Pharmacy Law & Ethics 2024 Year 4 Past Paper PDF

Pharmacy Law and Ethics Course title: Pharmacy Law & Ethics ♦ Course code: Phar4173 Credit Hours : 2 EtCTS: 3 Pharmacy : Year IV ♦ Pre-requisite if...

Pharmacy Law and Ethics Course title: Pharmacy Law & Ethics ♦ Course code: Phar4173 Credit Hours : 2 EtCTS: 3 Pharmacy : Year IV ♦ Pre-requisite if any: - successful completion of the previous modules INSTRUCTOR’S NAME :Nigusie Zeleke (B pharm,MA(LSCM) 1 3/26/2024  Part I : Ethics Introduction Outline 2.Ethical Theories 1.Definition of Ethics Definition of Ethics Deontology Ethics Vs. Morality Law Vs. Ethics Teleology.Code of Ethics.Health Ethics Intuitions [feeling]/ethics of virtue Medical ethics Public health Ethics The ethic of caring (case based Medical ethics Vs. Public health ethics Types of Ethics theory) 2 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 Introduction… The course outlines a pharmacy law and ethics course that covers topics such as : Ethical theories, principle and moral Rules Ethical decision making, Ethical issues in health care health professional patient relationships, and laws regulating pharmaceutical services. The course aims to help students apply ethical and legal reasoning to pharmaceutical care decisions through case studies. Upon completing the course, students will be able to identify pharmacy laws and standards, and describe ethical principles in pharmacy practice 3 Pharmacy law & Ethics 3/26/2024  Introduction… Course Description The course offers topics on principles of ethical decision making, health professional patient relationship, frameworks for ethical analysis, ethical theories, ethical principles and moral values, and ethical codes, laws, regulations and directives pertaining to pharmaceutical services internationally and in Ethiopia, product registration and licensing requirements, regulations related to narcotic and psychotropic drugs. Case-study practice scenarios will also be presented to allow students make pharmaceutical care decisions based upon ethico- legal reasoning 4 Pharmacy Law & Ethics 2014 3/26/2024 Introduction…. Pharmacy is defined as the science and art of preparing and dispensing medicines in patient care. It includes prescription handling, compounding and labeling drugs, monitoring patient’s drug profile and providing patient care. Pharmacy profession is different than other profession because: Pharmacy person requires knowledge in pharmaceutical sciences and health sciences. The main aim of pharmacy is safe use of medicines and provide drug consultation whenever necessary. Pharmacy profession covers broader area involving from preparing and dispensing medicine to counseling and clinical services to the patients. Pharmacist can also actively participate in health education and awareness to the public. Pharmacist has a link between patient and health care professional. 3/26/2024 5 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024  Introduction… ETHICAL ASPECTS OF PHARMACY Pharmacy ethics are the values and ethical principles governing pharmacy practice encouraging right human conduct. Pharmacy ethics guides pharmacists for patient care with moral obligations and virtues. 6 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN PHARMACY ✓ Maintains the covenantal relationship between the patient and pharmacist. ✓ Promotes the good of every patient in caring, compassionate and respectful and confidential manner by pharmacist. ✓ Makes environment to respect the autonomy and dignity of each patient by pharmacist. ✓ Makes pharmacist to act with honesty and integrity. ✓ Maintains professional competence by pharmacist. ✓ Respects values and abilities of colleagues and other health professionals. ✓ Helps the pharmacist to serve individual, community and societal needs. Helps to seek justice in distribution of health resources. 7 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024  1. Ethics Definition of Ethics also known as moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior is the branch of study dealing with what is the proper course of action for man It answers the question, "What do I do?" 8 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024  Ethics… Ethics is derived from the Greek word “ethos” meaning custom or character. Ethics is a set of moral principles and a code for behavior that govern an individual’s actions with other individuals and within society. □ Ethics can be defined as “the branch of philosophy dealing with standards of conduct and moral judgment.” □ It refers to a method of inquiry that assists people to understand the morality of human behavior. (i.e. it is the study of morality). □ Ethics refers to the practices or beliefs of a certain group (i.e. nursing ethics, Physicians' ethics and pharmacy ethics). □ It also refers to the expected standards as described in the group's code of professional conduct. 9 Pharmacy law & Ethics 3/26/2024  Ethics…. Ethical rules are only morally binding. – It is simply voluntary self-discipline of professionals. – ‘Do Good and Avoid Evil’ Ethics is the system or code of morals of a particular person, religion, group, profession, etc. Ethics is a generic term for various ways of understanding and examining the moral life Ethics requires us to go beyond ‘I’ and ‘you’ – To the universal law, – To the universal judgment, – To the standpoint of the impartial spectator or ideal observer, or whatever we choose to call it 10 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 Ethics… Morality :- Morality is derived from the Latin word ‘moralitas‘ meaning ‘manner, character, proper behavior’’, it is the conduct or rules that a person or community adhere to, believing these things to be, in some sense, obligatory. Morality is usually construed as meaning what is right and wrong. ‘The term morality refers to social conventions about right and wrong human conduct that are so widely shared that they form a stable (although usually incomplete) communal consensus, whereas ethics is a general term referring to both morality and ethical theory’ ❑ Nevertheless, the words ‘ethics’ and ‘morality’ are often used interchangeably. 3/26/2024 Pharmacy Law & Ethics2024 11 Ethics… Ethics Informs the Law ;Our laws reflect our ethical choices and priorities. Not all ethical choices are embodied in the law. Unless an ethical choice is imposed by one person or group upon another person or group, it is simply a matter of personal ethics. Morals Versus Ethics in the Workplace The pharmacist has a clear responsibility to the patient on many levels Ethics are morals in the workplace and in the public domain Work ethics will guide your behavior Working within pharmacy guidelines will ensure that patients are getting the best service possible 3/26/2024 12 Pharmacy Law & Ethics 2014 1.2. Ethics Vs Morality ▪ Morality is the science concerned with the distinction between right and wrong. ▪ A moral act is one that is carried out with at least some degree of knowledge and freedom, proceeding from man’s rational nature. ▪ A moral act, which is in conformity with moral law, is called good but if opposed to moral law, it is called bad ▪ Ethics is careful and systematic reflection on and analysis of moral decisions and behavior”. ▪ It is the study of morality Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 13 Summarizing Ethics Vs Morality Morality Ethics Rules for every day life➔ Philosophical and scientific study of Practical Morality ➔ It is Theoretical It has a social base, that is, It emerges from the inner being, as established rules in a society. a result of his/her own reflection & election. It is a group of rules that act from It makes influence in a person’s the outside or from the conduct but from his/her own unconscious, an external consciousness and will. motivation of the human consciousness. The legal, obligatory, coercive It is the value that we discover and punitive aspect is dominant. inside us in our reflection as subjects, not imposed from outside. Examples of moral rules in society Tell the truth Do not vandalize property Keep your promise Have courage Do not cheat Do not judge Respect others Treat others as you want to be treated 15 March 26, 2024  1.2 Law vs Ethics. Law Vs. Ethics Any action of human being are judged by two laws 1. Moral Law :Nature ,Culture, Religion ,custom 2. Legal Law: Constitution ,Treaty Convention, Proclamation ,Regulation, Policy, Directive Law is the rules of conduct established and enforced by the authority, legislation of a given community, state or other group Eg. Killing, being thief, harm the patient ??? Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 16  1.2 Law vs Ethics Cont’d LAWS … Legal Obligations and Consequences: To become a pharmacist is to voluntarily assume certain legal obligations; failing to fulfill these has consequences. a. Failing to Follow the laws and regulations relating to the Practice of Pharmacy i.You may be fined ii. You may be put on probation iii. Your license may be suspended or revoked b. Violate certain laws, such as the Controlled Substances Act, and you may be prosecuted criminally in federal or state court i. You may pay a fine ii. You may go to jail c. Fail to perform according to legal and professional standards, and you may cause an injury to a patient, who can then sue you in state or federal civil court i. You may be forced to pay damages 17 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 Ethics… Law…. A Pharmacy License is a Revocable Privilege Granted by the State. Your license as a pharmacist, or the license of your pharmacy, gives you privileges that aren’t available to others, and distinguishes you from other health professionals. a. Carrying out your professional duties, and being able to use your training to the fullest, requires an understanding of just how extensive these privileges are, and how to make the most of them. b. Once you’ve earned the license, however, you do have property and liberty interests that are protected by the Constitution, and your license may not be taken or restricted without due process of law 18 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024  Ethics… Law… Pharmacists are Presumed to Know the Law. Ignorance of a law does not excuse a person from suffering the penalties for its violation a. The law generally presumes that citizens and especially licensees in certain professions are able to learn the laws that apply to them. b. Boards of Pharmacy actually require pharmacists to pass an examination regarding pharmacy law to demonstrate that they understand it well enough to practice lawfully. b. It is a requirement, however, that if an individual is to be held responsible for compliance with a law, the law itself must be clear and unambiguous, and not in conflict with other laws. 19 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 Law vs Ethics Law is the body of principles that govern conduct & the observance of which can be enforced in courts. It፡ ♦ Demarcates what is permissible from what is not ♦ It must be obeyed & followed by all citizens and ♦ Subject to legal sanctions or consequences. ♦ Ethics :- is the systematic study of what is right and good with respect to conduct. ♦ Its basic foundation is “Do Good and Avoid Evil” ♦ Ethics:- are rules promulgated by a profession or groups and imposed upon all members of the profession by its own organization. Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 20 3/26/2024 Law vs Ethics SUMMARIES OF LAW Vs ETHICS Law Formal written document Ethics conventional principles Interpreted by courts Interpreted by each individual Established by legislature Established by Religious, professional groups, Applicable to everyone philosophers Priority decided by court Personal choice Priority determined by individual Court make final decision No external decision maker Enforceable by police and courts Limited enforcement 21 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 Law vs Ethics Ethical standards are enforced by the profession itself. ♦ Law often originates from ethical codes and promulgated/declared by the state. ♦ Law is also enforced by government ♦ While ethics is a principle achieved by voluntary self discipline. ♦ Adherence to ethics is expressed through taking professional oath and accepting professional code of ethics. ♦ Law attempts to achieve its purpose through the power of the government, ♦ Ethics attempts to achieve its purpose without the intervention of the government. ♦ Ethics and law are related in that both share the social purpose: Encourage the right conduct 22 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024  Ethics... 1.3.Code of Ethics /professional Ethics These are rules of conduct based on moral values, which are stated by a recognized association. Pharmacists are health professionals who assist individuals in making the best use of medications. The pharmacy code of ethics is intended to state the principles that form the fundamental basis of the roles and responsibilities of pharmacists based on moral obligations and virtues(high moral standard behavior) established to guide pharmacists with patients, health professionals and society. 23 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 1.3.Code of Ethics /professional Ethic… professional ethics is rules of conduct or standards by which a particular group in society regulates its actions and sets standards for its members.” It focuses on explicit or implicit rules and standards set by a professional subgroup of society, and addresses the responsibilities of only those who are members of that subgroup. 24 Pharmacy law & Ethic 2024 3/26/2024  Ethics… Why code of ethics? 1. To define accepted/acceptable behavior 2. To promote high standards of practice 3. To provide a benchmark for members to use for self evaluation 4. A framework for behavior and responsibilities 5. As a vehicle for occupational identity 6. As a mark of professional maturity 25 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024  Ethics… 1.4. Health ethics □ Health ethics may be defined as a code of behavior accepted voluntarily, within the profession as opposed to laws, regulations and directives issued by official body or scientific study of morality □ It teaches us how to judge accurately the moral goodness or badness of human action in health 26 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 1.4.1 Medical ethics □Medical ethics is the branch of ethics that deals with moral issues in medical practice □ a field of applied ethics, the study of moral values and judgments as they apply to medicine. □ As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history □ Prescribes higher standards of behavior than does the law, and occasionally ethics requires that health professionals disobey laws that demand an ethical behavior 27 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 1.4.1 Medical ethics... □ a health professional must recognize responsibility to patients first and foremost, as well as to society, to other health professionals, and to self. □ These are not laws, but standards of conduct which define the essentials of honorable behavior for the clinicians (physicians, health officers and nurses…) 28 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 1.4.2.Public Health Ethics □ Concerns the professionals, individuals and the community at large. □ Focus on the mandate to assure and protect the health of the public What is public health? “Public health is what we, as a society, do collectively to assure the conditions in which people can be healthy.” (The Future of Public Health (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1988). -The Dictionary of Public Health stating, “Public health is an organized activity of society to promote, protect, improve, and, when necessary, restore the health of individuals, specified groups, or the entire population”. 29 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024  … 1.4.2.Public health Ethics Role of Pharmacist in Public Health ❑ Provide population based care ØConducts various disease control and prevention programs in communities ØDeveloping health education programs per the need of the public in the community ØCollaborate with regional and state authorities to address the local and regional health issues. ØInvolves in research ØInitiate campaign for knowledge distribution ØSupport legislations and public policy related to the disease prevention and management. ØDeveloping guidelines and criteria for formularies 30 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 1.9.Public health Ethics… Role of Pharmacist in Public Health… ❑ Contribute in health promotion and educations like immunizations, family planning, and rational use of medications. ❑ Develop, evaluate and document the pharmaceutical care process ❑ Designing, and regulating drug distribution system in the Health facilities like hospital along with drug storage and disposal 31 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024  1.5 Medical Ethics Vs Public Health Ethics Medical Ethics :- Focus on individual patient-provider Interactions Individual liberty, Authority vested in prestige of physicians and medical profession , Patient consent; Beneficence and non-maleficence Public Health Ethics:_ Public health Ethics Focus on populations, institutions, Communities autonomy Interdependence of people, Authority vested in the police powers of states , Societal consent through the political process, public engagement , Social good and avoiding social harm Justice Social justice and equity 3/26/2024 32 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 Ethics… Public Health Ethics Medical Ethics ▪ Focus on individual patient- ▪ Focus on populations, institutions, Communities provider Interactions ▪ autonomy Interdependence of people, ▪ Authority vested in the police powers ▪ Individual liberty, of states ▪ Authority vested in prestige of ▪ Societal consent through the political process, medical profession , ▪ public engagement , ▪ Patient consent ▪ Social good and avoiding social harm Justice Social justice and equity ▪ Beneficence ▪ non-maleficence 33 Research Methodology in LSCM 2021 3/26/2024 Values beliefs of a person or social group in which they have an emotional investment ,either for or against something); " are moral rules, promoting those things thought of as good and minimizing or avoiding those things thought of as bad We usually learn these values at an early age, from observing behavior and through secular (including professional) and religious education. are the rules by which we make decisions about right and wrong, should and shouldn't, good and bad Morality motivation based on ideas of right and wrong Concerns itself with relations between people and is made up of values and duties based on beliefs shared by society or a section of society;. Ethics it centers on interpersonal relationships and how best to manage them It is also concerned with the process of making moral judgments. 34 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 Law vs Ethics SUMMARIES OF LAW Vs ETHICS Law Formal written document Ethics conventional principles Interpreted by courts Interpreted by each individual Established by legislature Established by Religious, professional groups, Applicable to everyone philosophers Priority decided by court Personal choice Priority determined by individual Court make final decision No external decision maker Enforceable by police and courts Limited enforcement Medical Ethics Public Health Ethics 35 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 Individual liberty Law vs Ethics SUMMARIES OF LAW Vs ETHICS Law Formal written document Ethics conventional principles Interpreted by courts Interpreted by each individual Established by legislature Established by Religious, professional groups, Applicable to everyone philosophers Priority decided by court Personal choice Priority determined by individual Court make final decision No external decision maker Enforceable by police and courts Limited enforcement 36 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 Ethics…. 1.8 Types of Ethics 1. Descriptive: It is the description of the values and beliefs of various cultural, religious or social groups about health and illness 2. Normative: a study of human activities in a broad sense in an attempt to identify human actions that are right or wrong and good and bad qualities. 3. Analytical: analyzes the meaning of moral terms. It seeks seeks[want & need] the reasons why these action or attitudes are either wrong or right 37 Pharmacy Law and Ethics 3/26/2024  Group Discussion Identify the descriptive and normative section of the ff cases and conduct moral analysis? 1) Patients in pastoralist region believe that capsules are more effective than tablets (highly adherent for capsule). DESCRIPTIVE 2) The Emetine ethnic group (SNNPR) extracts the milk teeth of their teenagers when reach to adult age. NORMATIVE 3) Patients in northern part of Ethiopia believe that injections are more effective than any oral preparations; especially tablets & capsules. DESCRIPTIVE 38 March 26, 2024 Pharmaceutical Ethics It is a branch of medical ethics that provides a framework for pharmacists to use in resolving questions about what ought to be done in pharmacy practice. is the beliefs and behaviors to which members of the profession subscribe is a critical evaluation of assumptions and arguments is a discussion about what ought to be done or not to be done 39 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 What is the advantage of professional ethics? Ethics make the decision making process so efficient Individual professional occasionally may need guidelines for directing their professional behavior Professional ethics establishes a pattern of behavior that clients come to expect from the professional 40 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024  a broad term that refers to any philosophical attempt to classify actions into right and wrong/good and bad Ethical theories and principles are the foundations of ethical analysis because they are the viewpoints from which guidance can be obtained along the pathway to a decision 41 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024  Ethical Theories… Different ethical theories exist and theories can be applied to different situations To inform our thinking and To Support decision making Ethical theories act as key tools in developing all ethical principals and frameworks Ethical theories may be compared to lenses that help us to view an ethical problem. Examples of each ethical theories in healthcare are seen in Codes of conduct and Guidance developed by professional regulators. 42 Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 Ethical Theories… Key ethical theories applicable to healthcare are 1.Deontology /Duty or rule-Based theory/ Rights-Based Ethics/Means Based 2. Teleology /Consequentialism ,utilitarian or end based theory 3. Intuitionism/virtue ethics 4. The ethic of caring/ case based theory/ Casuistry Pharmacy law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 43 2.Ethical theories… 1.Deontology/Means Based/Rule based This theory proposes that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on the nature of the act rather than its consequences. □ This theory holds that you are acting rightly when you act according to duties and rights Right and wrong are determined by whether the action is consistent with duty and from a motive of fulfilling one’s moral obligation Deontologists argue that morality is grounded in pure reason and objectivity. Decisions are ethically valid if they conform to a proper moral rule, and wrong if they violate such a rule 44 Pharmacy Law & Ethics 3/26/2024 2.Ethical Theories… Deontology… Deontology holds that the most important aspects of our lives are governed by certain unbreakable moral rules which may not be broken, even if breaking them may improve an outcome. – One example of a list of "unbreakable" rules is the Ten Commandments One place where such factors are presented is in codes of professional ethics. E.g. informed consent, respect of patient 'the ends never justify the means.‘ Acts are considered right or wrong intrinsically, regardless of the outcomes. 45 Pharmacy Law & Ethics 3/26/2024 2.Ethical Theories… Deontological theories… Deontological theories do not consider consequences to be important when determining whether or not an action is ethical In other words, they may do the "right" thing, even though the consequences of that action may not be "good.“ ❑ The morally correct thing is always to be guided by moral duties, rights and responsibilities. some actions are: intrinsically immoral, irrespective of how positive or beneficial the consequences might be, while others are intrinsically moral, irrespective of how negative the consequences 46 Pharmacy Law & Ethics 3/26/2024 2.Ethical Theories… Deontology… A person who follows this theory will produce very consistent decisions since they will be based on the individual's set duties. Among the commonly accepted types of moral rules are: – telling the truth – keeping promises – respecting privacy – helping others and protecting the right to life 47 Pharmacy Law & Ethics 3/26/2024 2.Ethical Theories… Benefit Deontological Theories ProblemDeontological Since duties do not change, there is a Theories greater sense of security/predictability There is no agreement on a single in the accepted behavior of others. standard for morality. Right and wrong don’t vary with the Ignoring consequences can cause pain consequences, although there may be and suffering. various according to circumstances (i.e. in the case of conflicting duties). The imposition of a specific moral belief system on others has been a Good motives are valued, even if the cause of significant harm throughout outcome wasn’t what you expected. history. Summary of Deontology 'the ends never justify the means.' Acts are considered right or wrong intrinsically, regardless of the outcomes. 48 Pharmacy Law and Ethics 3/26/2024  Ethical Theories… Deontology… Case Scenario; A mother would like to her daughter to focus on her homework. To ensure this, the mother tells her daughter that the television show her daughter watches daily will not be aired tonight. However, this is not the truth. The daughter focuses on her homework instead of watching television, and completes her schoolwork as a result. the mother would have committed a wrong act according to the theory of deontology. well-founded rules that can serve as the basis for making moral decisions. An example of such a rule is, “Treat all people as equals.” Its foundation may be religious (for example, the belief that all God’s human creatures are equal) or non-religious (for example, human beings share almost all of the same genes). Once the rules are established, they have to be applied in specific situations, and here there is often room for disagreement about what the rules require (for example, whether the rule against killing another human being would prohibit abortion or capital punishment Pharmacy Law & Ethics 3/26/2024 49 Ethical Theories… 2.Teleology (Consequentialism ,utilitarian or end based theory) This theory looks to the consequences of an action in judging whether that action is right or wrong. (Jeremy Bentham) Right and wrong are determined by the utility or consequences of an action; in most versions of this theory, actions are right if they:- – produce happiness or – reduce pain. Consequences can be good, neutral, or evil. So they judged individual an action to be good or bad depending on the actual consequences of that action. 50 Pharmacy Law and Ethics 3/26/2024 2.Ethical Theories.. End based theory.. Simply defined as that 'the ends always justify the means‘ Acts are considered right or wrong based on how good or bad the outcomes of those acts are.. Consequentialist ethics holds the view that the correct moral response is related to the outcome, or consequence, of the act. Consider a simple example: A mother would like to her daughter to focus on her homework. To ensure this, the mother tells her daughter that the television show her daughter watches daily will not be aired tonight. However, this is not the truth. The daughter focuses on her homework instead of watching television, and completes her schoolwork as a result. According to the theory of consequentialism - It was right for the mother to be dishonest, - Since the outcome was a good one. 51 Research Methodology in LSCM 2021 3/26/2024 2.Ethical Theories… End based theory… According to the utilitarian school of thought, right action is that which has greatest utility or usefulness. □ Utilitarian hold that no action in itself is good or bad, the only factors that make actions good or bad are the outcomes, or end results that are derived from them. Consequentialism bases ethical decision-making on an analysis of the likely consequences or outcomes of different choices and actions. The right action is the one that produces the best outcomes. Of course there can be disagreement about what counts as a good outcome 52 Research Methodology in LSCM 2021 3/26/2024 Ethical Theories… End based theory… There are two types of utilitarianism:- act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism □ Act utilitarianism: Suggests that people choose actions that will in any given circumstances increase the over all-good □ Rule utilitarianism: Suggests that people choose rules that when followed consistently will maximize the overall good 53 Research Methodology in LSCM 2021 3/26/2024  Benefits Consequentialist Problems Consequentialist Consequentialism is grounded in actual effect. So, moral action always improves life on earth (in some Consequences are difficult to predict. manner). Your actions may have good intentions and a Acting morally can improve your lot in life. So, there high probability of causing good results. But, if is an incentive to act morally even if you do not something happens and the consequences believe in an after life. are actually bad, then your action was morally Consequentialist theories are often attentive wrong. (helpful) to the particulars of the situation. Also, as the situation involves more people These theories will allow for exceptions to the rule and alternatives, it becomes more difficult to when warranted by the outcome. determine which action would produce the best consequences. Utilitarianism follows the cause and effect reasoning How can we ever know that we actually chose in science. the “best” alternative. It can be proven wrong or right by referring to There is no opportunity for comparison of empirical evidence, instead of a theoretical actual cases, just similar ones ideal. All sentient beings understand pain and pleasure. Thus many have claimed that utilitarianism is transcultural Summary of Teleology: Can be simply defined as 'the ends always justify the means' 54 Research Methodology in LSCM 2021 3/26/2024 3. Intuitions:/ Virtue Ethics -.The notion that people inherently know what is right or wrong -determining what is not a matter of rational thought or learning. -For example, pharmacists inherently known that it is wrong to hurt the client with a drug, this does not need to be taught or reasoned out. Intuition is an immediate perception of the right way to act in a situation. It is similar to desire in that it is entirely subjective; however, it differs because of its location in the mind rather than the will. To that extent it comes closer to the rational forms of ethical decision-making than do obedience, imitation, feeling and desire. However, it is neither systematic nor reflexive but directs moral decisions through a simple flash of insight. Like feeling and desire, it can vary greatly from one individual to another, and even within the same individual over time. 55 Pharmacy Law & Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 2.Ethical Theories… Virtue Ethics… A virtue is a character trait a human being needs to flourish or live well. Virtue ethics also sometimes called "character ethics“ It emphasizes the moral character, or virtues of the individual. It ignores the roles that consequences, duties, and social contracts play in moral systems - in determining the appropriate standard for evaluating moral behavior. Virtue ethics focuses on criteria - having to do with the character development of individuals and - their acquisition of good character traits from the kinds of habits they develop 56 Research Methodology in LSCM 2021 3/26/2024 2.Ethical Theories… 4. The ethic of caring (case based theory ,Casuistry,) □ Unlike the preceding theories that are based on the concept of fairness (justice), an ethical caring is based on relationships. □ It stresses courage, generosity, commitment, and responsibility. □ Caring is a force for protecting and enhancing client dignity Casuistry, or case based reasoning, does not focus on rules and theories but rather on practical decision-making in particular cases based on precedent. – So first the particular features of a case would be identified, and then a comparison would be made with other similar cases and prior experiences, Pharmacy Law and Ethics 2024 3/26/2024 57 Ethical Theories… attempting to determine not only the similarities but also the differences. - So if a clinical ethics committee were asked to consider whether it was ethical for a clinician to breach his / her duty of confidence, the committee would identify key factors, like the health risks to others if information was not disclosed. – It would then make a comparison with other similar cases, identifying the relative risks of non-disclosure. Casuistry should not be divorced from consequentialism, deontology, or virtue ethics but complement them Pharmacy Law & Ethics 201 3/26/2024 58 Thank You 59 Pharmacy Law & Ethics….. 3/26/2024