Philosophy Reviewer PDF

**WEEK 1** - **Originates from Greek words \"philo\" (to love) and \"sophia\" (wisdom).** - **Philosophical inquiry encompasses a broad range of topics concerning existence, knowledge, values, and reason.** **Characteristics of Philosophy** - **Science: Philosophy is classified as...

**WEEK 1** - **Originates from Greek words \"philo\" (to love) and \"sophia\" (wisdom).** - **Philosophical inquiry encompasses a broad range of topics concerning existence, knowledge, values, and reason.** **Characteristics of Philosophy** - **Science: Philosophy is classified as a science.** - **Natural Light of Reason: Utilizes rational thought and logic in its analysis and deductions.** - **Studying All Things: Engages in a comprehensive examination of various subjects and phenomena.** - **First Cause or Highest Principle: Investigates foundational principles guiding existence and reality.** **Fundamental Principles** - **Principle of Identity: Affirms that every entity is identical to itself (\"everything is what it is\").** - **Principle of Non-Contradiction: Asserts that contradictory statements about the same thing cannot be true simultaneously.** - **Principle of Excluded Middle: States that for any proposition, it must either be true or false; there is no middle ground.** - **Principle of Sufficient Reason: Claims that there must be adequate explanations for why things exist.** **Branches of Philosophy** - **Ethics: Examines moral values and human conduct.** - **Aesthetics: Studies beauty, art, and taste, exploring what is considered aesthetically pleasing.** - **Logic: Serves as a framework for constructing valid arguments and ensuring sound reasoning pioneered by Aristotle** - **Political Philosophy: Investigates the relationship between individuals and society, focusing on governance and rights.** - **Epistemology: Explores the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge, asking crucial questions about belief and truth.** - **Metaphysics: Examines the fundamental nature of reality, including questions about existence and the nature of non-physical entities; notably influenced by Plato.** **Key Philosophers** - **Aristotle: First to apply logical methodologies to philosophy, shaping the field of logic.** - **Plato: Significant contributor to metaphysical philosophy, emphasizing the distinction between reality and sensory perception.** ***PHYTAGORAS (570 BCE to 495 BCE)*** ***Mathematician and scientist Pythagorean theorem*** **contributions to philosophy, particularly in the areas of Philosophy Of Numbers** ***HERACLITUS (535 BCE to 475 BCE)*** **everything that exists is based on a higher order or plan which he called logos. contributions to philosophy, particularly in the areas of Doctrine Of Change and Unity Of Opposites** ***DEMOCRITUS (460 BCE to 370 BCE*** **He devoted himself to the study of the causes of natural phenomena, He theorized that all material bodies are made up of indivisibly small "atoms.** **contributions to philosophy, particularly in the areas of Atomism** ***DIOGENES OF SINOPE (412 BCE to 323 BCE)*** **He was a known advocate of living a simple and virtuous life** **contributions to philosophy, particularly in the areas of Simplicity and Minimalism And Search for Virtue and Self-Improvement** ***EPICURUS (341 BCE to 270 BCE)*** **He believed that philosophy could enable man to live a life of happiness** **contributions to philosophy, particularly in the areas of Hedonism and Pleasure** ***SOCRATES (470 BCE to 399 BCE)*** **He was considered the foremost philosophers of ancient times, He was credited with formulating the Socratic method** **contributions to philosophy, particularly in the areas of Socratic Method And Moral Philosophy** ***PLATO (427 BCE to 347 BCE)*** **A student of Socrates, he wrote down his mentor's teaching, Dialectic method** **contributions to philosophy, particularly in the areas of Theory Of Forms** ***ARISTOTLE (384 BCE to 322 BCE)*** **He attended the Academy, and was the prominent student of Plato, all ideas and views are based on perception and our reality is based on what we can sense,** **contributions to philosophy, particularly in the areas of Metaphysics And Epistomology** **HOLISTIC THINKING,** **A big picture mentality, Thinking holistically is the opposite of analyzing something, which involves breaking down a larger system into its details.** **PARTIAL THINKING** **focuses on specific aspects of a situation,** **partial view is an important component of analytical thinking** **WEEK 3** **TRUTH** **comes from the Latin word 'factum ' which means 'deed' or something that has done** **OPINION** **comes from the Latin word ' opinio ' which has a number of meanings and also refer to something imagined, conjecture, or an expectation** **Why truth is important? - Truth is important to clarify knowledge, he clear awareness and understanding of anything that surrounds you** - **Basis for Knowledge** - **Effective Decision-Making** - **Trust and Credibility** - **Transparency and Accountability** - **Avoiding harm** **How do you know if something is true?** **You need to analyze or investigate or have own investigation to better understand** **Doubt drives your desires to discover the truth** **CONCLUSION** **a statement or judgment that logically follows from the premises or evidence presented in an argument or discussion** **BELIEFS** **are statements that express convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts** **personal convictions or acceptances of something as true** **EXPLANATION** **are statements claiming to be true and provides reasons to make the statements true.** **CRITICAL THINKING** **Critical is a Greek word "kritikos " (to separate) and analysis " ana " (throughout) "lusis " (to loosen)** **Critical thinking is the careful, reflective, rational, and systematic approach to questions of very general interest** **The attributes of critical thinker include, looks for evidence to support assumption and belief adjust opinion, looks for proof, examines the problem, reject irrelevant and innocent information. (Hospers 1997)** **ARGUMENTS** **series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or listener that a claim or opinion is truthful.** **number of arguments may be based on faulty reasoning. These kinds of arguments are called fallacies.** **AD HOMINEM- attacking the person presenting the argument instead of the argument itself.** **AD BACULUM (FORCE) -- using the threat of forcing or an undesirable event to advance an argument** **AD MISERICODIAM (PITY) -- using emotion such as pity or sympathy** **AD POPULUM (MAJORITY)- the idea is presented as acceptable because lot of people accept it.** **AD ANTIQUITIES (TRADITION)- the idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time** **FALLACY OF COMPOSITION -- assuming that what it is true of a part is true for the whole.** **FALLACY OF DIVISION -- assuming that is true for the whole is true for its part** **PETITIO PRINCIPI -- assuming that the thing or idea to be proven is true, also known as circular argument** **POST HOC - assuming a cause and effect relation ship between unrelated events** **BIAS** **These are the personal views of the person presenting it, They are not necessarily errorsin reasoning, but refer to tendencies or influences which affect the views of people. (Abella 2016)** **CORRESPONDENCE BIAS -- tendency to judge a persons personality by his or her actions without regard for external factors or influence.** **CONFIRMATION BIAS -- the tendency to look for and accept information in a way that confirms ones own beliefs and reject ideas that go against it** **CONFLICT OF INTEREST -- a person or group is connected to or has a vested interest in the issue.** **CULTURAL BIAS -- analyzing an event or issue based on ones cultural standards** **FRAMING -- focus on a certain aspect of a problem while ignoring other aspects.** **THE METHODIC DOUBT** **also known as methodological skepticism, philosophical inquiry that was famously employed by the French philosopher René Descartes.** **purpose of methodic doubt is to question and challenge the validity of all beliefs and knowledge claims in order** **WEEK 4** **SCIENTIFIC METHOD (GILBUENA 2018)** **term " science " is derived from the Latin word scientia, means "to produce knowledge.** **- also known as empirical method** **is a process of determining truth or knowledge through *experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing.*** - ***Observation and Questioning*** - ***Hypothesis and Theory*** - ***Experimentation (Thought Experiments)*** - ***Data Collection and Analysis*** - ***Synthesis and Conclusion*** **SOCRATIC METHOD** **Also known as Socratic questioning or Socratic dialogue, it is named after the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, who is known for his use of this methodin philosophical discussions** **Socrates engaged in "didactic dialogue " of questioning that is expressed in the critical examination** **This didactic dialogue intends not to convey new truth but only as guide to arriving the truth (Nelson 1965*).*** **DIALECTIC METHOD** **Also known as "Dialectical Method, it is often associated with philosophers like Plato and Hegel** **It is at base a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject** **Dialectic resembles debate** **Aristotle once said "that a man is a rational animal"** **LOGIC** **Philosopher uses LOGIC as his toolbox, He deals with arguments and all sorts of statements and uses careful rational thought to arrive at the truth.** **INDUCTIVE REASONING- From specific to general** **DEDUCTIVE REASONING- From general to specific** **WEEK 5** **The Human Person** - **Has awareness of self** - **Has self determination** - **is able to reach out and interact with others** - **Has Dignity** **SOUL** **According to Steph (2018), the soul causes the body to live; indeed, it is the soul that animates the body.** **SPIRIT** **the intangible element that enables us to exercise thought, possess awareness, interiority and the capacity to reach out to the world and to other persons. (Abella 2016)** **EMBODIMENT- Embodiment makes the human experience and does the things that make him a person.** **HUMAN AND NATURE AND LIMITATIONS - Human nature, being an embodied spirit has its own limit. It can be said that the person is a very biologically deficient being.** **TRANSCENDENCE- According to Abella (2016), The ability to surpass limits is called transcendence, and it is also one important trait that distinguishes the human person from other beings in existence.**