Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person PDF

**CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN IFUGAO** **INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON** **MIDTERMS 2ND SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025** This handout is designed as a general guide for students in knowing, understanding, reflecting and analyzing philosophical ideas, concepts, views, arguments, and the theo...

**CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN IFUGAO** **INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON** **MIDTERMS 2ND SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025** This handout is designed as a general guide for students in knowing, understanding, reflecting and analyzing philosophical ideas, concepts, views, arguments, and the theories pertaining to a plurality of anthropological issues and concerns. Furthermore, it aims to provide new activities with great emphasis on applying and relating philosophy to real-life situations which you can find stimulating and engaging to thinking and doing philosophy. We hoped that through this handout, you will gain not just new perspectives on philosophical understanding of the human person but also be more receptive, accommodating, emphatic and have synoptic view of your role as existing being, involves and engages in and/or with other existent beings in the world. **1[. DOING PHILOSOPHY]** Some skills involved in doing philosophy are critical, logical and analytical thinking, observation and communicative skills. *Examples of philosophical exercises for doing philosophy and truth finding are essay writing, a debate or Socratic dialogue, delivering a speech, discussing dilemmas and other creative ways like movies, songs and literatures.* A. **[WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? ]** **PHILOSOPHY** is derived from two Greek words, '*Philos' means love* and '*Sophia' means wisdom*. Thus, Philosophy means "love of wisdom." - Wisdom -- Knowledge, Wise Actions - Loving wisdom = knowing and acting wisely. - Philosophy is an activity in pursuit of wisdom - **Pythagoras** was said to have been the first man to call himself a philosopher; in fact, the world is indebted to him for the word philosopher. He likened the Philosopher to spectators who seek to truth rather than those who are lovers of gain (seek profit) and lovers of honor (compete in games) at ancient Olympic games - **Plato** -- founder of Academy - Philosophy is "The love of wisdom that can face the test of critical discussions" - **Willim James**, Father of American Psychology- Philosophy is "The collective name for questions that have not been answered to the satisfaction of all that have asked them" - **Rudolf Carnap** , One of the giants among twentieth-century philosophers - Philosophy is "A theory of the scientific use of language" - **Herodutos,** Father of History - Philosophy is "The love of exercising one's curiosity and intelligence" - Philosophy has no precise definition to make it a distinct discipline. - The various definitions above offer insights about the nature of Philosophy as a special field of inquiry. **[NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY]** 1. **Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe,** which are often held uncritically. *We refer to this meaning as the informal sense of philosophy or "having" a philosophy.* 2. **Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held conceptions and beliefs**. It is natural light of reason. *These two senses of philosophy--- "having" and "doing"--- cannot be treated entirely independent of each other,* for if we did not have a philosophy in the formal, personal sense, then we could not do a philosophy in the critical, reflective sense. 3. **Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole.** It is the study of all things. *Philosophy seeks to combine the conclusions of the various sciences and human experience into some kind of consistent world view.* - *This adopts a **holistic view** which enables a person to view a problem more objectively and come up with better decisions or solutions. **A holistic view also means that one does not confine one's understanding of the world to one's own perspective, but also includes the perspective of others**. This view also enables a person to better appreciate his or her experience as vital components.* 4. **Philosophy is a group of perennial problems (recurring questions) that interest people and for which philosophers always have sought answers.** Philosophy presses its inquiry into the deepest problems of human existence. Some of the philosophical questions raised in the past have been answered in a manner satisfactory to the majority of philosophers. Many questions, however, have been answered only tentatively, and many problems remain unsolved. - "What is knowledge?" "What is the nature of self?" - What is life and why am I here? Is there a universal morality? - A big part of living is spent pondering questions, and our lives become more meaningful because we search for answers to these innumerable questions. This is the essence of philosophy- the search for answers to life's questions. - Questions above are examples of ***philosophical questions.*** - **PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTIONS** are questions that do not have definite or ready answers. When we ask philosophical questions, we do not simply inquire about a specific question for it always contains a bigger problem. Hence, we are engaged in a philosophical reflection. - *Why is love complicated? \-\--...because no matter how hurtful we are, love is still the most fulfilling emotion.* - **Non Philosophical questions** are questions that are specific and have ready/ exact answers. It can also be answered using experiment. **Example:** What are the stages of cell mitosis? **(SCIENCE - BIOLOGY)** - What is your name? **(PERSONAL QUESTION)** - [A ***philosophical question*** implies developing in a particular way], a sense of perspective, the understanding that you are a part of something bigger, that things are connected. While, ***non-philosophical questions*** are more specific. - ***Philosophy*** is not one dimensional or partial. A philosopher does not limit himself to a particular object of inquiry. He questions almost anything, if not everything. It ***is multidimensional or holistic.*** **[HOW DO WE PHILOSOPHIZE?]** - **"Wonder is the feeling of philosopher, and philosophy begins in Wonder" -- Socrates** - Philosophy involves thinking. The crucial element in thinking is insight. Insight is a kind of seeing with the mind. e.g. insight into a joke, movies, literatures. - Many ways of doing with the insight. Some insights are so deep they cannot be exhausted. It takes insight to do something with insight ("Hugot lines", figures of speech, etc.. - Insight brings us to the very heart of reality and truth. - **Martin Heidegger** \- To philosophize is to look at life from a holistic perspective. - A holistic point of view of philosophizing is asking a philosophical question - The search for answers only begins the moment we ask a philosophical question. - However, if one has found an answer, it will determine his/her choices in life. **[HOLISTIC FROM PARTIAL POINT OF VIEW]** **Partial Point of View --** Look at only a limited number of aspects of the given problem or situation. - Conclusions are made based on considering some but not all sides of the problem or situations. - Specific concerns/ details **Example:** - A parent scolds daughter A after daughter B accused her of not doing her homework. However, the parent listened to the story of daughter B and not listening to daughter A before scolding her. - Liza shared her output in front of the class without collating the output of her group members. **Holistic Point of View --** Look at all aspects of the given problem or situation. - All aspects are given importance when making conclusions. - All aspects are tied in together to form a general overview of the problem or situation. - Whole/ bigger picture **Example:** - A teacher listens first to both stories of her two arguing students before making any conclusion about the issue. - A medical practitioner who cares on the health of the entire body and mind of a patient do not just see on the damage part of the body. - ***The etymology of philosophy gives us a clue on how to philosophize.*** Like being a lover, we take into account first every detail - the partial points of views -- in order to make synthesis and develop holistic perspective. *Hence, to philosophize is to take part in activities that do not only give a partial point of view but a holistic perspective emanating from reflections and analyses that facilitate deeper thinking and understanding.* B. ***[HUMAN ACTIVITIES EMANATED FROM DELIBERATE REFLECTIONS]*** - Philosophy examines a wide range of problems and issues that are fundamental to understanding the nature of things, human actions, human reasoning and reality. - *This section distinguishes its branches from where recognition of various human activities emanated from deliberate reflections and dialogues.* - Many of the most vital issues of philosophy are still disputed and have unsettled questions today. - Nevertheless, one of the greatest needs of anyone seeking "wisdom" is a genuine sympathy and understanding of all the most diverse points of view not limiting to a single outlook. - Learning from your previous mistakes and not repeating them again. - Evaluating and knowing the best choice from a set of options during examinations. - Gaining a holistic point of view first in any situation or problem before making any conclusion. **[Major Branches of Philosophy]** 1. **ETHICS -** derived from the ***Greek term "ethos***" meaning, [custom.] - concerned about human conduct - A philosophical study on the morality (goodness ) of human actions (conduct) - As a **normative study**, it deals with norms or standards of right and wrong applicable to human behavior - Considered **prescriptive** as it prescribes what we ought to do rather than describes what people do Example: - What is good and evil? - Is there a universal morality? - Systematic reflections in ethics will lead to an understanding of the concept of right and wrong and of conceptions about morality that affects one's actions towards others. Thus, ethics helps people prioritize their values. 2. **AESTHETICS -** Derived from the Greek word "aisthetikos" meaning, sensitive or perceptive - Analysis is directed toward the nature of aesthetic judgement, standards of beauty and objectivity of standards. Example: What is beauty? - Who should judge what is beautiful or artistic? - Analyze whether beauty is based on utility, experience, form, pleasure or expression. 3. **EPISTEMOLOGY -** Derived from ***Greek word "episteme"*** meaning, [knowledge.] - Distinction between belief and knowledge, nature of truth, problems of perception, external world and meaning and other minds. - Deals with the various problems concerning knowledge - Origin of knowledge - \*Empiricism -- given by experience ***(empirical knowledge)*** \*Rationalism -- given by the mind prior to experience ***(rational knowledge)*** \* Verification or confirmation of knowledge Example: - What is knowledge? - How do we know what we know? - Determine whether there is an objective truth and investigates the bases of certainty. Helpful in making judgements -- ex. Courts of law. 4. **LOGIC -** Rules for thinking -- the systematic principles (or rules) for thinking rationally. - It incorporates the analysis of methods of deduction and induction to provide rules on how people ought to think logically. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | **o Deductive | **o Inductive | | | reasoning** | reasoning** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Premises | Based on widely | Based on observation. | | | accepted facts or | | | | premises. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Conclusion | Based on the | More general than the | | | information the | information the | | | premises provide. | premises provide. | | | Reached by applying | Reached by | | | logical rules to the | generalizing the | | | premises. | premises' | | | | information. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Validity | If the premises are | If the premises are | | | true, conclusion must | true, conclusion is | | | be true | probably true. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Usage | Use mainly in logical | Used in everyday life | | | problems. One need | (fast and easy) | | | facts which are | evidence is used | | | definitely true. | instead of proved | | | | facts. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | *Example* | Bachelors are | \* I have seen many | | | unmarried men. Sir | students in this | | | Christian is | school arguing with | | | unmarried. Therefore, | their teachers. | | | sir Christian is | Students in this | | | bachelor. | school are | | | | disrespectful. | | | Cacti are plants, | | | | and all plants | \* Every teacher | | | perform | we've seen in DBHS | | | photosynthesis. | were friendly. All | | | Therefore, cacti | teacher in DBHS must | | | perform | be friendly. | | | photosynthesis. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ - Knowing the rules of logic gives a person the techniques to create sound arguments and avoid fallacious reasoning. Logic also increases one's ability to reason correctly and distinguish irrational reasoning. 5. **METAPHYSICS -** Literary means "after physics" \* meta -- beyond \* physika -- physics - Deals with the study of existence/ nature of reality. It analyses whether everything is material, and if life, energy and mind are their manifestations. Example: Does God exist? What is reality? - Metaphysicians reflect on the subject of *appearances* ( how something looks by how it appears) and *reality* ( that which actually is) +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | | **Study** | **Questions | **Philosoph | **Theory | | | | / | ers** | (other | | | | Statements* | | fields)** | | | | * | | | +=============+=============+=============+=============+=============+ | 1. Ethics | Human | \- How do | **Plato ,** | Theory of | | | values and | we | Virtue-base | forms by | | | how | determine | d | pure | | | individuals | human | eudaemonist | reason. | | | should act. | rights? | ic | | | | | | conception | ( concept | | | | \- Cheating | | versus | | | | is wrong. | | reality) | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | 2. Aesthet | Beauty and | \- How is | **Hans-Geor | Art of | | ics | art | painting | g | interpretat | | | | priced? | Gadamer**, | ion | | | | | Art is an | | | | | \- Rock | experience | | | | | music is | | | | | | the best | | | | | | kind of | | | | | | music. | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | 3. Epistem | Knowledge | \- How do | **Rene | \- Solving | | ology | (how we | we know | Descartes,* | of | | | learn and | what we | * | geometrical | | | what we can | know? | *Cogito | problems by | | | know) | | ergu sum* | algebraic | | | | | | expressions | | | | | " I think | | | | | | therefore I | | | | | | am" | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | 4. Logic | Rules of | \- All men | **Aristotle | \- Zoology | | | valid | are mortal | **, | and | | | reasoning | | formal | classificat | | | and | No gods are | system of | ions | | | argumentati | mortal | reasoning | of species | | | on | | (syllogism) | | | | | Therefore, | | | | | | no men are | | | | | | gods. | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | 5. Metaphy | Existence / | \- What is | **Thales of | Everything | | sics | nature of | the origin | Miletus** | is made up | | | reality | of | | of water. | | | beyond what | universe? | | | | | is | | | | | | physical. | \- God | | | | | | exist. | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ **[DOMAINS OF TRUTH: What is truth? How do we evaluate opinions?]** Distinguishing between fact and opinions requires attention and scrutiny, because it is indeed a challenge to weed out opinions based on one's biases and subjective views from facts based on accurate and objective information. Thus, there must be a set of criteria in our examination of these opinions and beliefs before accepting them as true. 1. **Objective Domain/ Scientific** -- truths are tested against empirical evidence. Ex. constant acceleration of free falling body (9.8m/s2) 2. **Social Domain** -- truths are tested against their acceptability to a particular group in a particular time in history and are embedded in our society such that they are hardly questioned by anyone. Nevertheless, we have to be aware that these truths are products of agreement in a society and they can be changed trough critical examination and deliberation among members of the society. 3. **Personal Domain** -- truths are tested against the consistency and authenticity of the person who claims it. This is precarious domain of truth because no one can access to our minds and thoughts except ourselves. **[NATURE OF TRUTH]** 1. **Correspondence Theory of Truth** -- the key truth is the relation (or correspondence) between propositions and the world. A belief is true if there exists an appropriate entity or a fact- to which it corresponds. If there is no such entity, the belief is false. Ex. There is the statue of Dr. Jose Rizal at Lagawe plaza. T There is a water fountain in front of the Provincial capitol of Ifugao. F 2. **Coherence Theory of truth** -- the truth conditions of a proposition are based on other propositions (as opposed to the correspondence theory where the truth are based on facts of features of objective world) Ex. 1 + 1 = 2 ½(6 ) + 10 = 13 3. **Pragmatic Theory of Truth** -- proposition is true if it is useful to believe it. Utility is the essential mark of truth. Truth is arrived at based on beliefs that lead to the best payoff, give the ultimate benefit or advantage or promote success. Ex. A dream board is necessary for dreams to come true. - True if a person believe that his/her dreams will come true with dream board. - False if a person do not believe on visualization to achieve his/her dream **[PROBLEMS AND VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY]** - Increase self-awareness and encourage reflection and analysis - Understand how philosophy is valuable in day-to-day experiences ***Metaphysics*** - Question on the certainty of existence. - *One may not be certain that they have already seen their whole self.* - Question on the nature of appearance and reality. - *Can there be certainty in the knowledge of material objects?* Example: knowledge on a chair - Description is based on how it is perceived by the senses. \- Problem arises when color differs for people. Non-color blind people does not recognize what is the reality of color for color -- blind people. \- Shape differs depending on the perspective. Shape vary depending on the object's position and distance. ***Knowledge*** - Question on the nature of knowledge and what constitutes it. - Is knowledge always true? - Can there be false knowledge? - What will make a claim certain? - Is truth varied? ***Ethics*** - Problems on ethical truths - Can there be an objectivity in the rightness and wrongness of actions that are considered under the lens of morality? - A true lover of wisdom will not hide behind what is already accepted as true but instead, continue to ask and analyse, reflect, and form more verifiable claims and reduce errors in thinking. - Philosophizing will motivate you to dig deeper into what you believe and seek whether what you conceive about who you are or what the world is based on something substantial. - Engaging in philosophy means engaging in *contemplation*, suspending who you are, what you believe and what you value, not closing yourself to other possibilities that may broaden your perspective. - *SOCRATES -- " The unexamined life is not worth living"* - Philosophical inquiry is the venue for pursuing an examined life by reflecting upon issues and problems in life, which are philosophical in nature. This way, you will gain a deeper and broader perspective about how you live, what you live for and why live -- not because of the definitive answers but through the process of reflecting and contemplation and inquiry. **ACTIVITY 1. A. QUIZ: [HOLISTIC AND PARTIAL PERSPECTIVE]** This activity aims to help you distinguish a holistic perspective from a partial point of view. Identify whether each statement reflects a holistic or a non-holistic perspective. **[Write HP if it is holistic perspective and PP if it is partial perspective.]** 1. A person\'s mental health is solely determined by their individual thoughts and feelings. 2. To understand a complex issue, it is necessary to consider all its interconnected parts. 3. A healthy diet is the only factor that contributes to physical well-being. 4. Human beings are fundamentally spiritual beings, and their physical bodies are merely temporary vessels. 5. Economic growth is the most important factor for a nation\'s prosperity. 6. Education is the key to individual and societal progress. 7. A person\'s happiness is solely determined by their material possessions. 8. To understand a work of art, one must consider the artist\'s cultural and historical context. 9. The mind and body are separate entities. 10. Human beings are fundamentally spiritual beings, and their physical bodies are merely temporary vessels. [**B. QUIZ ON THE MAJOR BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY/ PHILOSOPHCAL AND NON-PHILOSOPHICAL**(30 pts)] This activity aims to help you examine a wide range of problems and issues emanated from deliberate reflections and dialogues then do philosophical reflection by *determining whether the statements or questions below are* ***[METAPHYSICAL, EPISTEMOLOGICAL, LOGICAL, AESTHETICAL AND ETHICAL].* THEN, [WRITE P IF IT IS PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTION AND NP IF NOT PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTION.]** **Example:** A. **Is there a God? If so, what is God\'s nature and purpose? (Metaphysical - P)** B. **What is the meaning of suffering? Why do bad things happen to good people? (Ethical- P)** C. **What is the capital of France? (NP) -- *(has only 1 answer)*** 1. **What is the nature of reality? Is it ultimately physical, mental, or something else entirely?** 2. **Does free will exist, or are our actions predetermined by external forces?** 3. **What is the meaning of life? Is there an ultimate purpose to human existence?** 4. **How do we know what we know? What is the nature of knowledge and how is it acquired?** 5. **Is truth objective or subjective? Does truth exist independently of human perception?** 6. **What is the nature of logical reasoning? How can we distinguish between valid and invalid arguments?** 7. **Can a statement be both true and false at the same time?** 8. **What is beauty? Is beauty subjective or objective?** 9. **What is the role of art in human life? Does art have a moral or ethical purpose?** 10. **What is the basis of morality? Is it divine command, natural law, or human reason?** 11. **Is it ever morally justifiable to harm one person for the benefit of many?** 12. **What are our obligations to future generations? Should we prioritize the needs of the present or the future?** 13. **What is the chemical symbol for gold?** 14. **What is the square root of 64?** 15. **What is my name?** C. **[QUIZ ON FACT AND OPINION (3 pts each)]** **Write T if the statement is True and O if the statement is opinion. [Write its Domain ]***[(objective, social, personal])* **and Nature** *[(Correspondence theory of truth, Coherence Theory of truth, Pragmatic Theory of Truth) if applicable.]* *[T/O] [Domain] [Nature]* *Example: - The Earth is round. (True - Scientific/objective -- Correspondence )* *The Mona Lisa is the most beautiful painting. ( O -- personal - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ )* 1. So far, I could say that the president of the Philippines today is the best president. 2. Love is all suffering. 3. Jose Rizal is our Philippine National hero. 4. If 2+3=5, then, 7x2=14. 5. There is a gymnasium in our school. 6. Whether it rains or not the boiling point of water is 100 degrees celcious. 7. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. 8. Career pathway plan is important in choosing a career. 9. The Earth revolves around the Sun. 10. A good theory is one that helps us understand and predict the world. **[II. THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT]** ***In the previous lessons***, we have learned that ***philosophy is the love of wisdom***, which also means a love that brings about an attitude of openness and sense of wonder. We have also learned that philosophy is about ***dwelling on the questions that underlie our search for meaning***. Finally, we have learned that philosophical questions have no ready-made answers. ***A philosophical attitude demands that we remain patient, courageous and hopeful in the face of uncertainty.*** ***In this lesson,*** we will understand ***that our uncertainty about many things stems from our limitations as human beings***. Specifically, we will learn that many of our limitations is due to our embodied beings. This does not mean however that our bodies are merely hindrances to our desires and aspirations. Just as much as our bodies limit us, our bodies also enables us to create meaning in the world. Hence, ***[the body is both a source of limitation and possibility.]*** ***Philosophers consider the [human person as defined by the union of the body and the spirit]*[. ]** - **The human person is an embodied spirit** - *[The body and the spirit are not only united, but they are integrated with each other].* - *[Embodied spirit is an animating core living within each of us]. Known to be the driving force behind what we actually think, do and say.* - **Embodiment** is the biological and physical presence of our bodies which are necessary precondition for subjectivity, emotion, language, thought and social interaction. *[It enables us to do and experience all the things that make us human persons. ]* ***How are the body and spirit related? Analyse the example below:*** ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Science:** Love is a result of various biological reactions associated with an increase in hormones, which may have certain effects on the body. **Philosophy:** Human persons do not love just with the heart nor the brain. We love another person with our entire being. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ***Hence, embodiment is the one thing that enables us to feel love and love others.*** That the body is not separate from the soul, just as the soul is no separate from the body. They work together at all times. **[A. FROM "BODY AND SOUL" TO "EMBODIED SPIRIT" ]** **Who is the Human Person?** - The ***Oxford Dictionary** [defines human being as "a man, woman, or child of the species Homo sapiens,]* distinguished form other animals by superior mental development, power of articulated speech, and upright stance." The qualities mentioned in this definition refer to the human being's physical and mental traits. - Some **philosophers** would say that [human beings are also spiritual, ethical, and existential beings.] **Metaphysical Approach** **Existential Approach** --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **What** of the human person (nature and relations of being) **Who** of the human person (being in the world), Focuses on the kinds of substances or materials and components that uniquely make up a human person. Focuses on the kind of life, or mode of existence that is unique to human person. **Cognitive self** (something within and cannot be physically seen) belief, desire , dreams, intentions **Physical self** ( something can be seen in physical) body type, strength, appearance **[Aspects of Human Nature]** - It must be noted that these aspects are inseparable 1. **Somatic -** refers to the body, material composition, or substance of a human person. 2. **Behavioral** - the human person's mode of acting. 3. **Attitudinal -** the human person\'s inclinations, feelings, ideas, convictions, and prejudices or biases. **[Theories on Human Nature]** A. **Human Person as an Immortal Soul** - According to **PLATO**, human person has ***an immortal soul*** ***that is the source of movement*** (or has the capacity to have motion coming all from the inside). - **Therefore, we, as human person, have soul because you are moved from within. No outside force compels us to have life or to have motion.** B. **Human Person as a Composite of Body and Soul** - According to **ARISTOTLE** there are ***three kinds of substance***: matter, shape or form, and the product of both (composite of form and matter). - For Aristotle, having a soul, is the source of a human person\'s being alive, which enables him or her to do actions or activities that are suited to being a human person. In effect, he is saying that ***the body cannot be separated from the soul because the soul is the form of the natural body.*** The soul is what makes the natural body. - **Concepts on the kinds of soul** *Rational Soul* -- It is capable of thinking, reasoning, willing, reflecting, and deciding apart from sensing and growing. *Sensitive Soul* -- It feeds itself, it grows, it reproduces, and it has feelings *Vegetative Soul* -- Capable of feeding, growing and reproducing itself. - **This theory implies that without the soul, the body does not have life.** C. **Human Person as a \"Thinking Thing\"** *On the one hand I have a clear and distinct idea of myself, in so far as I am simply a thinking, non-extended thing \[that is, a mind\], and on the other hand I have a distinct idea of body, in so far as this is simply an extended, nonthinking thing. And accordingly, it is certain that I am really distinct from my body, and can exist without it.- Rene Descartes* - In the passage, **Descartes** asserted that the mind is a thinking thing--distinct and unextended; and that the body is a non-thinking thing -- distinct and extended; and that *his reality is how distinct he is from the body, and he can exist without it.* There is a great difference between the mind and the body, inasmuch as the nature always divisible, while the mind is utterly indivisible. For when I consider the mind, or myself in so far as I am merely a thinking thing, I am unable to distinguish any parts within myself; I understand myself to be something quite single and complete \.... By contrast, there is no corporeal or extended thing that I can think of which in my thought I cannot easily divide into parts; and this very fact makes me understand that it is divisible. This one argument would be enough to show me that the mind is completely different from the body. \- Rene Descartes, Mediation VI - *From the passage Rene Descartes claimed that the mind is indivisible. While the body is divisible into parts.* - For ***RENE DESCARTES, the nature of man is pure mind.*** - **The person is distinct from their body and can exist without it**. **[5 POSSIBILITIES OF EMBODIED SPIRIT]** 1. **SUBJECTIVITY --** it is the human person's possibility as a subject which is spiritual or internal. It comprises the cognitive, functional and affective faculties of the human person. 2. **INCARNATED --** literally means the coming into flesh or the possibility to be a body. The being as incarnated becomes an embodied spirit capable of being open towards others and the world. 3. **WHICH REALIZES ITSELF --** the human person is a self-transcendence, a project and a "to be". He is not static, he is always in the making or becoming. 4. **WITH THE HELP OF THE WORLD --** the human person, in his or her self-realization, is always and necessary in many possible relations with the world. This component places regard and value to the world in struggle for excellence and perfection. 5. **INTERSUBJECTIVITY --** human person can only realize himself or herself in the world through and with other subjects. Person's existence is co-existence. **B. TRANSCENDENCE** It is **the act of rising above something to a superior state**\.... Transcendence comes from the Latin prefix trans-, meaning \"beyond,\" and the word scandare, meaning \"to climb.\" When you achieve transcendence, you have gone beyond ordinary limitations. - **It is also understood as the highest and most inclusive or holistic levels of human consciousness**, behaving and relating, as ends rather than means, to one self, to significant others, to human beings in general, to other species, to nature, and to the cosmos." - One must always put to mind that we are always part of the bigger picture of the society and the world that we live in which will allow us to have a wider view and deeper understanding of ourselves. - **Limitations -- a** bound beyond which one may not go or cannot do. - **Possibilities --** a thing that may happen or maybe chosen or done out of several alternatives. - **Human Transcendence** -- ability to surpass limits. We are able to transcend or go/do beyond our limits through our physical and mental abilities to change, be dynamic and continually redefining one's self which works with our facticity to create change. **[Self-Transcendence ]** Although people may view self-transcendence in ways that vary based on their own [values](https://positivepsychology.com/values-clarification/), the general idea behind it is the same. *Self-transcendence is, at its core, about transcending (or rising above) the self and relating to that which is greater than the self*. *[In simpler terms, **it is the realization that you are one small part of a greater whole, and acting accordingly.**]* That which is greater than the self can be a range of things: human beings in general, nature, the universe, divine power, etc. It doesn't matter what the greater thing is, only that there is something greater than the self. We are able to fully develop our potential only when we devote our time and energy towards a missions greater than ourselves. - As human beings, we are capable of going beyond the normal self, meaning we are capable of achieving or performing beyond what we call as the "limits". One must put in mind that the development of the self can go as far as we can depending on kind the mind set and actions that we perform. **[How to Achieve Self-Transcendence]** If you want to achieve self-transcendence for yourself, there are ways to go about it. It's not an easy path, as it represents the highest heights of human development, beyond even Maslow's rarely achieved self-actualization. *However, there are a few things you can do to propel your development and reach toward self-transcendence:* 1. **Discover what puts you into "theta"** (the quiet and peaceful state just between asleep and awake) and harness it to enter the inspirational and expanded state more often. 2. Practice [**meditation**](https://positivepsychology.com/mindfulness-meditation/), whether through the stereotypical sitting on a cushion with crossed legs or through [**mindful activities**](https://positivepsychology.com/mindfulness-exercises-techniques-activities/) (mindful listening, mindful walking, [**mindful eating**](https://positivepsychology.com/mindful-eating-exercises/), etc.). 3. Make time to get **creative,** and allow it to lead to inspiration, new experiences, and self-transcendence. 4. [**Keep a journal**](https://positivepsychology.com/benefits-of-journaling/), even if you're not a strong writer---especially if you're not a strong writer. Put your thoughts and feelings onto paper to separate yourself from them. 5. Get out of the house and go where you are closest to nature; allow yourself to **"commune" with nature,** finding inspiration, healing, and perhaps a sense of transcendence through nature. 6. **Engage in "shadow work"---**make time to reflect and dive into your deepest, darkest parts. It's vital to acknowledge and address that which is worst in us as well as that which is best in us. 7. **Practice excellence**---in whatever you do, wherever you go, whoever you're within your day-to-day life. It doesn't really matter what it is (as long as it's not harmful to anyone), all that matters is that you're doing what you do well (Eckl, 2017). - *[Achieving Self-transcendence is not easy but the fruits of achieving it is more rewarding than the process which an individual has undergone. Achieving it would give us more in life than what we can ever imagine. So as a challenge to all of us, let us give our best in becoming a self-transcendent person. ]* **C. LIMITATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES** More than 2,000 years ago, humans, in their desire to understand themselves and their nature as well their environment, sought to determine what they are, how they behave, and what they can achieve as beings with a body and a consciousness or soul/mind (spirit). Yet, up to this moment, they are still uncertain if their nature can be fixed. This does not mean that to seek is futile; it only means that is up to them to discover the many possibilities before them and transcend the limits that are set before them. **[LIMITATIONS OF THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT]** 1. **Facticity** - ***Refers to the things in our life that are already given***. Jean Paul Sartre - ***All the details that surround us in the present:*** our environment, our language, our past decisions, our past and present relationships, and even our future death. Ex. A father who decided to get vasectomy, his decision already imposes limitations on him 2. **Spatial-temporal Being** - As temporal beings, our most ***obvious limitation is our finitude -- our finite quality or state.*** - As spatial beings, we are ***limited by our bodies to be present in two or more places at the same time***. - We are ***limited by space (spatial) and time (temporal).*** Our spatial-temporal situation sets our preconditions of understanding. 3. **The Body as Intermediary** - Intermediary means acting as a mediator - Our body serves as an intermediary between us and the physical world. - But our body limits our experience of the world to our world. - Our body imposes limitations concerning communication and expression (words and gestures). **TRANSCENDING LIMITATIONS** The presence of several limitations imposed by being an embodied subject may influence us to think that our life is very restricting. Life becomes more difficult because of these limitations. However it is also our limitations that makes our life more interesting and challenging. ***Addressing our Limitations*** 1. **Facticity** -- we cannot simply change our facticity but we can change our attitude towards them. We should not use our facticity as an excuse for our difficulties and failures but it should challenge us to be creative with our life options. Transcending our facticity is a given possibility. 2. **Spatial-temporal Being --** we are more concerned about the future and or the past that is why we never appreciate the present. What if we give the present its due worth and simply appreciate it? Our temporal being does not really mean imposes limitations but it should be a challenge on us on how to make our lives more interesting and meaningful. A challenge to make the most of our time in this life. 3. **The Body as Intermediary --** having a body which links us to world appears to be a source of limitations because we can never directly and fully experience the world. However, having a body as way to experience the world is a wonderful thing. It is a privileged experience. We also established that having a body may prevent us from disclosing what we want to express but we are challenged to make more creative ways of conveying what we want to say by not restricting our means to words. Moreover, having a body that conceals emotions also serves as our protection and solace. Thus, the body as intermediary may pose limitations but the same limitations serve as our advantage. **The Ultimate or Boundary Situation** We call these fundamental situations of our existence, ultimate situations. That is to say, they are situations which we cannot evade or change. Along with wonder and doubt, *awareness* of these ultimate situations is the most profound source of Philosophy. In our day-to-day lives we often avoid them, by closing our eyes and living as if they did not exist. We forget that we must die, forget our guilt, and forget that we are at the mercy of chance. We face only concrete situations and master them to our profits, also, we react to them by planning and acting in the world, under the impulsion of our practical interests. But to ultimate situations we react either by complication or, if we really stop them, by despair and rebirth: we become ourselves by a change in our *consciousness of being.* [**Activity 2. QUIZ ON LIMITATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES** (15 pts)] This activity aims to help you do a philosophical reflection on having a body as tantamount to having a lot of limitations when it comes to human beings. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and False if the statement is wrong. 1. Some elements of our facticity can never be changed. 2. A very young girl is not yet capable of reproduction is an example of body as intermediary. 3. Having a body as our intermediary to the world gives us a privileged and subjective perspective. 4. We should never change our facticity because it is our destiny to have them 5. Our limitations challenge us to be creative and responsible. 6. We always want our thoughts and feelings to be disclosed to everyone. 7. We can truly understand what another person is feeling if we only detach ourselves from our situation and look at the world using the perspective of the other person. 8. It is physically impossible to be at the same place at the same time. 9. Facticity is not limited to the givens we acquired during birth. 10. The lack of time in the sense of children poses limitations on them to do manual works 11. Sometimes we don't want other person to see what we are really thinking and feeling and during these moments, it appears that having our body that hides our feelings and thinking becomes an advantage. 12. The presence of several limitations imposed by being an embodied subject may influence us to think that our life is very restricting. 13. No matter how hard we try to look at the world in an objective manner our spatial temporal situation will be there to taint it. 14. We will always have our own spatial temporal condition at the backdrop of our understanding 15. Our soul serves as an intermediary between us and the physical world. **[THE HUMAN PERSON IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT]** **Approaches to Understanding the Relationship of the Human Person with the Environment** A. **Anthropocentrism** -- this view believes that humans are the most important species on the planet and that they are free to transform nature and use its resources. ( considers nature as a means by which humans are able to meet needs and survive.) - Traced from the Judeo - Christian tradition where human being were given "dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and every living things that moves upon the earth" (Genesis 1:26-29). "The heavens belong to the Lord but the earth is given to us." - The earth and its natural resources were looked as an instrument for man to explore and conquer and to make use of for the benefit of man - The earth belongs to God but is entrusted to humanity. Hence, it is our responsibility to be faithful steward of the earth; we must not exhaust non-renewable resources, must provide accessible replacements and must take greater responsibility in taking good care of the earth. - Traced back to Plato and Aristotle when they gave importance to the unique capacity of man as a rational being. Protagoras -- "man is the measure of all things" - Human beings are moral due to his special ability towards self-consciousness and deliberation. **Anthropocentic Reformist :** *[The root causes of environmental crisis stem from ignorance, shortsightedness and greed.]* - These could be addressed through *[Prudential Anthropocentrism].* Instead of dominion over nature, we must be stewards responsible for keeping the balance and beauty in nature. 1. We must emphasize altruism or moral obligations for others and for future generations by the promotion of prudential and frugal use and equitable allocation of natural resources and stewardship of nature 2. Enactment and enforcement of new legislation as well as adoption of new policies and tax measures for the conservation and preservation of the environment **B. Biocentrism** -- the belief that humans are not the only significant species on the planet, and that all organisms have inherent value and should be protected. We must give consideration to the preservation of biodiversity with its plants and animals. - Paul Taylor *"The Ethics of Respect for Nature"* -- all living things should be considered as "teleological centers of life." Every living organism has its own *telos, or goal or purpose to fulfil in this world.* Any interference with the fulfilment of an organism's goal or purpose is tantamount to harming that organism. - Kenneth Goodpaster *"On Being Morally Considerable"* proposes that being sentient is just a means of attaining a living organism's goal which is being alive or having life. Hence, by being a living organism, they have a purpose to fulfil in this world. - Every living organism should be morally considerable **C. Ecocentrism** -- this view believes that humankind is part of a greater biological system or community and that we have a significant role as stewards or guardians of nature. - Aldo Leopold's *Land Ethic*, reduces all living beings (man, animals, and plants) into a mere members of the ecosystem or community. His land ethic gives importance, not on individual moral consideration, but a holistic regard for the biotic community or ecological systems. He claims that "a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends to do otherwise." - He suggested an *["Ecological Conscience"]* where the human person manages the natural environment where he or she is concerned both of the biotic and economic grounds for the loss of species. Example; the human person must go beyond conserving forests by planting trees through natural reproduction instead of artificial propagation. **[Environmentalism & Sustainability]** ***Environmentalism*** is comprise of many related ideas and advocacies that address the various environmental issues and concerns. One important perspective from environmentalism is ***environmental ethics***. This ethics for the environment examines how we as human persons relate with the Earth and all within it. It also frames a critical understanding on how our human activities create an impact to the environment. According to the *World Commission on Environment and Development*, ***Sustainable Development*** is defined as, "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." It upholds the ideal that any social, environmental and economic advancement can be achieved within the carrying capacity of earth's natural resources. This principle in other words, calls us to think for others, including those who are yet to be born in the future, as we use and consume the resources of the planet in our generation. *Sustainability is founded on three important principles, namely, environmental integrity, economic efficiency and equity. The values of prudence and frugality are also associated with living sustainably.* **Environmental integrity** -- refers to maintaining the state of the environment in the midst of human activities. Here, human activities are well-thought and managed in such a way that their impact to the ecosystems becomes minimal. **Economic efficiency** -- refers to the wise use of resources, that is, using the resources in their entirety, if possible, to avoid unnecessary waste. **Equity --** demands that we use our natural resources in such a manner that these are conserved so that the next generation will be able to use them. **Prudence** -- the ability to discipline and govern one's actions and behavior. **Frugality** -- the quality of being economical on the use of one's resources. **[ACTIVITY 3. NOTICE DISORDERS IN THE UNIVERSE]** List 5 disorders in the universe or pressing environmental problems that confronts us today. Describe the state of disorder and the disruption of harmony in the natural environment- soil, air and water, then, answer the following questions: How can you protect, conserve and restore these? How does care for the environment contributes to health, well-being and sustainable development? **[Some environmental challenges]** 1. Climate Change (present challenge) 2. Extinction of endangered species (continuing challenge) 3. Water scarcity (emerging challenge) 4. Sustainable development ( future challenge) **[What We Ought To Do (prima facie obligation, positive and negative duty)]** Peter Wenz *'Ecology and Morality" -- humans have prima facie (at first glance) obligation to our ecosystems, particularly, the obligation to avoid destroying them*. "We have a prima facie obligation to protect such ecosystems irrespective of all possible advantage to human beings. It exist in the absence of other countervailing moral considerations." **Deep Ecology** -- Ecological crisis is an outcome of anthropocentricism. The controlling attitude of humankind is extended to nature when in fact humanity is part of nature. Deep ecologist encourage humanity to shift away from anthropocentricism to ecocentrism. **Social Ecology -** Ecological crisis results from authoritarian social structures. Destroying nature is a reflection wherein few people overpower others while exploiting the environment for profit or self-interest Social ecologists call for small-scale societies, which recognize that humanity is linked with the well-being of the natural world in which human life depends. **Ecofeminism --** Ecological crisis is the result of male domination and the oppression of women. Proponents of ecofeminism believe that the problem in our relationship with the environment is rooted on a male-centered view of nature. Men are assumed to be superior than women and nature, thus, the subsequent domination and oppression. For the adherents of this view, freeing nature and humanity means removing the superior vs. inferior in human relations. - These theories value the care, conservation, preservation of nature and humanity. Our search for the meaning of life must explore not just our own survival but calls for a new socio- ecological order. **[How human beings foster the virtue of prudence and frugality towards environment]** Erich Fromm (2013) a German humanistic philosopher, believes that it is about time that humanity ought to recognize not only itself but also the world around it. As human beings, our biological urge for survival turns into selfishness and laziness. He argues that as humans, it is also inherent in us to escape the prison cell of selfishness.  7. Happiness in the process of ever-growing aliveness, whatever the furthest point is that fate permits one to reach, for living as fully as one can is so satisfactory that the concern for what one might or might not attain has little chance to develop. 8\. Joy that comes from giving and sharing, not from hoarding and exploiting. 9\. Developing one\`s capacity for love, together with one\`s capacity for critical unsentimental thought. 10\. Shedding one\`s narcissism and accepting that tragic limitations inherent in human existence **[ACTIVITY 4. SONG ANALYSIS(10pts)]** Search for Louis Armstrong's song **What a Wonderful World or "Kapaligiran"** by the group of Asin. How did the song regard the environment? How did the song see the human person in the environment?