Philosophy Reviewer PDF

**LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON** **PHILOSOPHY** - Was invented by PYTHAGORAS (A Greek philosopher, 580-497 BC) who formulated a practical, ethical and religious philosophy which placed supreme value on intellectual activity. - "Philo/Philia" means friend or...

**LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON** **PHILOSOPHY** - Was invented by PYTHAGORAS (A Greek philosopher, 580-497 BC) who formulated a practical, ethical and religious philosophy which placed supreme value on intellectual activity. - "Philo/Philia" means friend or love - "Sophia" means wisdom - Literally means "Love for Wisdom" **THREE TYPES OF MAN** - A lover of pleasure -- describes as the lower area of loving something and feels contentment in a little way. - A lover of success -- satisfaction receives through accomplishments in life. - A lover of wisdom -- it is the ultimate type of man considered as the highest form where an individual became matured in decision making. **THE MISCONCEPTIONS IN PHILOSOPHY** - Philosophy makes no progress - Philosophy dis-agree with one another - Philosophical commitment is subjective - Philosophy deals only with abstraction, not with anything or practical value. **DIVISION OF PHILOSOPHY** Speculative -- contemplative knowledge and understanding, not necessarily for practical life purpose. Practical -- it deals with matters involved in the daily life of a man. **BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY** Speculative - Epistemology - Meta Physics Practical - Axiology **EPISTEMOLOGY** - The science which deals with human knowledge, the focus of which is to know the truth. - Is the study of knowledge itself. - It is the study of validity of human. - Is synonymous with theories of knowledge. For a claim to be true the claim must have a foundation. Yet finding a firm foundation can be difficult. Truth is essential for one to have knowledge; How can one know something if what they think is true is in fact false? **EPISTEMOLOGY** is subdivided into **RATIONALISM** and **EMPIRICISM**, which are considered ways to acquire knowledge. **RATIONALISM** -- the theory that exercise of reason, rather than experience, authority, or spiritual revelation, provides the primary basis for knowledge. **EMPIRICISM** -- the view that experience, especially of the senses, is the only source of knowledge. **RENE DISCARTES** - A French Philosopher -- takes the act of thinking as the proof of the fact of human existence. The act of thinking implies the existence of a thinker, a being - "Cogito, ergo sum" - "I think therefore I am" - Man is proven rational - He reasons out **PROBLEMS WITH RATIONALISM AND EMPIRICISM** **RATIONALISTS** claim that there are significant ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense of experience. **EMPIRICISTS** claim that sense experience is the ultimate source of all our concepts and knowledge. **METAPHYSICS** - The science of beings, their nature, beyond physical appearance. - Is the study of the nature of things. Metaphysicians ask what kinds of things exist, and what they are like. They reason about such things as whether or not people have free will, in what sense abstract objects can be said to exist, and how it is that brains are able to generate minds. **METAPHYSICS AND ITS SUBDIVISION** - Ontology - Cosmology - Psychology **ONTOLOGY** - A branch of metaphysics concerned with the nature and relations of being. - A particular theory about the nature of being or the kinds of things that have existence. **COSMOLOGY** - Comes from the Greek word "kosmos." It means "order" and generally refers to the world and the universe. - A philosophical treatise of the philosophical universe in its final analysis. - The study of the universe and man's place within it. Human existence is intertwined with the understanding and existence of the universe. Cosmology attempts to analyze this connection between what we know to be true and what we believe in. Science, religion, and philosophy play a role. **PSYCHOLOGY** - Psychology is also a word that comes from the Greek language. It refers to the nature of the "psyche or soul." - Some think it is the same as the spirit. Some say it connects the spiritual side of man to his physical side. Others claim that the soul is simply the mind, a part of the nervous system, or part of the body's physical chemistry. **AXIOLOGY** - The study of value; the investigation of its nature, criteria, and metaphysical status. More often than not, the term "value theory" is used instead of "axiology" in contemporary discussions even thought the term "theory of value" is used with respect to the value or price of goods and services in economics. **MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS** **\ ** **AXIOLOGY AND ITS SUBDIVISION** - Ethics - Aesthetics **ETHICS** - The study which deals with the principles and laws governing the morality of human act. - Is the study of the nature of right and wrong and good and evil, in terms both of considerations about the foundations of morality, and of practical considerations about the fine details of moral conduct. **AESTHETICS** - A philosophical inquiry of the beautiful. - The study of beauty. - The study of value in the arts or inquiry into feelings, judgements or standards of beauty and related concepts. Philosophy of art is concerned with judgements of sense, taste, and emotions. - Philosophy of art is concerned with judgements of sense, taste, and emotions. **LESSON 2: METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING** **KNOWLEDGE** -- is the clear awareness and understanding of something. It is the product of questions that allow for the clear answers provided by facts. It is through knowing that we can be determine what is true. **PROPOSITIONS** -- are the statements which are observed to be real or truthful are considered **FACTS**. There are statements, however, that are not evidently or immediately known to be true. For example, "I know that my school is the best school in the city." **CLAIM** -- further examination is required to establish whether it is true or false. **TRUTHFUL STATEMENTS**, therefore, can be considered based on facts. This means that any claim can be proven by verification and experimentation. **HOW DO WE KNOW IF SOMETHING IS TRUE?** This is one perspective on **TRUTH** that: "a belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one's senses." This is another basis for determining the **TRUTH** that: "a belief or statement is true if it is based on facts." Another way of determining the **TRUTH**: "Getting a consensus or having people agree on common belief." "Determine the truth in this case require a person to prove a statement through an **ACTION**". Philosophers believe that, **CLAIM** and **BELIEFS** should also be subjected to test to determine truth. **HOW CAN A PHILOSOPHY GUIDE US IN DISTINGUISHING TRUTH FROM OPINION** **FACTS** - Are statement or that can be checked or backed up with evidence it is verifiable from observation and experience. **OPINION** - Is an expression based on facts, emotions, and beliefs, and views as such an opinion is usually not based on a conclusive evidence but instead on an inclination or an intuition which brings an individual to a conclusion. - Are also the basis for making an arguments and convincing people that a certain claim is a **FACT**. Factual, undisputed, objective, universal, exact and constant are manifestation of **TRUTH**. It implies that it can be proven as true. Knowledge must be truthful to gain validity and acceptance. **CONCLUSION** - Judgement based on a certain facts. **BELIEFS** - Are statements that express convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts. **EXPLANATIONS** - Are statements that assume the claim to be true and provides reasons why the statement is true. **ARGUMENTS** - Statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or a listener that a claim or opinion is truthful. **WHAT SHOULD WE CONSIDER WHEN LOOKING AT ARGUMENTS OR OPINIONS?** **ARGUMENTS** -- often take form of statements that are either claims of facts and are phrased in such a way that they seem reasonable. **FALLACIES** -- number of arguments maybe based on faulty reasons. Defect in argument other that it's having false premises. To defect fallacies, it is required to examine the content. **COMMON HEARD FALLACIES** **AD HOMINEM (AGAINST THE PERSON)** -- attacking the person, focus our attention on people rather than on arguments or evidence. **AD BACULUM (APPEAL TO FORCE) --** using threat or force or an undesirable event to advance an argument. **AD MISERICORDIAM (APPEAL TO PITY/EMOTION)** -- strong appeal to sympathy and pity. **AD POPULUM (APPEAL TO THE PEOPLE)** -- the idea presented must be true because many or most people believe it. **AD VERECUNDIAM (APPEAL TO AUTHORITY)** -- insisting that a claim is true simply because a valid authority or expert on the issue said it was true, without any other supporting evidence offered. **APPEAL TO TRADITION** -- it is assumed that the idea is acceptable because something has been done a certain way for a long time, or traditionally, so, it is necessarily the right way of doing it. **BEGGING THE QUESTION** -- simply accepts the conclusion without providing the real evidence; the arguments either relies on a premise that says the same thing as the conclusion (circular arguments) or (circular reasoning) or simply ignores an important (but questionable) assumption that the arguments rests on. **FALLACY OF COMPOSITION** -- assuming that what is true of a part, is the true for the whole. **FALLACY OF DIVISION** -- assumes that what is true for the whole is true for its parts. **POST HOC (CAUSE N' EFFECT)** -- one event is said to be the cause of a later event simply because it occurred earlier. **SLIPPERY SLOPE** -- assuming a very small action will lead to extreme outcomes. **BIAS** -- the personal views of the person presenting it. Biases are not necessarily errors in reasonings but refer to the tendencies or influences which affect the views of the people. **MOST COMMON BIASES** **CORRESPONDENCE BIAS OR ATTRIBUTION EFFECT** -- tendency to judge a person's personality by his or her actions, without regard external factors or influences. **CONFIRMATION BIAS** -- tendency to look for and readily accept information which fits one's own beliefs or views and to reject ideas or views that go against it. **FRAMING** -- focusing on a certain aspect of a problem while ignoring other aspects. **HINDSIGHT** -- the tendency to see the past events as a predictable, or to ascribe a pattern to historical events. **CONFLICT OF INTEREST** -- a person or a group is connected to or has a vested interest in the issue being discussed. **CULTURAL BIAS** -- analyzing an event or issue based on one's cultural standards. "The eyes sees only what the mind is prepared to comprehend." -- Robert Davies **KNOWLEDGE**, in the context of philosophy, refers to the possession of accurate and reliable information, facts, or truths. **WISDOM**, on the other hand, refers to the ability to discern, judge, and act wisely in a particular situation or context. **LESSON 3:** **SELF-AWARENESS** - The first trait that defines a person. - Refers to a person having a clear perception of one self, including his or her thoughts, emotions, identity and actions. **RATIONALITY OR HUMAN THOUGHT** - The human person is defined by a deeper awareness which is driven by rationality. **SELF** - This awareness give rise to the notion. Which philosophers describe as the person who is actively aware that he or she is perceiving and experiencing reality. **INTERIORITY** - Which is the quality of being focused in one's inner life and identity. - The that we can daydream, get lost in our thoughts, imagine fantasize, and reflect shows that we are able to reach within ourselves and experience interiority. - Enable person to exercise creativity. **SELF DETERMINATION** - This refers to the capability of a person to make choices and decisions based on their own preferences, monitor and regulate their actions, and be goal-oriented and self-directed. - Choice/Decision Making - Self-Awareness & Self-Knowledge - Goal Setting - Self-Advocacy - Our **FREE WILL** enables us to do actions whenever we want to and makes self-determination possible. - A discussion on self-determination and free will eventually leads to a discussion of **CONSEQUENCES**. Consequences is the result or effect of an action or condition. **MORALITY** -- the goodness and badness of an act. **EXTERNALITY** -- or the capability to reach out and interact with others and the world. **EXTERIORITY** -- what's observable (both in life and in great writing) - Actions - Habits - Interactions with other characters - Interactions with the world - Words they say - How they look - How they stand - How they present themselves **INTERIORITY** -- what's not usually observable in life but is observable in great writing - Morals/values - Feelings - Thoughts - Thought process - Past experience (not as flashbacks) - Attitudes **DIGNITY** -- the innate right to be valued and respected. **LESSON 4:** **ANTHROPOCENTRISM** -- focuses on the significant role of the humankind in the world and considers nature as the means by which humans are able to meet their needs and survive. **BIOCENTRISM** -- believes that humans are not the only significant species on the planet, and that all organism have inherent value and should be ethical treatment of animals. **ECOCENTRISM** -- places great value on ecosystem and biological communities. This view believes that humankind is part of a greater biological system/community and that we have significant role as stewards or guardians of nature. Several views on the environment such as "DEEP ECOLOGY" and the "GAIA HYPOTHESIS" - Emphasize the important role of interaction between living and non-living components of the environment. **ENVIRONMENTAL AESTHETICS** -- one philosophical view that believes maintaining order in the environment will bring out the natural beauty of the surroundings and contribute to the well-being of the people and other organisms living in it. **HOW CAN HUMANITY ADDRESS THE DAMAGE INFLICTED ON THE ENVIRONMENT** **ENVIRONMENTALISM** - A social movement or an ideology focused on the welfare of the environment. - This perspective advocates to address the growing environmental problems. - Environmentalism seeks to protect and conserve the elements of earth's ecosystem. **ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS** - A moral approach that analyzes the relationship between the humans and the environment - It also discusses environmental problems caused by human activities and social issues that impact the environment. **WHAT CAN I DO TO UPHOLD EVIRONMENTALISM AND CARE FOR NATURE?** **SUSTAINABILITY/SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT** - The over reaching paradigm of the United Nations. The concept of sustainable development was described by the 1987 Bruntland Commission Report as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" this concept focuses on reconciling human activities and economic development with the protection of the environment. **SUSTAINABILITY** - Is often thought of as long term goal - While sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it. **THREE IMPORTANT PRINCIPLE OF SUSTAINABILITY** 1. **ENVIRONMENTAL INTEGRITY** -- refers to maintaining the state of the environment. This means that human activities should not unduly disrupt the ecosystems and human communities locate at the area. 2. **ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY** -- refers to prudence in decision-making regarding the use of resources that there is minimum zero waste. 3. **EQUITY** -- demands that we use our natural resources in such a manner that these are conserved so the next generation will be able to use them. **PRUDENCE** -- the ability to regulate one's action or behavior, but with regards to environment, it is a skill and good judgement in the use of resources. **FRUGALITY** -- is being thrifty with the use of one's resources. "We are a part of nature. And to betray nature is to betray us. To save nature is to save us. Because if we don't work all together to save the environment we will be all equally extinct." -- Prince Ea