is expected to know his law, the doctor his medicine; and the manager, his business operations. In the realm of morals, every one of age and reason is expected to know at least the general norms of good behavior. Ignorance is either vincible or invincible. Vincible ignorance can easily be reminded through ordinary diligences and reasonable efforts. The ignorance of a visitor regarding a particular address in a certain place is vincible, since he can easily ask for information from a policeman or pedestrian. Invincible ignorance is the type which a person without being aware of it, or having awareness of it, lacks the means to rectify it. The ignorance regarding missing persons or objects is often invincible. Thus a cook might be unaware that the food he is cooking is contaminated. Under the category of vincible ignorance is affected. This is the type which a person keeps by positive efforts in order to escape responsibility. It is affected ignorance when an employee refuses to read a memo precisely so that he may be exempted from its requirements. Principles: 1. Invicble ignorance renders an involuntary, A person cannot be held morally liable if he is not aware of his state of ignorance. A waiter who is not aware that the food he is serving has been poisoned cannot be held for murder. 2. Vincible ignorance does not destroy but lessens the voluntariness and the corresponding accountability over the act. A person who becomes aware of the state of ignorance he is in has the moral obligation to rectify it by exercising reasonable diligence in seeking the needed information. To act with vincble ignorance is to act imprudently. A waiter who suspects that the food he is serving has been laced with poison has the moral obligation to ascertain the fact or at least forewarn the guests about the suspicion. 45  3. Affected ignorance though it decreases voluntariness, increases the accountability over the resultant act. Insofar as affected ignorance interferes with the intellect, it decreases voluntariness. But insofar as it willed to persist, it increases accountability. Certainly, refusing to rectify ignorance implies malice. And the malice is greater when ignorance is used as an excuse for not doing the right thing. Thus a child who refuses to be guided by his parents has only himself to blame for his wrongdoing. Reason and Impartiality Reason plays a vital role in Ethics as moral truths are truths of reason; a moral judgment is true if it is espoused by a better reason than the alternatives. If someone tells us that a certain action is immoral, we may ask why it is so and if there is no reasonable answer, we may discard the proposition as absurd. 46 Impartiality It involves the idea that each individual’s interests and point of view are equally important. It is a principle of justice holding that decisions ought to be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice or preferring the benefit to one person over another for improper reason. 47 48 49  Closure Activities (place your answer on page 93) 1. Write in three (3) sentences the important learning you got from this module. 2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right now on finishing this module. 3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in developing your moral behaviour. Synthesis/Generalization A knowingly done act can be disturbed the by the presence of ignorance. A knowingly done action must be product of reason and impartiality, must be backed up with valid arguments and executed without prejudice, selfishness and bias. Evaluation Knowledge Check (place your answer on page 94) I. Answer briefly: “Ignorance of the law excuses no one” I. True or False. Write T if the statement is true; F if false. 50 ______1. Humans have not only feelings but also reason, and reason plays a vital role in Ethics. ______2. Morality commends what it commends, regardless of our feelings, attitude opinions, and desires. ______3. The principle of impartiality assumes that every person, generally speaking, is equally important; that is, no one is seen as intrinsically more significant than anyone else. ______4. When two opposing alternatives are offered, the consequences of one are the mirror image of the other. ______5. It must be realized that one common element to moral impartiality is that there are no easy and painless solutions to them. Assignment “Same Sex Marriage: Good or Bad for our Society?” 1. Read and understand the short blog below 2. Write a comment (maximum of three sentences) stating your stand and brief reason concerning the debate topic. Use reason and impartiality in composing your comment. Post in your FB. 3. Ask at least three friends (preferably adults) to write a comment on your post. 4. Screen your post and its conversation thread and send to your professor. References: Agapay, R. B.(1995, 2008) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students and Educators, 2ns ed. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc. Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great Books Trading, Inc. Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1 st ed. Manila, Philippines, Rex Book Store. Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc. De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc. Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound Professional and Civil Life. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. ` Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill Trading Co. Inc. Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint) Manila: National Bookstore. 51 ____________. (1994) Contemporary Social Philosophy. Manila: Goodwill Trading Co. Inc. Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines: National Book Store ____________.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of Man. 2nd ed. Manila: National Book Store, Inc. Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook Series Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/ethics/ Same Sex Marriage: Good or Bad for our Society? THE ISSUE cannot be ignored, as legislators and voters around the country grapple with whether and how to recognize same-sex relationships. Traditionally in this country, marriage has been defined as a religious and legal commitment between a man and woman, as well as the ultimate expression of love. On the other side, gay marriage, also known as same-sex marriage, is marriage between two persons of the same sex. Homosexual relationships are increasingly gaining acceptance in other countries, but still banned in the Philippines. A same-sex marriage opponent argues that marriage between a woman and a man is the fundamental, cross-cultural institution for insuring that children have loving, committed mothers and fathers while on the other side, a same-sex marriage advocate argues that recognizing same-sex unions would be good not only for gay people, but also for society at large, since society has an interest in supporting stable, loving relationships for all its members. The question here is, “Is it already a fascinating time for social revolution? Or is it still needed for us to nurture the traditional family values essential to our society?” Possible reasons for same sex marriage: 1. Homosexuality is an accepted lifestyle nowadays with most evidence strongly supporting biological causation. 52 2. It doesn't hurt society or anyone in particular. Therefore, denying these marriages is a form of minority discrimination. 3. Legalizing same sex marriage will be a big help for orphanages since same sex partners