Philosophy Exam (3) PDF

The Six BIG Philosophical Questions -​ Philosophy seeks the answers to some very big fundamental questions regarding human existence and purpose -​ What is a person -​ What is a meaningful life -​ What is beauty...

The Six BIG Philosophical Questions -​ Philosophy seeks the answers to some very big fundamental questions regarding human existence and purpose -​ What is a person -​ What is a meaningful life -​ What is beauty -​ What are good and evil -​ What is a just society -​ What can be known -​ These questions are debatable and possibly unrealistic, we persist in asking these questions because we frame our systems of justifications - from the laws that we put in face, the ethics to which we align, even our person day-to-day interactions with others - on our understanding and interpretation of these answers Branches of Philosophy -​ Metaphysis (the true nature of reality, Unanswerable questions) -​ Epistemology (the true nature of knowledge and belief, What we know to be true) -​ Ethics (values and decision-making process, difference between right and wrong) -​ Aesthetics (the nature of beauty and art) -​ Philosophy of Science (science-focused questions: What counts as science? Features of the Scientific Method) Allegory of the Cave Reading -​ The Allegory of the Cave comes from Plato's work the Republic -​ Offers a powerful example about education -​ Story based on discussion between Plato’s brother, Glaucon, and socrates -​ Socrates claims that writing is a dangerous practice that erodes memory and replaces it with prose, he says how a story is meant to be heard not read -​ Description of human situation in a parable about ignorance and learning -​ Prisoners in the story are like ourselves -​ Prisoners were chained up, only saw shadows in the cave because of the burning fire behind them that showed shadows -​ After the prisoners leave the cave the light of the Sun would burn him -​ Little by little the man would have to get used to looking at the upper world -​ He then will be ab to look at the Sun for itself, and in its own domain, coming to conclusion that it produces the seasons and controls everything in the visible world -​ Understanding that it is in a way the cause of everything that he and his fellow prisoners used to see -​ Now if the released prisoner was taken from the light and brought back to the cave, his eyes would be full of darkness and compete in discerning the shadows with the prisoners who had never left -​ The prison is the world we see with our eyes; the light of the fire is like the power of our sun, and the climb upward out of the cave into the upper world is the ascent of the mind into the domain of true knowledge Bertrand russell -​ Contributions to logic, epistemology, and philosophy of mathematics -​ To free ourselves from the prejudices that philosophy carries, such as the idea of the practical man (Someone who recognizes only material needs) who neglects feeding his mind and is instead concerned with feeding his body -​ Once definite knowledge has become a subject, it is no longer referred to as philosophy but as science -​ Philosophical study of questions enriches our conception of possibility, imagination, and opens the mind to speculation -​ 1. Believes science doesn’t belong to philosophy -​ He believes they are inherently different -​ Study of physical science is recommended because of the effect on mankind, he explained that science was useful for modern day society because -​ It provides a sense of physical reality, studying what can be seen and has already been proven, whereas philosophy focuses on what cannot currently or can never be proven -​ 2. Certain scientific inventions are useful because they provide a sense of reality to those who believe in the scientific aspect of reality. -​ He does believe that philosophy is focused on reality which explains his view on science being definitive -​ He questioned philosophy in the aspect of examining objects and animals for example to see how they exist independently to humans, which sets him apart from other philosophers because it demonstrates how he doesn't necessarily question reality because it's already been proven, instead he believes that science and -​ Science can allow for reasoning which many people crave, because of comfort, which religion could also tie into  Philosophy Foundations- Periods of Development 1.​ Ancient Period -​ Early Greek philosophers starting in the 600 to 300 BCE -​ Can be known as the Western Philosophy -​ Best known for teaching methods and for asking thought provoking questions -​ Questions about achieving happiness, how we change our perception and being in the world -​ Usually based around the four basic elements (water, earth, sun, fire etc.) -​ Socrates, Aristotle, Lao Tzu, Indian Upanishads Socrates -​ An unexamined life is not worth living -​ Our psyche or soul is the most important part of life -​ A soul in search of wealth, fame and power becomes weak, sickly and ignorant -​ The most virtuous way to respond to injustice is not more injustice Aristotle -​ Three Principles of Persuasion: Ethos, Pathos and Logos -​ All instruction given or received by way of argument proceeds from pre-existent knowledge -​ Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude Lao Tzu -​ Being deeply loved by someone gives you strength, while loving someone deeply gives you courage -​ The journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step -​ Knowing others is intelligence; knowing yourself is true wisdom. Mastering others is strength; mastering yourself is true power Indian Upanishads -​ Upanishads are the philosophical-religious texts of Hinduism -​ Vyasa, the sage composed the Upanishads -​ These texts state at the core of every person is not the body, nor the mind, nor the ego but the Atman - the soul or self -​ They present a vision of an interconnected universe with a single, unifying principle behind the apparent diversity in cosmos, any articulation of which is called brahman Medieval Period -​ Associated with the middle of the 8th century and in Baghdad and France -​ Medieval period was closed connected to Christian though, because they were churchman -​ Trying to attain knowledge through divine inspiration or illumination -​ Many philosophers of the time tried to develop precise notions of God -​ All-powerful -​ All-knowing -​ All-good 1.​ St Thomas Aquinas 2.​ William of Occam 3.​ Ibn Rushd 4.​ Adi Shankara 5.​ Madhvacharya 6.​ Maimonides Early Modern Period 1.​ Rene Descartes  -​ French Philosopher in the 1600s -​ Argued the theory of innate knowledge -​ That all humans are born with knowledge through the higher power of Good 2.​ John Locke -​ English philosopher in the 1600s -​ He had ideas about natural law, social contact, religious toleration and the right to revolution -​ Believed in self-governance 3.​ Immanuel Kant -​ German philosopher in the 1700s -​ Doctrine of Transcendental Idealism (experience vs supersensible) -​ “All of our knowledge begins with the senses, proceeds then to the understanding and ends with reason” Nineteenth century 1.​ John Stuart Mill -​ English philosopher -​ System of Logic-1843 -​ On liberty - 1859 -​ Utilitarianism 1861 -​ Actions are right in proportion as they propose happiness 2.​ George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel -​ A German philosopher -​ Idealism- the infinite world is a reflection of mind which alone is truly real -​ We do not perceive the world or anything in it directly and that all our minds have access to ideas of the world 3.​ Soren Kierkegaard -​ German philosopher, known as the Father of Existentialism -​ Individuals pass three stages on the way to become their true self: aesthetic, the ethical and the religious -​ “One’s life can be meaningful and worth living only if one believes genuinely in a Christian God” Contemporary Period -​ Individuals that are more modern -​ Examples may be: Bertand Russell, Ludwig Wittenstein, Simone de Beauvoir, hannah arendt, edmund husserl, john rawls, martin buber Types of arguments -​ Deductive methods moves from more general to the specific -​ deductive arguments are supposed to be watertight -​ With a good deductive argument,; the truth of the premises entails the truth of the conclusion -​ Inductive method moves from a specific case to a more general conclusion (less specific) -​ You’re using what you believe to be logic, using your opinion to come up with a conclusion (can’t base future outcomes on past outcomes) -​ Doesn’t need to be as rigorous as deductive arguments in order to be good arguments -​ We are not 100% certain that the conclusion is true, but it’s more likely, based on past outcomes, that the conclusion is true Valid Deductive Arguments -​ Conclusion MUST be true given that the premises are true -​ Logically impossible for premises to be true and the conclusion to be false What is inductive reasoning? -​ The basic assumptions: present and past observations lead to a general statement and will continue to follow that pattern in the future -​ Something being probable -​ Inductive isn’t certain, make a general conclusion based off of certain ideas (deductive is certain) Valid Arguments -​ An argument is valid if the truth of the premises logically guarantees the truth of the conclusion -​ The premises of an argument do not have actually to be true in order for the argument to be valid -​ An argument is valid if the premises and conclusion are related to each other in the right way so that if the premises were true, then the conclusion would have to be true as well Sound Argument -​ A deductive argument is sound if it is both valid and all of its premises are actually true  -​ Otherwise a deductive argument is unsound -​ A sound argument is one that is not only valid, but begins with premises that are actually true Logical fallacies: is an error in reasoning, use of our arguments and what we say and what we do, takes away the validity of your argument both deductive and inductive Ad hominem: attack on the character of a person rather than his or her opinions or arguments Bandwagon fallacy: occurs when we base the validity of our argument on how many people believe or do the same thing as we do Irrelevant appeals: seen often when someone is trying to persuade you, they attempt to convince the reader with ideas and information that are irrelevant to the issue or argument Moralistic fallacy: Occurs when one concludes that something is a particular way because it should be that way and the opposite as well Naturalistic fallacy: occurs when people draw conclusions about the nature of reality from observations of nature, without taking into account whether or not those observations are accurate Red Herring: tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding opposing arguments rather than addressing them Fallacy of division: involves someone taking an attribute of a whole or a class and assuming that it must also necessarily be true of each part or member. Gambler Fallacy: our belief that the probability of a random event occurring in the future is influenced by the past history of that type of event occurring (incorrect since past events do not change the probability that certain events will occur in the future) Genetic fallacy: Based on an argument that the origins of a person, idea, or theory determines its character, nature, or worth Accent fallacies: When the meaning of a word, sentence, or entire idea is interpreted differently by changing where the accent falls Equivocation fallacy: refers to the use of an ambiguous word or phrase in more than one sense within the same argument. Straw Man fallacy: over simplifies an opponent’s viewpoint and then attacks the argument Arguing from ignorance: occurs when you argue that your conclusion must be true, because there is no evidence against it. Begging the question/circular reasoning: occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of supporting it. (you assume without proof the stand/position, or a significant part of the stand, that is in question) Complex question fallacy: The argument takes the form of a question - often a rhetorical question Cum hoc fallacy: committed when one jumps to a conclusion about an occasion based on a correlation between two events, or types of event, which occur simultaneously. False dilemma fallacy: involves presenting a limited number of options as if they were the only options available. This forces people to choose between two extremes, even though there is a spectrum of possibilities in between Hasty generalization fallacy: Where you rush to the conclusion before you have relevant and correct facts or evidence “No True Scotsman” fallacy: attempt to defend a generalization by denying the validity of any counterexamples given Post hoc fallacy: assumption that because one event preceded another event, they must be causally related. In other words, the first event must have caused the second. Slippery slope fallacy: if we take one step in one direction and we wind up at the bottom Sweeping generalization fallacy: A general rule is applied to a particular situation,even if it is inapplicable to specific situations. Subjectivist fallacy: Claiming something is true for one person, but not for someone else when, in fact, it is true for everyone (objective) as demonstrated by evidence. Tu quoque fallacy: also referred to as "look who's talking" fallacy, supposes that the opposing speaker is hypocritical Anecdotal evidence fallacy: occurs when a person believes a personal experience or an isolated example instead of a sound argument or compelling argument False equivalence fallacy: an argument or claim that two completely opposing arguments are logically equivalent when they are not The Big Metaphysical Questions From the very beginning, humankind has posed questions for which there seems to be no definitive answer -​ What is the meaning of life? -​ What is our place in the universe? -​ What is consciousness? -​ Does the world really exist? -​ Why is there something, rather than nothing?​ Do we have free will? -​ Does God exist? -​ Does any of this - even my act of questioning - actually matter? Metaphysical theories / metaphysical abstractions -​ Rationalism: the view that regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge -​ Nominalism view that universals and abstract objects do not actually exist they are just names or labels -​ Realism: The attitude or practice of accepting a situation as it is and being prepared to deal with it accordingly  -​ Dualism: refer to being in a state of division or having duality. -​ Monism/Dualism: Monsim, is the belief that, ultimately, the mind and brain are the same thing, where dualists believe that the brain and mind are separate -​ Dualism posits that there are two fundamentally different kinds of substances or realities: the mental (mind) and the physical (body) -​ Empiricism: A theory that all knowledge comes from sense-experience. -​ Materialism: is the belief that nothing exists apart from the material world -​ Human beings are just complicated physiological organisms - no more, no less -​ Idealism: Is the idea that there isn’t actually a physical world, and everything is actually in our heads -​ It is basically Putnam’s “brain in a vat” theory - a thought experiment that asks whether you are real, or simply a brain in a vat/jar that is being subjected to the stimulation of its neurons so that it just seems like you are having experiences -​ Law of identity: Everything that exists has a specific nature. Each entity exists as something in particular and it has characteristics that are a part of what it is -​ Law of causality: every event has a cause -​ Fideism: The doctrine that knowledge depends on faith or revelation. -​ Deism: The belief in the existence of a supreme being, specifically of a creator who does not intervene in the universe. -​ accepted the existence of a creator on the basis of reason but rejected belief in a supernatural deity who interacts with humankind. Belief in God is based on reason instead of revelation or the teachings of any specific kind of religion. -​ Atheism: Disbelief or lack of belief in the existence of God or gods. -​ Monotheism: The doctrine or belief that there is only one God. -​ Modal realism: the doctrine that, besides the actual world one lives in, there exists other possible worlds -​ Fatalism: the theory that there are some destiny's that we cannot avoid, although we can take different paths to this destiny -​ Diesen or dasein -​ Heidegger: about the human being and its place in the world: it continually interprets and engages with other entities and the contexts in which they lie -​ Theology: discipline of religious speculation and apologetics that is traditionally restricted, because of its origins to Christianity -​ pragmatism: a way of dealing with problems or situations that focus on practical approaches and solutions -​ holism: theory that the parts of any whole cannot exist and cannot be understood except in their relation to the whole Metaphysical abstractions MIND AND MATTER -​ Mind-body dilemma: focusing on where our consciousness resides, matter is an abstraction of mind ,mind is what we are -​ Berkeley: defends two metaphysical, idealism and immaterialism, replaced on kind of dualism, mind and matter, with another kind, mind and idea which is that in addition to perceiving things he posits perceivers (minds or spirits) -​ He rejected the existence of material substances independent of perception, suggesting that only minds and their ideas exist -​ berkeley rejects concept of separation, believes more on existence and they are a direct correlation between mind and body (more together than separate) -​ associates mind and matter without using the concept of memory (eliminates that as a concern) -​ Kant: meaning to infer, He proposed that while we can know phenomena (things as they appear), the noumena (things in themselves) remain inaccessible -​ He acknowledged a distinction between the mind and external reality but rejected the strict dualism of Descartes, emphasizing that our knowledge is shaped by the structures of our mind -​ Spinoza: the human mind and the human body are numerically “one and the same thing” everything is interconnected, mental physical events are two aspects of same reality -​ Spinoza rejected Descartes' dualism, proposing a monistic view where mind and body are two attributes of a single substance, which he referred to as "God or Nature." -​ Descartes claims that it is conscious, not that it has shape or consists of physical matter. Unlike the brain, which has physical characteristics and occupies space, it does not seem to make sense to attach spatial descriptions to it EXISTENCE AND CONSCIOUSNESS -​ Rene descartes” Cogito, Ergo Sum “i think therefore i am” -​ This principle posits that the act of thinking is proof of one’s existence -​ The very act of thinking about one's existence is evidence of the presence of a mind distinct from the body. -​ Argued for dualistic view, separating mind and soul -​ John locke: emphasized experience and perception as the basis of knowledge  -​ He argued that consciousness is tied to memory and personal identity, suggesting that what we consider "self" is a continuous stream of consciousness. -​ holds that personal identity is a matter of psychological continuity. He considered personal identity (or the self) to be founded on consciousness, and not on the substance of either the soul or the body. -​ Leibniz: introduced the concept of monads, simple substances that are the fundamental units of reality -​ Each monad has its own perspective and consciousness, but they do not interact in the traditional sense. -​ It is argued that Leibniz held a version of the so‐called “higher‐order thought” (HOT) theory of consciousness. According to this theory, what makes a mental state conscious is that it is accompanied by a thought (or awareness) that one is in that state. Identity and change -​ Aristotle: -​ Accidental Change: Changes that don't affect the object's core identity (e.g., a house being painted). -​ Essential Change: Changes that alter the core identity of the object (e.g., death). -​ He argued that accidental changes do not change the object’s identity, while essential changes do. -​ Leibniz: -​ Identity of Indiscernibles: If two objects share all their properties, they are identical; they cannot be distinct if they have no properties that differentiate them. -​ Indiscernibility of Identicals (Leibniz’s Law): If two things are identical, they must share every property. -​ He used these principles to argue against the existence of absolute space, as proposed by Newton. ​ Religion and spirituality : -​ Hume: Critiqued religion and believed the soul may survive death, but was skeptical about afterlife claims. -​ Kierkegaard: Advocated for a personal, faith-based relationship with God. -​ Nietzsche: Challenged traditional religious beliefs and emphasized self-realization without reliance on a soul or God. -​ McCord Adams: Focused on the need for divine intervention to preserve human meaning in the face of evil. -​ Aquinas: Believed in the rational proof of God’s existence and saw the soul as distinct, immortal, and central to knowledge Search for meaning -​ Concerned with the nature of reality, what it means to exist etc. -​ Focusing on the big metaphysical questions -​ “Challenging the meaning of life is the truest expression of the state of being human” - Viktor Frankl, psychiatrist -​ argues that humans find meaning, even in suffering, through their attitudes and responses. For Frankl, the search for meaning is the essence of being human, emphasizing the power of personal choice in shaping one’s life purpose -​ Aristotle -​ Cosmological arguments: work emphasizes universal principles of being and the nature of existence. He explored the concept of the Prime Mover (or First Cause), a central idea in metaphysical discussions about the universe -​ Every finite and dependent being has a cause, nothing finite and dependent can cause itself. A casual chain cannot be of infinite length. Therefore, there must be a First Cause; or, there must be something that is not an effect -​ Spinoza’s Ethics: Spinoza offered a monistic metaphysics, arguing that everything, including God, is a single substance. He saw God not as a separate being but as the fundamental essence of all existence, which reshapes our understanding of existence and meaning. -​ Ontological Argument: St. Anselm’s idea that if we can conceive of a perfect being (God), that being must exist suggests that divine existence is a fundamental aspect of the search for meaning in life. -​ Aristotle’s Eudaimonia: According to Aristotle, a meaningful life is one that achieves eudaimonia (flourishing or living well). This involves virtue and rational activity, suggesting that meaning comes from developing moral and intellectual virtues Epistemology Schools of philosophy Include -​ Existentialism: Existentialism is the philosophical belief we are each responsible for creating purpose or meaning in our own lives. Our individual purpose and meaning is not given to us by Gods, governments, teachers or other authorities  -​ Stoicism: Stoicism encourages people to focus on what they can control and accept what they cannot, leading to emotional resilience and inner strength. This mindset helps individuals manage stress, setbacks and uncertainties effectively -​ Virtue, control, rationality, Fallibilism: Is the epistemological thesis that no belief (theory, view, thesis etc.) can ever be rationally supported or justified in a conclusive way -​ Our knowledge may turn out to be false, human knowledge is always uncertain and potentially incorrect (THERE'S ALWAYS A POSSIBILITY THAT THESE BELIEFS COULD BE WRONG) Positivism : That holds that every rationally justifiable assertion can be scientifically verified therefore rejects metaphysics and theism -​ All knowledge regarding matters of fact is based on the “positive” data of experience -​ All genuine knowledge is either true by definition or positive Agnosticism: the doctrine that humans cannot know of the existence of anything beyond the phenomena of their experience -​ Person who holds the view that any ultimate reality is unknown and probably unknowable Theories of truth -​ Correspondence: A statement is true if it corresponds to or reflects reality. In other words, a statement is true if it accurately describes the way things are in the world. -​ coherence : A statement is true if it coheres or is logically consistent with a system of beliefs or propositions. Truth is determined by the internal consistency of a set of beliefs rather than their correspondence to an external reality. -​ Pragmatic: A statement is true if it is useful, practical, or works in practice. This theory emphasizes the practical consequences of a belief or proposition and its ability to help us navigate the world effectively. Internalism -​ The basic idea of internalism is that justification is solely determined by factors that are internal to a person. -​ Both internalism and externalism can be attributed by Descartes -​ Descartes is often seen as an early precursor to internalism. His emphasis on cogito ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am") reflects an emphasis on the subjective, mental states of the individual as the foundation of knowledge. -​ Cynicism : an inclination to believe that people are motivated purely by self-interest and the belief that people are only interested in themselves and are not sincere: Feeling of distrust Dogmatism: defined as avoidance from accepting others' beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Dogmatic individuals have many problems in understanding new ideas. They cannot accept reasonable ideas instead of their incorrect ideas Pyrrhonism -​ philosophic doubt; skepticism. -​ It is a form of philosophical skepticism that emphasizes radical doubt and the suspension of judgment about the truth of all things. Foundationalism : the view that some beliefs can justifiably be held by inference from other beliefs, which themselves are justified directly—e.g., on the basis of rational intuition or sense perception -​ Descartes is often taken to be the paradigm of a classical foundationalist. Determined to build knowledge on appropriate and secure foundations he seemed to want to identify foundational knowledge with infallible belief. -​ argues that foundational beliefs are justified through direct sensory experience or self-evident propositions immediately known to be true. Atomism : suggests that everything in the universe, including matter, is composed of indivisible units called atoms. Objectivism : is a philosophical position that asserts there is only one correct way to understand reality in terms of objects, properties, and relations, independent of individual perceptions or beliefs. Constructivism : a philosophical paradigm that ontologically emphasizes how an individual actively constructs their own notions of reality through their cognition -​ tends to focus on the construction of scientific knowledge -​ posits that knowledge can only exist within the human mind, and that it does not have to match any real-world reality Solipsism: belief that one's mind is the only conscious entity in existence. As the argument goes, the universe only exists in your head, and when you die, it will disappear with you.  -​ an extreme form of subjective idealism that denies that the human mind has any valid ground for believing in the existence of anything but itself Externalism -​ externalism is the view that what is going on in an individual's mind is not (entirely) determined by what is going on inside ones body BUT ALSO factors outside the individuals own mind Descartes and the Cartesian Approach -​ René Descartes believed that knowledge of eternal truths, such as mathematics, innate ideas of mind, matter, and God, could be attained by reason, alone, without the need for any sensory experience. Even though Catesians developed probable scientific theories from observation and experiment, they also accepted that science could not prove everything. Human intellect was finite, they conceded, but God’s intellect was infinite and omnipotent Spinoza and the Notion of Absolute Substance -​ Expanding on Descartes’ basic principles, Spinoza’s rationalist theory relied on his notion that God is the only absolute substance. -​ Spinoza was a substance monist - he believed that everything is essentially one ‘thing’ or ‘substance’ composed of thought and extension. All aspects of the natural world are modes of the eternal substance of God, and therefore, can be known through our thought or reason. Spinoza claims that, as humans are just a mode of this substance, we can affirm the truth inherent within all of reality through different types of knowledge, imagination, intuition and the exercise of the intellect Leibniz and the Notion of Monads ​ Leibniz’s universe contains only God and non-composite, immaterial, soul-like entities called “monads.” ​ argues that things seem to cause one another because God ordained a pre-established harmony among everything in the universe. So, concepts such as space, time, causation, and material objects, for example, are all illusions. All necessary truths, though, are innate. The Problem of Knowledge ​ Kant's transcendental idealism caused a great deal of disagreement about what it means to ‘know something.’ he was opposed to Barkeley’s subjective idealism because that form of idealism denied the existence of things apart from the subject—divine or human—and perceiving them ​ Kant suggested that his transcendental idealism did not make claims it could not sustain about the ultimate reality of things; instead, it left individuals free to make statements about things to the extent they appear to the observer. Our self-awareness comes together with the awareness of the external world around us; we are as certain of its existence as we are of our own. ​ the claim that all empirical objects, objects in space and time, are mind-dependent, and that we cannot cognize the mind-independent world. Justified True Belief ​ The traditional approach to the theory of knowledge comes from Plato and his theory of justified true belief. The JTB theory focuses on propositional knowledge, using the chema “S knows that P,” where S stands for the subject who has knowledge and P for the proposition that is known ​ Using the schema ‘S knows that p’, where ‘S’ stands for the subject who has knowledge and ‘p’ for the proposition that is known, what are the necessary and sufficient conditions for S to know that p? ○​ S knows that p if and only if: ○​ S believes that p, and ○​ p is true, and ○​ S is justified in believing that p. -​ According to this traditional approach to knowledge: -​ false propositions cannot be known, therefore, knowledge requires truth; -​ a proposition that S doesn't even believe in can't be a proposition that S knows, therefore, knowledge requires belief; -​ S's being correct in believing that p might merely be a matter of luck, therefore, knowledge requires a third element, traditionally identified as ‘justification.’ -​ Thus, if we approach knowledge as JTB: S knows that p if and only if p is true and S is justified in believing that p. -​ According to this analysis, the three conditions — truth, belief, and justification — are individually necessary and jointly sufficient for knowledge.- -​ can only assert that a belief (an observation if you will) is knowledge if it can be justified and it turns out to be true Justifiers A Priori Knowledge - knowledge or justification that is independent of experience. Deduction - The inference of particular instances by reference to a general law or principle. Fatalism - The belief that all events are predetermined and therefore inevitable. Groupthink - The practice of approaching problems or issues as matters that are best dealt with by consensus of a group rather than by individuals acting independently. The group confirms ideas to not feel outcast or leading to errors Hedonism - The ethical theory that pleasure is the highest good and proper aim of human life. The less pain or suffering the better Intuition - A thing that one knows or considers likely from instinctive feeling rather than conscious reasoning. Law of Nature - A regularly occurring or apparently inevitable event observable in human society. Occam's Razor - Explanations of unknown events are sought first in terms of known quantities. Simplest explanation is the logical one, no more assumptions should be made that aren’t necessary Probability Theory - The extent to which an event is likely to occur. Which is more likely to happen Scientific Method - Relevant data are gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from these data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested. The Fallacy of False Dichotomy -​ Dichotomy is Greek in origin -​ Means “to cut in two” -​ Sets up two mutually exclusive choices: one attractive and one unattractive -​ EXAMPLE: You are either part of the solution or part of the solution” Different Types of Relativism Moral relativism: Moral relativism is the view that moral judgments, such as those employing concepts like good and bad, right or wrong, should only be assessed relative to a particular standpoint of a culture. Is concerned with differences in moral judgments across different people, cultures and historical contexts in which they arise Cognitive relativism: Truth is dependent on the standpoint from where the truth is being judged -​ If it is the standpoint of an individual- then it is subjectivism -​ If that is that of a culture - then it is cultural relativism Aesthetic relativism: Is the philosophical view that the judgment of beauty is relative to different individuals and/or cultures. Thus, there are no universal criteria of beauty Cultural relativism: Principle of regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that culture, itself. -​ Cultural relativists believe that all cultures are worthy in their own rights and are of equal value Diverse epistemologies Feminist Epistemology -​ Feminist epistemology addresses similar concerns regarding bias and under representation, but it is also focused on traditional epistemological concerns regarding the study of knowledge - but from the missing feminist perspective -​ Challenges traditional Western conceptions of knowledge, which often emphasize objectivity, detachment -​ Seeks to address the ways in which cultural and historical factors that have systematically excluded or oppressed female voices and perspectives, rather than enabling knowledge -​ Feminists strive for gender equality, sharing fundamental beliefs like: advancing sexual freedom, eradicating gender inequality, extending human choice, advancing equality, preventing sexual violence -​ Feminist naturalized approaches focus on the way in which sexism, racism, or homophobia might deform knowledge practices and the construction of theories Continental Feminist Epistemologies: Emphasize the ways in which epistemic practices, norms and products - such as knowledge - are not neutral but are, in fact, both produced by, and partially involve, power relations. Key proponent: Elizabeth Grosz Black Feminist Epistemology : Is the expression of black women’s consciousness, expressions, and standpoints against both the racial and gender oppression that results in needs and problems distinct from those of white women and black men Feminist Epistemic Virtue Theory: Focus on the way in which “maleness” and “femaleness” operate symbolically in philosophical discussions. This perspective looks at the ways in which gender and power relations are assumed in discussions that deal with reason/unreason, reason/emotion, and objectivity/subjectivity Afrocentric Epistemology : Viewpoint believes that no reality exists without spiritual inclination -​ Afrocentrisim is the belief that Africans contributions throughout history regarding truth have been altered and changed in order to fit other individual narratives Inuit -​ Inuit contrasts and sometimes enhances Western epistemological frameworks, emphasizing relationships with the world and lived experiences as truth -​ Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit emphasizes holistic and interconnected knowledge. Truth is not just about factual accuracy but also about maintaining harmony and balance with all living things. Justified beliefs are those that align with the four  big laws or maligait: working for the common good, respecting all living things, maintaining harmony and balance, and continually planning and preparing for the future -​ Inuit epistemology adds a holistic perspective to the Western understanding of knowledge. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of all aspects of life, which can enhance our understanding of ourselves and others by promoting a sense of cultural identity, collective purpose, and belonging Queer Epistemology -​ Focuses mainly on empiricism, or that knowledge can only be derived from experience and senses, these experiences are often excluded from dominant narratives -​ Queer people have always been excluded from societal norms -​ Tending to have more in depth concept of gender and sexuality, allowing them to apply it to the world itself Ethical views Plato’s Euthyphro -​ Euthyphro suggests that What is holy is what is agreeable to the gods, in response to which Socrates points out that the gods often argumwnt, so what is agreeable to one might not be agreeable to all. -​ Plato's main goal is to teach us, and he believes firmly (as we gather in other dialogues, notably the Meno) that knowledge only comes when we are able to justify and account for our true beliefs. -​ Thus, teaching is not simply a matter of giving the right answer Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics -​ Aristotle stated that the contemplative life consists of the soul's participation in the eternal through a union between the soul's rational faculty and the nous that imparts intelligibility to the cosmos. -​ considers the nature of human action and ethics, rooted in the concept of eudaimonia, often translated as happiness. -​ However, it means the highest good, that which humans seek for its own sake and not for the sake of something else Mill’s Utilitarianism -​ Mill defines utilitarianism as a theory based on the principle that "actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness." -​ Mill defines happiness as pleasure and the absence of pain. Mill argues that the only proof that something is desirable is that people actually desire it. It is a fact that happiness is good, because all people desire their own happiness. -​ Thus, it is clear that happiness is at least one end, and one criterion, of morality Confucicus’s Analects -​ Confucius stressed the cultivation of personal qualities such as benevolence, reciprocity, and filial piety. -​ Confucius believed that education and reflection led to virtue, and that those who aspired to command others must cultivate discipline and moral authority in themselves -​ Respect yourself and others will respect you.” … -​ “The noble-minded are calm and stead Kant’s Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals -​ In it, he presents the basic concepts and principles of right and virtue and the system of duties of human beings as such. -​ In the Groundwork, Kant says that perfect duties never admit of exception for the sake of inclination, which is sometimes taken to imply that imperfect duties do admit of exception for the sake of inclination -​ Kant based his ethical theory on the belief that reason should be used to determine how people ought to act. -​ He did not attempt to prescribe specific action, but instructed that reason should be used to determine how to behave Sartre’s Existentialism is a Humanism -​ Sartre proves that existentialism is a humanism because it is a philosophy that reminds man that (a) in his abandoned state, man must make his own choices, (b) that man's choices must be good for all (not just himself), and that (c) man will only realize himself as truly human when he commits himself to a.. -​ Sartre's humanism is the philosophy of eternal concerns of man which are today more. pressing than ever before. -​ Since Sartre's existentialism is concerned with man's freedom and its aim is to. change its readers or to free from illusion, therefore it always been taught as a practical philosophy Singer’s Animal liberation -​ The aim is to prevent suffering and Singer shows that vast grievous suffering can be avoided with little sacrifice — but sweeping changes — from humans. -​ Conversely, giving animals no consideration results in egregious (in terms of quantity, severity and uselessness) suffering -​ That is ,as we strive for equality, we should strive for equal consideration of the interests of human beings and non-human animals alike! Jaggers feminist ethics -​ is an approach to ethics that builds on the belief that traditionally ethical theorizing has undervalued and/or underappreciated women's moral experience, which is largely male-dominated, and it therefore chooses to reimagine ethics through a holistic feminist approach to transform it. -​ Feminist Ethics aims “to understand, criticize, and correct” how gender operates within our moral beliefs and practices (Lindemann 2005, 11) and our methodological approaches to ethical theory Nussbaum’s the fragility of goodness -​ believes there is a crucial role for the education system – from early school to tertiary – in building a different kind of citizen. Rather than economically productive and useful, we need people who are imaginative, emotionally intelligent and compassionate -​ The 10 capabilities of Nussbaum Life | Bodily Health | Bodily Integrity | Senses, Imagination and Thought | Emotion | Practical Reason | Affiliation | Other Species | Play | Control Over One's Environment | So what? Gyekye an essay on african philosophical thought -​ Offering a philosophical clarification and interpretation of the concepts in the ontology, philosophical psychology, theology, and ethics of the Akan of Ghana, Gyekye argues that critical analyses of specific traditional African modes of thought are necessary to develop a distinctivelyAfrican philosophy as well as African philosophy contemplates the perceptions of time, personhood, space and other subjects. -​ Africana philosophy can be formally defined as critical thinking by Africans and people of African descent on their experiences of reality. Moral Philosophy Metaethics -​ Abstract area of moral philosophy -​ It is the study of where ethical principles come from -​ Metaethics asks: Did we just make up moral principles on our own, or did a Divine Being, or beings of some kind, give them to us? Normative Ethics -​ Principle and guidelines based on theories -​ Looks at how to assemble a set of rules, or moral principles, that determine what kinds of actions are good and bad, right and wrong Applied Ethics -​ Seeks to apply normative ethical theories to specific cases to tell us what is right and what is wrong -​ But it also examines very contentious issues such as reproductive rights/abortions, animal rights, and crime/punishment -​ Applied ethics helps us resolve real-world, everyday dilemmas and issues Moral Guidance to Ethical Decisions Buddhism’s Eightfold Path -​ Also called the Middle Path or Middle Way, the Eightfold Path is part of the last of the four teachings of the Buddha - known as the Four Noble Truths. The Eightfold Path is a process to awaken your true nature and achieve spiritual enlightenment. -​ Complete perfect vision, perfected emotion, proper livelihood, energy, holistic, Anishinaabe Seven Grandfather Teachings Each Grandfather Teaching is a tool for living a good life -​ Respect, love, bravery, truth, wisdom, generosity, humility Seven Laws of Noah (Hebrew) -​ According to the Talmud, the Seven Laws of Noah (also known as the Noahide Laws) are a set of imperatives or binding laws from God - given to all of humanity (the children of Noah). -​ The first six laws are derived from Genesis, the last law being the establishment of courts to uphold the first six The Ten Commandments: The Bible (Christian) -​ God gave the Ten Commandments or the Decalogue, to Moses after the Israelites left Egypt. The laws of life, which can be found in the book of Exodus in both the Torah and the Bible, outline rules that are important to both Judaism and Christianity, although there are variations to the translations and in their teaching and interpretation The Ten Commandments: The Quran (Islam) -​ Commandments as outlined in the Quran, are also known as ‘al-Din al-Jami.’ -​ To acquire righteous and pious character - Taqwa - you need to remember your responsibilities and follow the Divine Path Concept of Eudimonia: How to transport our happiness Deontology -​ Theories hold that some acts are always wrong, even if the act leads to an admirable outcome -​ Theory of deontology will always be wrong even if it leads to an outcome that you want, it always takes each individual's views rather than a collective -​ Even if the outcome could ultimately be good, the act of it will always be bad -​ Key proponent: Immanuel Kant Utilitarianism -​ Fundamental principle of utilitarianism is that the rightness and wrongness of an action is dependent on the number of people who would benefit for that action -​ The greater the number of people who would benefit from an action taken, the more ‘right’ it is, even if a small minority is made to suffer or is harmed in some way -​ Key proponents: Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill Buddhist Ethics -​ Are focused on the goal of keeping ‘the Middle Way,” cultivating a life of contemplation and enlightenment -​ Buddhism emphasizes avoidance and moderation rather than striving for any purpose, whether desirable or not -​ The dhamma (or law) is the foundation and the ‘moral point of view’ around which all else turns, it includes the duties, rights, laws, and virtues, necessary to adhere to the ‘right way of living’ in accordance to rta - the order which makes life and the universe possible. Actions taken that contribute to the rta, are right actions The Analects -​ Is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher, Confucius -​ Its ethics assume that human nature is not intrinsically good or evil but is driven by a desire to become a (morally) “superior person.” -​ This is done by practicing the virtues often (humaneness), zhong (loyalty to heart and conscience), and li (social property or ritual) -​ Any decision or action that contributes to a more virtuous way of being is the right path Consequentialism -​ Also known as teleological ethics -​ Tells us we need to take into account the final consequence of our action, even if the act itself is not morally good -​ As long as the outcome reminds good or positive then the action can be seen as morally right -​ Key Proponents: Elizabeth Anscombe Divine Command Ethics -​ Purely religious -​ Is a subset of Deontological ethics that includes Judaic, Christian, Zoroastrian and Islamic traditions, as well -​ It is a theory that considers, that “right,” “wrong,” and “obligation” are decided by asking whether actions are compatible with or contrary to the commands of a loving God  -​ This is what it tells me to do, this is what I followed -​ Key Proponents: Durkheim, Plato, Aquinas, Averroes, St Augustine, Al Kindi, Von Bingen Determinism -​ It argues that if there is a God, then, by definition, He is all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-controlling, since He both created everything in the universe and causes everything to happen according to His will. -​ Therefore, however we may feel about making choices, it is really not a matter of choice at all; God controls everything -​ Actions based on a deterministic view on what choices we have and there everything is predetermined Nihilism -​ Viewpoint that traditional values and beliefs are unfounded and that existence is senseless and useless -​ Every decision is just useless, the subject of nature of good and bad is so vague that there is no connection between any of us so do whatever you want -​ Do as you wish, it is all inconsequential in the end -​ Who cares!!! -​ Key proponents: Nietzche Hedonoism -​ What will give you the most pleasure and minimize pain -​ Pleasure is the only good in life and pain is the only evil -​ Our life’s goal should be to maximize pleasure and minimize pain -​ according to ethical hedonism, people have the right to do everything in their power to achieve the greatest amount of pleasure possible to theme -​ Key Proponents: Aristippus of Cyrene, Epicurus Objectivism -​ Philosophy of rational individualism founded by Ayn Rand -​ advocates the virtues of rational self-interest-virtues such as independent thinking, productiveness, justice, honesty etc. -​ Your view Altruism -​ Also ethical altruism -​ Is the selfless concern for the welfare of others -​ It proposes that individuals have a moral obligation to help, serve, or benefit others, if necessary, at the sacrifice of self interest -​ In other words, an action is morally right if the consequence of that action are more favourbale than unfavourbale to everyone else, expect the nature of doing ti Forms of Relativism Cultural Relativism -​ The view that moral or ethical systems, which vary from culture to culture, are all equally valid and no one system is really “better” than any other -​ This is based on the idea that there is no ultimate standard of good or evil, so every judgment about right and wrong is a product of society -​ The individuals in that culture determine right from wrong, but that culture takes away some of our ability to make those decisions Ethical Relativism -​ The view that morality is relative to the norms of one’s culture. That is, whether an action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced. Whatever a group that shares a common culture perceives to be right, is right Social Relativism : The view that people in different societies have very different beliefs and systems of beliefs Metaethical Relativism : The view that only some people do in fact disagree about what is moral, and that in such disagreements, nobody is objectively right or wrong. The unanswerable questions that we determine our views around are subjective Aesthetics Beauty is Subjective. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder David Hume -​ Beauty is no quality in themselves but merely in the mind of the mind and each mind perceives a different beauty -​ Beauty is judged internally and by someone who actually experiences what they are seeing or contemplating, Someone else can’t say it is beautiful and you right away agree, it has to be your own decision) Francis Hutcheson -​ Beauty is subjective: based on the experience of pleasure that when we look, listen, or feeling something it gives us that pleasure component of it -​ There are two types of beauty: Absolute Beauty, the kind of beauty to be found in nature, and Relative Beauty, the beauty that characterizes art -​ We can come to conclusion by our perception and interactions Alexander Baumgarten -​ He had appropriated the word aesthetics and gave its modern meaning: to “sense” beauty -​ He introduced the concept of judging beauty through our senses instead of the intellect, encouraging people to consider whether their morals influence their aesthetic experience because sometimes the intellect cannot comprehend or individuals don’t have that certain intellect Clive Bell -​ In his “ The Aesthetic Hypothesis” Bell contends, evoking or provoking emotion and because we are doing this it will be different for every individual so there is no objective validity towards it therefore it is purely based on personal experience and must be subjective Beauty is Objective. Beautiful things are inherently beautiful Plato -​ Plato’s “Theory of Knowledge” contends that remembering the idea that perfect beauty or something that has any form of perfection to it is purely something that is kept in the mind as a way to perceive our physical senses that must not be real -​ Something that imitates it, is not taking the true form of beauty -​ Therefore true knowledge true beauty cannot be seen only understood through the mind, no emotions or senses that go with it -​ When I have it in my mind, I have the knowledge, understand and ability to understand that something is beautiful -​ He made assumption that only certain people can have the true understanding of beautiful, not all individuals are capable of seeing the objective nature and beauty of things Aristotle -​ This art as a form can imitate nature and because it does that therefore it can have some value to it, but it only is in the reality or the item or object that we can understand the intellect behind it, only in my mind i can accept and understand that something has value or beauty in it (there is no element in the senses, it has to be the essential thing and in the person's head) -​ Mimesis: how something is mimicked -​ Drawing something from memory means you are mimicking and imitating the object and this is not artistic The Golden Mean -​ The Greeks believed there to be three “ingredients” to beauty 1.​ Symmetry: a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion of balance 2.​ Proportion: refers to the relative size and scale of the various elements in an object 3.​ Harmony: all parts of an object relate to and complement each other -​ If it has these three things then it can be viewed as objectively beautiful  -​ Someone can use and understand these characteristics to look at different art forms and admired it, even if others do not St Augustine -​ Made a sharp distinction between the creations of Gods (ex nihilo) and the creations of artist (ex materia) -​ God created matter, which was initially a formless void without beauty. Things become more beautiful as they possess more form and less void without beauty. Things become more beautiful as they possess more form, and less void- becoming more like God, who possesses perfect form. Therefore, something made by man will always contain less beauty than something made by nature, which is closer to God. -​ In summary: Anything that a person makes will always be less beautiful than what God makes -​ If someone painted a tree, the tree that God made will always be much more beautiful St Thomas Aquinas -​ Everything that has being will have a degree of beauty, regardless of how small that degree appears. An object must exist, in some sense, in order for it to be beautiful; otherwise, it would be nothing. Immanuel Kant -​ Judgments of beauty are often based on feelings; feelings which cannot be proven or measured. Thus, true aesthetic judgments must be free of desire - they must be disinterested if they are to be valid -​ Kant is the founder of formalism (definition: the study of art by analysing and comparing form and style- the way objects are made and their purely visual aspects. At its extreme, formalism in art history posits that everything necessary to comprehending a work of art is contained within the work of art) in aesthetics -​ Has to be on a formalist realm, analyzing things we can see something that is concrete , and emotion cannot be measured in his view -​ You have to take the emotion and desire portion out of it, the feelings you get out of it does not count Georg Hegel -​ Hegel proposed that the point of art is not to be realistic - it wasn’t meant to imitate or mirror everyday life - but it shows us what divine and human freedom should look like. Such a sensuous expression of spiritual freedom is what Hegel called the “Ideal” or true beauty. He felt that art was the first stage in which the absolute spirit is immediately manifested to our sense-perception, and is thus is an objective rather than a subjective revelation of beauty Other Lenses -​ Some beliefs regarding beauty don’t fit neatly into the subjective/objective dichotomy -​ For example: according to Islam, human works of art are inherently flawed compared to the work of Allah, they take out images that take out significant people because you need to focus on God -​ Many islamic artworks focus on architecture, mosaics, geometric and floral patterns, all with the intent to reinforce the awareness of God -​ For example: Rasa, Sanskrit for juice or flavour, is the East Indian concept of aesthetics. It bridges both the subjective and objective as it speaks of an essential “element” in art that moves us emotionally, yet cannot be described. It seeks to answer why fictional works, such as plays, evoke real emotions -​ In Analects, Confucius proposed that the hallmark of good art, such as poetry or painting, should be its effectiveness in promoting virtuous traits, which lead to a harmonious society -​ For example: In Taoism, Wu Wei (non-doing) promotes non-volitional action - acting in a way that is in spontaneous alignment with the cycles of the natural world. Artwork of this period was more spontaneous, free, stylized, containing elements of Yin and Yang, with the intent of bringing the artist closer to the flow of nature: Wu Wei - “The Way” -​ Friedrich Schiller believed that the aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature -​ American feminist art philosopher Marilyn French noted that with the predominance of male philosophers historically, not much had been said of a feminine aesthetic - she even questioned if there was one. Creating art with a female perspective, and having the audience understand such artworks without the filter of the male gaze, would take generations of female artists to achieve Theories of different philosophers and other views Leo Tolstoy: aesthetic values are defined by moral values -​ Beauty cannot be defined objectively and cannot be used as a criterion to define what is and what is not art -​ art is a means of communication and expression of any experience or aspect of human condition -​ He supports moral-based art able to appeal to everyone not just privileged John Dewey: -​ Believed everyone is capable of being an artist -​ Living artful life of social interaction benefits and beautifies the world -​ For Dewey, art functions as experience. Processes of inquiry, looking and finding meaning are transformative, extending connections with what is good and right. Expanded perceptions open venues for understanding and action.” -​ Paying attention to detail is good and helpful -​ Art communicates moral purpose and education -​ He is a pragmatist and attracts art to give as a means to an end because he envisions the end as just and fair Benedetto Croce: “ Croce introduced a novel approach that positioned art as a form of knowledge—distinct from logical reasoning or scientific understanding.” -​ Positioned intuition rather than rationality -​ Rejected the mimetic theory of art believing its capacity is truly to express deeper non rational experiences and in his view art cannot be a replication of the world and it has to engage with the subjective realm of human experience Theories of Art Formalist Theories of Art -​ Illusionary Reality -​ Influenced by Plato, one of the oldest theories of art -​ Speaks back onto the Allegory of the Cave, believing that art was the imitation or appropriation of “reality” -​ He posited that art was nothing more than animation of an imitation. It cannot represent really because it is only a mirror, reflecting what is not, in any case, reality -​ Formalism in art emphasizes the way art is made and how it looks -​ In a formalist view, there isn’t really a concept of reality in it, in a painting you can like the colour and lines but not really know what it is, subject matter doesn’t correlate Defining the Parameters -​ What makes something a work of art - or not - is mainly dependent on the criteria used and perspective taken -​ When its on one single concept its more representational or expression -​ Art doesn't necessarily have to represent something Keywords search suggestions -​ Clive bell: falls under formalism -​ Clement greenberg -​ Formalism: defines an emphasis on form over content or meaning in the arts, literature, or philosophies -​ Minimalism: emerging in 1960s, where it was you only want a few things, minimalism in art is characterized by severe simplicity in form, content, execution -​ Cubism: first abstract art style, Cubist is a refutative idea of different perspectives but it has the flat, two-dimensional surface of the picture plane. Rejecting the traditional techniques and foreshortening. Cubism refuted time honored theories that art should imitate nature. Institutional theories of art -​ Question reality -​ It is a more modern view it questions all definitions and theories of art -​ Perspective on art occurred in the wake of new forms of expression and use of materials -​ Arthur Danto, “The Art World” proposed that a work of the art in the modern sense is that which assists us in questioning the old definitions and theories -​ Art needs to inspire the audience to reflect on the concepts of what is art -​ It is meant to question our understanding of what reality really is Keywords -​ Postmodernism: largely a reaction to the assumed certainty of scientific, objective, efforts to explain reality -​ Question reality in a postmodern, more recent, view -​ Dadaism: an artistic movement in modern art that started in World War 1. Its purpose was to ridicule the supposed meaningless of the modern world -​ Found Art Object: Forms- plato's theories of forms or theories of ideas argues that non-physical (but substantial) forms (or ideas) represent the most accurate reality -​ Rosalind E Krauss Representational theories of art -​ Way to mimic reality -​ Aristotle was part of some, presented a imitation theory -​ Believed that art could be cathartic and beneficial -​ We can see stuff and mimic it but it isn’t the exact representation but more of a rough representation  -​ It gives you a KINDA, it gives you like an overview -​ It portrays the visible forms or nature, but also involving perspectives of the world by emphasizing on aspect over other - the beautiful and/or ugliness, for example Neoclassicism: classicism and neoclassicism in the arts of the 18th and early 19th century. Aesthetic tradition is based on the art of the Ancient Greece and Rome, reflecting on a desire to rekindle the spirit and forms of classical art whose principles of code and reason were entirely in keeping Romanticism: an 18th century movement that emphasized inspiration subjectivity Emote reality: the expressionist theory of art places, the individual at the center of art. The standard for assessing the quality of an artwork was no longer to be a literal depiction of the outer world but rather instead to be about the artist’s feelings towards the world -​ David hume said that good art must successfully communicate the feelings intended to the individual artists and in turn, evokes an emotional response from the viewer -​ Vincent Van Gogh Starry Night is an example of post-impressionist art Symbolist art: an artistic and literary movement that first emerged in France in the 1800s and is characterized by an emphasis on the mystical, romantic, and expressive qualities, often by the use of symbolic figures Abstract expressionism- an effort to create a new style fitted to the postwar mood of anxiety and trauma, and abstract expression blended elements of surrealism and abstract art Modernism: initially called l’avant garde, is the modern movement sought to rebel against the conventional expectations of 19th century academic and victorian traditions -​ It recess radicalism, primitivism, experimentation Alternative lenses The feminist art movement: art for women was only represented by men and women were only portrayed by men. Woman attempted to take this power back here -​ One group is not another groups object KEY WORDS -​ Guerilla girls: anonymous group of feminist female artists devoted to fighting sexism and racism within the art world -​ Laura mulvey: a british feminist film theorist famous for her work regarding sexual objectification of women in the media, more commonly known as The Male Gaze Theory -​ Faith Wilding: wilding is a paraguayan american multidisciplinary artist known for contribution to progressive development in feminist art -​ Judy chicago: an american feminist artist, art educator known for her large collaborative art installation pieces which examines the role of women in history Art and Post Colonialism -​ Exists in many perspectives to make sure were addressing the past and gives a non-western perspective to things -​ Meant to evoke emotion to what took place -​ It can be analyzed in the colours and shapes, messaging in the art because of its clarity in depicting the moment -​ The manner in which worldview was impacted by modern civilization Bell hooks: an american artists who addresses the empowerment and revolution within the black community Kent monkman: cree canadian artist who uses art to talk about the appropriation and assimilation of the native american culture by colonial settlers Rebecca belmore: an interdisciplinary anishnabie canadian artist who us particularly reliable for political consciousness and socially aware performance and installation work