PE Option - Health & Fitness PDF

 PE Option Health and fitness Health is a state of complete mental, social and physical well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Physical activity helps heart lungs and other body systems to grow strong and healthy. Physical activity helps men...

 PE Option Health and fitness Health is a state of complete mental, social and physical well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Physical activity helps heart lungs and other body systems to grow strong and healthy. Physical activity helps mental well being by teaching you how to case with stress, how to control emotions, etc Physical activity helps social well-being by teaching us social/ group behavior to fit in, teaching us friendship and support etc. These kinds of well-being are all related. Fitness is the ability to meet the demands of the environment. The environment is everything around you. Meeting the demands means carrying out tasks. The more easily you can meet the demands on you, the healthier you are. Why exercise? Exercise gives you physical benefits, such as: itburns up stared body fat, it tones up the muscles it strengthens the bones, etc. It also gives you social benefits, such as: exercise helps To make you confident, It is a way to make new friends develops teamWork and coordination. Exercise also gives mental benefits, such as: it is stimulating and enjoyable, it relieves tension and stress it gets rid of aggression,etc. Exercise hops you meet demands of the environment. Performance is how well a task is completed. General Or health-related fitness The ability of your body to carry out everyday activities without excessive tiredness and to Have enough energy to cope with emergencies. The 5 aspects of general fitness are: I) stamina/endurance/ cardiovascular fitness-the ability to exercise the entire body for long periods of time. 2) muscular endurance- the ability of muscles to maintain and repeat contractions without getting tired. 3) strength- the amount of force a muscle can event against a resistance. 4) flexibility/ suppleness- The range of movement at a joint. 5) body composition - The percentage of body weight Which is fat, muscle and bone.  General fitness is sometimes called health-related fitness because it helps to keep you healthy. Specific/ skill-related fitness The ability of the body to carry out set tasks effectively and efficiently. The 7 aspects of specific fitness are: I) agility- the ability the position of the body quickly 2) balance- the ability to keep the center of mass over the base of support 3) Co-ordination- the ability to move 2+ body parts together smoothly 4) explosive power- the ability to do strength performances quickly 5) reactions - the time taken between the presentation of a stimulus and the onset of movement. 6) timing - the ability to correctly time your movement in response to your surroundings. 7) speed - the different rates at which a person is able to cover a certain amount of distance. Factors affecting fitness Age- fittest in your 20s Gender - males are stranger, heavier and faster.. Diet- you need a healthy diet More factors on pg 15 and 16 Somatotyping We inherit our body shape from our parents. Somatotyping is a way to describe build. It falls set how fat, muscular and linear you are Extreme endomorph (fat) features: weak hips and narrow shoulders, A lot of fat, etc. Extreme mesonorph (muscular) features: broad shoulders, a large head, etc. Extreme ectomorph: very little body fat, narrow shoulders and hips, etc. The ideal weight for your sport/activity is called optimum weight. People whose sports require throwing or jumping need long levers (long bones). Top level optimal weight is important, and it depends on some things that are out of our control, such as height and bone structure. Principles of training The principle of specificity- means working on what you need. Start at the correct level and make it specific to your sport. The principle of progression- starting slow and working up. Your Body takes time to adapt to the increased demands on it. The fitter you get, the harder it is to gain further improvement. ‘there is No gain without pain’ is kept In mind by a high-level sportsperson. The principle of overload- doing more than you normally do. It is done by applying the FITT principle: frequency- number of sessions a week, intensity- how hard you train, time- for how long you train and type- What you do in training. The principle of reversibility: ‘if you don't use it you lose it’. This means that any changes that over due to training will be reversed when you stop. Training rakes you fitter but overtraining can make you ill. Exercise must be done in moderation or you will suffer the effects of soreness, joint pains etc. Energy and energy systems Carbs are found in starchy foods. Carbs Are then converted into glucose which is stared in muscles, and glycogen which is stored in muscles or liver. The glucose, glycogen and fat can then be used to give energy, if oxygen is used as well it is called aerobic energy production and if no oxygen is used it is called anaerobic energy production. Anaerobic respiration is used up to the first I and a half minutes, by using substances already in Our muscles.it chows a powerful movement, however, unfortunately, lactic said is made as a waste product(makes muscles painful) when using this type of energy production. Formula: glucose → energy + lactic acid. Effects: heart walls grow thicker and muscles tolerate lactic acid better Aerobic respiration- fats and glycogen are broken down to make energy.it takes long to get started, but can be used for a long time because of the large amount of fat we have. Formula: Glucose/fat + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy/ATP. There are no dangerous by-products and the water is last through sweat/wine and breathing. Effects: heart grows bigger, blood volume increases etc. Effects: heart walls grow thicker and muscles tolerate lactic acid better. Thresholds of training Most sports are a mixture of aerobic and anaerobic work. Oxygen debt is the oxygen required to get rid of lactic acid. It is the amount of oxygen needed to get the body back to its resting state. There are many ways in which you create an oxygen debt. The harder you exercise the faster you heart beats, so heart rate shows hew hard you are working and which energy system you are using. Maximum heart rate is the fastest your heart can beat; it is found using the formula: 220 - your age. If your pulse is around 60% of your heart rate you are working aerobically, if it is 90% you are probably working anaerobically. Depending on your goals, you need to work within a range of heart rates, this is your target Zone. You must exercise above a minimum heart rate to gain aerobic fitness this is around 60%. You must also exercise below on upper limit, which will vary from 70-85% For aerobic training you must Work within a range of heart rates, this is called you aerobic zone. Training thresholds are the heart rates at the limits of the zone. Your aerobic threshold is the point at which you can no longer supply enough energy aerobically. Methods of training When planning training you need to remember the principles. Continuous training is a good way to improve your aerobic system. You run, swim cycle or walk for at least 30 minutes straight. You can overload by increasing the weekly frequency, the intensity or the time. Build Up the time slowly, it you are unfit and work in your aerobic training zone. Advantages: It can be done from home and is very cheap. Disadvantages: it includes no skill work, it can get boring and any improves aerobic system. Fartlek training, also known as speed play, was developed in Sweden. The method includes many changes of speed. You can use it to improve both energy systems. You can adapt it for Many activities. It involves you repeating different speeds many times. it is good for games players. Can be overloaded similarly to continuous training. Disadvantages: hard to tell if athletes are working as hard as they should and it needs a lot of motivation to work at maximum speed. Aerobics classes are a popular way to improve aerobic fitness. You work at a pace that keeps your heart rate in the aerobic training zone. You work in time to music. You focus a certain muscle groups at a time. A good instructor will work you until the muscles ache with lactic acid and then change to a whole body exercise. You can overload by weekly frequency. Cross training is when you use other forms of exercise to help you get filter for your sport. Yoga is an exercise where you use stretches to create balances by and flexibility. Pilates improves back and abdomen core muscles by exercises and balances using your Body weight as a load. Plyometrics is a quick, powerful movement, e.g. jumps. Interval training is where you do intervals of work followed by intervals of rest or active recovery (jogging). You can use it to improve both energy systems. You can use it for different types of activities.it causes pain, so needs high motivation to keep going.it can be used by sports people and beginners.it should always start with a warm-up and end with a cool down. Circuit training is a good way to organize Mitch or skill training. A circuit usually has 8 to 15 stations. You normally spend a set time on each activity (from 20 to 30 seconds), you can overload in the same way as the other types training. Make sure Te change muscle groups between each activity. Advantages: can be adapted to free weights Or body weight, shorter or larger bursts of work, concentrate on certain muscle groups and work on skills. The method of training you use should be specific to you, your sport, your energy system and the correct group of muscles. Aerobic training should involve the large muscles and should be done rhythmically for a long time. Work for at least 20-30 minutes. Your heart rate should be within your aerobic training zone. Train at least 3 times a week. Anaerobic exercise outs stress on heart and circulatory system. Do several weeks of aerobic training before starting anaerobic training is unfit. Use all-out effort. Alternate using all-out effort and lighter effort or rest. Spinning is an exercise class where you sit on a special bike in a gym with an instructor. You cycle between 30-60 mins and on command you change gears to make it easier or harder. Methods of muscle training Training should concentrate upon specific muscles and the specific energy system for you sport. The type of training you do will determine whether you gain more strength power or endurance. Strength is the force you exert against a resistance. To develop this, do few reps of heavy weights. Power is the ability to de strength performances quickly. To develop this, do medium reps of medium weight. Has to be done quickly. Muscular endurance is the ability to repeat and maintain contractions without getting tired. To develop this, do many reps of low weight. Weight training is easy to increase the load by the right amount. You can use free weight, body weight or machines. Body pump is a combination of aerobic exercise and weights. A training programme Planning someone's schedule. Find out their age, current level of health and fitness, why they went to get fitter and what kind of exercise they enjoy. Analyse the person's needs, such as what energy system they should be using during their programme. Plan the programme(FITT), you need at least 4-6 weeks to see benefits. Have on easy day after a hard one. Have at least I rest day a week. A session includes: a warm-up, the activity and a cool-down. The warmup is a light exercise to get ready for the activity.it warms your muscles. The training activity has 3 phases: a fitness phase, a skill phase and a game phase. The cool down helps your body to recover after exercise. Recovery rate is how quickly your body gets back to normal after. Some of the changes that take place are: heart rate: slows down to normal resting rate, lactic acid: removed by anger when you repay the oxygen debt, glycogen stores: takes time to replace, muscles: stiffness and soreness take time to go away. Make sure you take enough recovery time between training sessions. To make a personal exercise programme, take note of the 5 things said before, analyse needs: areas of fitness and energy systems that need to improve, what groups e muscles do you need and do you need pressure training? Plan the programme using principles of training. Try to vary exercises to prevent boredom. An unfit performer needs to gradually build up fitness. An average performer has OK general fitness. Be specific to your goals. If you want to be fitter for a certain sport then think about what areas of fitness your sport needs. A fit performer should be able to put up with high heart rates. More than 1 session can be done a day with rest in between. Remember to overload. If you do long-distance running you can do shorter work with greater effort or longer than normal but easier. The athlete’s year Many sports are seasonal. Periodisation means how the year is divided for on athlete who plays a seasonal sport. Preparation: i out-of-season: athletes build up to a high level of general fitness. They are careful with diet; ii pre-season: athletes focus on specific and anaerobic fitness. Skills training becomes important. Now is the time to sharpen up. Competition: athletes still need training to maintain fitness. Peaking is the times of the season when you are at your fittest. You try to peak at the time of your biggest events. Recuperation is the time for rest and relaxation. They try to completely recover. The food your body needs Your body needs the 5 nutrients, water and libra for energy, and to grow and repair itself. Carbs are used for energy. They are broken down to glucose. Carbs are found in sweet and starchy foods. Fats are also used for energy. Muscles use a mixture of fat and glycogen. The mixture depends an how intense the exercise is.  Protein is used to build cells, make blood and restore and repair muscle. Body uses protein for energy it it has run out of carbs. Your body needs small amounts of vitamins. Vitamin C can't be stored in the body. You must eat it regularly. Minerals are just as important. Iron helps to carry oxygen. Half your weight is water. You could only last 4/5 days without water. If you play sports you need to drink more than how much an average person drinks. Fiber is a substance called cellulose from the cell walls of plants. You can't digest it, it passes straight through the gut and is excreted as faces. It is important because it makes a bulky mass and makes you feel full. A balanced diet Even when you are relaxed and resting you need energy. Your basal metabolic rate(BMR) is the chant of energy you need just to stay alive, awake and comfortably warm. Working energy is the energy you need to move around, digest food and do exercise. Total energy needed(kj) or (kc)= basal metabolic rate t working energy. Different people have different energy needs, depending on age, gender and lifestyle. Your body uses carbs, fats and proteins for energy. If you eat more food than you need the extra is stored as fat. If energy in is greater than energy out, the extra food is stored as fat. Is energy in = energy out out, your weight will stay the same. If energy in is less than energy out, your body will use up stored body fat for the extra energy, it too much gets used up you become anorexic. A balanced diet is a diet that matches your energy needs and gives every the right mixture of nutrients and fiber. Weight control and fitness Your weight depends on height and frame size, how much muscle and fat you have and your gender. You are overweight if you are heavier than a person of your height should be. You could be the right weight but unfit. Body composition is a better indicator of fitness. If you are a male, no more than 13-15%, while if you are a female, 18-20% of your weight should be fat. Obesity means you have an abnormal proportion of fat. The extra weight outs strain on the body. You are underweight if you are below the normal weight range for your height. You could be underweight and overfat at the same time. Anorexia is when you go on a harsh diet to lose weight and you become to skinny. Bulimia is When you eat a lot of food and then induce vomiting. The way to lose weight is by combining exercise and diet. Regular exercise increases BMR and reduces appetite. A balanced diet should consist of at least 55% carbs. For long events, athletes often use carboloading. First, cut down on carbs and train hard, then, eat lots of carbs and train lightly in the days just before the event. Your muscles will now store more glycogen than usual. However, a diet of at least 55% carbs is a better solution. Drugs and sport A drug is any chemical substance you take that affects the way your body works. Doping means taking drugs to improve sporting performance. Athletes take drugs to pep up performance, kill pain, build muscle and calm themselves. An athlete who dopes is cheating. International Olympic committee(IOC) World anti doping agency(WADA) Stimulants stimulate the circulatory and nervous systems, raise heart rate and speed up reactions, e.g. amphetamines. Dangers: pain and fatigue, violent behavior, high blood pressure, etc. Narcotic analgesics- narcotic means causing drowsiness, while analgesic means killing pain, e.g. heroin. Dangers: constipation, low blood pressure, extreme apathy, addictive, etc. Anabolic steroids- hormones which help to build and repair muscle and bone, e.g. testosterone. Dangers: high blood pressure, weakened ligaments and tendons, infertility, aggressive behavior, etc. Diuretics increase the amount of water excreted in urine, misused by boxers and wrestlers who want to lose weight quickly before a match and by athletes who drink lots of water to flush out traces of other banned drugs. Dangers: salts set eliminated as well as water and low levels of potassium. Drugs to reduce anxiety When Anxious, adrenaline is released into blood. Beta blockers block adrenaline’s effects.  They slow down heart and breathing. Misused by athletes who want to calm their nerves. Dangers: reduce blood pressure lower performance during during events, etc. Tranquillisers reduce anxiety and calm you down, e.g. Librium. Dangers: Make you feel dull, lacking in energy and addictive. Blood doping is when an athlete withdraws blood a few weeks before an important event then the red cells are frozen, and just before the event they are thawed and injected back into the athlete. Dangers: risk of infection, may block capillaries, etc. Peptide hormones are naturally-occuring substances. Analogues and mimetics Are man-made drugs that mimic the hormones, resulting in similar effects, e.g. EPO. These hormones and drugs increase muscle size and strength, help repair body tissue, etc. Dangers: allergic reactions, high blood pressure diabetes, etc. Nicotine and alcohol are socially acceptable drugs, but are still bad for you. In a cigarette there is: nicotine which is addictive, tar and carbon monoxide. Alcohol causes aggressive behaviour, affects balance, hearing etc. Hygiene and foot care Sweat is water containing salts, ammonia, etc. It doesn't smell, but the bacteria feed on it and produce smelly substances. Deodorants and antiperspirants help avoid sweaty smells. Deodorant is better as it coats the sweat with a nicer smell while letting it come out, while antiperspirants coat the sweat pores so the sweat can’t get out. Sports clothing must let you move freely. Athlete's foot is a fungus that grows between toes, making skin cracked and itchy. Spreads with direct contact. Veruccas are flat warts that grow on the soles of your feet. They are very contagious. Corns are pads of thick hard skin on toes and soles of feet. At the joint of your toe is a cushion of liquid called a bursa. If it gets inflamed the result is a bunion. Friction causes skin to blister. Don't burst a blister. If it does burst keep it clean and dry. Bones Bones don't stop growing until you are in your early 20s. The end part of the bone is called the epiphysis while the long part in the middle is called the diaphysis. There are different things inside the bone, such as: cartilage- protects ends of the bones and stops them rubbing together; compact bone- hard and strong, protects bones from breakages; marrow cavity - makes blood cells; periosteum-helps tendons join to the bone; spongy bone-makes blood cells and helps to absorb shock. Cartilage and compact bone became thicker the more we exercise. Marrow cavity makes more blood with more exercise, meaning we can exercise for longer. Periosteum makes bones thicker and stranger the more we exercise. With exercises spongy bone becomes more shock absorbant and makes more blood cells. The skeleton The skeleton has 206 bones held together at joints ( where 2 bones meet) by strong fibres called ligaments ( cords that hold bone to bone). The functions of the skeleton Shape and support- the bones form a framework to support your body. Protection- bones surround the areas that are delicate and could get damaged. Movement- your muscles are firmly attached to your skeleton. When muscles contract, they pull on bones. Blood production- blood is made in the marrow cavity and spongy bone. The 4 types of bones in your skeleton Bones are different shapes and sizes because they have different jobs to do. They are divided into 4 groups: Long bones- they have a diaphysis, epiphysis and hollow centre, e.g. femur. Short bones- small and squat, e.g. carpals. Flat bones- large surface area, e.g. scapula. Irregular bones- specially shaped, e.g. the vertebrae. Functions Long bones- they mainly act as levers for a large range of movement. The smaller Long bones perform more delicate movements. Short bones- they provide movement where it's needed in lots of directions but also gives strength. Flat bones- they protect delicate organs and provide a large surface area for muscle attachment. Irregular bones- protect for example the spinal cord, and provide support. How bones grow Bones start life as cartilage. This then turns into bone through a process called ossification(the growth and development of bone). There is a complicated process: periosteum grows round the cartilage, then bone cells appear in the middle, then you are born, after bone cells appear at the ends, then the plates grow at the outer edge so the bone gets longer. Finally, at around 23, growth stops when the plates are all bone. The whole process is controlled by hormones. Growth plates can also be called epiphyseal plates. Children shouldn't overdo certain kinds of exercise, however it is equally important that they do exercise. Diet and bone growth The most important nutrients for growth are proteins, vitamins and minerals. Proteins build cells and repair damage. Vitamins help with things Like absorbing calcium. Minerals give us strong bones, help muscles contract and help control the rate we burn energy. Bone cells and exercise When a bone has stopped growing, it is still full of life. Bone cells called osteoblasts make new bone and osteoclasts break it down. Exercise causes osteoblasts to work harder. Bones and aging Bones get lighter as you age; exercising to make the osteoblasts work is crucial. Mary older women suffer from osteoporosis. Gentle cardiovascular exercise can help prevent this. Optimum weight In some sports you may even want to develop and strengthen some bones but not others. Ideal weight for everyday life varies. Different kinds of joints Joints are where 2t bones meet. They are divided into 3 types depending on their movement. Fixed/immoveable joints The bones at these joints can't move at all. They interlock/overlap, and are held close together by tough fibre, e.g. cranium, we have this joint in areas that need a lot of strength. Slightly moveable joints The bones at these joints can move a bit. They are held together by ligaments and joined by cartilage. It stops the bones from knocking together e.g. vertebrae. Freely moveable/synovial joints The bones can move quite freely. A freely moveable joint has these parts: Joint capsule- holds the bones together and protects the joint. Synovial membrane- lines the capsule and oozes a slippery liquid called synovial fluid. Joint cavity- the small gap between the bones, it is filled with synovial fluid. This lubricates the joint. Cartilage on the ends of the bones, it stops the bones knocking together. Ligaments which hold the bones together. An example of freely moveable joints is the elbow. Joints and injury Joints can be damaged by general wear and tear or impact. Impact- severe contact. Wear and tear- exercise of a joint or unusual use of it could cause cartilage to be worn away. The joint would then swell.in elderly people this wear and tear could cause arthritis. Movement Flexion and extension Extension means straightening a part of the body to its normal position. Flexion means bending it. When you run, you repeatedly flex and extend many joints. Abduction and adduction Abduction is a sideways movement out from the centre line of your body. Addiction is a sideways movement towards and even across the centre line. Adduction is towards the middle. Rotation and circumduction These are circular movements. Rotation is a turning movement around an imaginary line. In circumduction, the end of a bone moves in a circle. Joints, flexibility and health Injury risk can be decreased if we make our joints more flexible and strong. A lack of exercise leads to a decrease in flexibility. This is a big problem for people who find it hard to do everyday tasks. Gentle exercise will help to remedy this Synovial joints Most of your joints are freely moveable joints. They allow different kinds of movement, depending on the shape and ligament. The ball-and-socket joint The most moveable joint in the body, e.g. the hip joint. The hinge joint This works like a hinge on a door. The bone can swing forwards and backwards, e.g. the elbow joint. The pivot joint The joint only allows I rotation e.g. the joint between the atlas and axis. The gliding joint The ends of the bones are flat enough to glide over each other. There is little movement in all directions, e.g. the joints between the carpals and tarsals. The saddle joint E.g. the thumb. The condyloid joint E.g. the wrist. Cartilage, ligaments and tendons Cartilage protects bones and stops them knocking together. Ligaments are the strong cords and straps that lash bones together and had a joint in place. Pardons are the cords and straps that connect muscle to bone. Different kinds of muscle You could not live without muscles. They are involved in every movement of your body. All muscles work by shortening or contracting. There are 3 different kinds of muscle in your body. Voluntary muscle This is attached to bones, it works when you want it to. Voluntary muscle is also called skeletal muscle because it is attached to bones, and striped muscle because when you look at it under a microscope you can see stripes across it. Involuntary muscle This is found in the walls of your internal organs: stomach, gut, bladder and blood vessels. It is called involuntary because it works on its own. It is also called smooth muscle because it locks smooth under a microscope Cardiac muscle This is special involuntary muscle that forms the walls of your heart.it works nan- stop without tiring. Like voluntary muscle, it is striped. More about voluntary muscle Over 40% of your weight is voluntary muscle. With training we can adapt our muscles to help make us better at exercise. Muscle fibres These make up muscles. Muscles contract because the fibres do. They don't all contract at one time, it depends on how much force is needed. The 2 different types of muscle fibers are slow twitch and fast switch. Fast and slow twitch muscle fibres The Sports you are best at partly depends on your mix of muscle fibers (you are born with this mix, you inherited it from your parents). Slow twitch fibres contract slowly, without much force, but can keep going for longer. Fast twitch fibers contract much faster than slow switch fibres, with more forces but they tire quickly. The mixture of muscle fibres is different in different muscles. The mixture is different for different people. The muscular system 1) Deltoid- raises arm sideways at the shoulder. 2) Biceps- bends arm at the elbow. 3) Abdominals(4 muscles)- pulls in abdomen. Flexes trunk so you can bend forward. 4) Quadriceps (4 muscles)- straightens leg at the knee and keeps it straight when you stand. 5) Pectorals- raises arm at the shoulder. Draws it across the chest. 6) Latissimus dorsi- pulls arm down at the shoulder. Draws it behind your back. 7) Trapezius- holds and rotates shoulders. Moves head back and sideways. 8) Triceps- straightens arm at the elbow joint. 9) Gluteals (3 muscles)- pulls leg back at the hip. Raises it sideways at the hip. Gluteus Maximus is the biggest of these muscles. 10) Hamstrings (3 muscles)- bends leg at the knee. 11) Gastrocnemius- straightens ankle joint so you can stand on your tiptoes. Muscles and movement A voluntary muscle usually works across a joint. It is attached to both the bones by strong cords called tendons. When the muscle contracts, usually just I bone moves. The other is stationary. The origin is where the muscle joins the stationary bone. The insertion is where it joins the moving bone. Muscles usually work in pairs or groups, this is called antagonistic muscle action. The working muscle is called the prime mover or agonist. The relaxing muscle is the antagonist. The agonist is helped by other muscles called synergists. They contract at the same time as the prime mover. They hold the body in position so that the agonist can work smoothly. Tendons are the cords and straps that connect muscle to bone. At the bone, the fibers are embedded in the bane S periosteum. Muscle tone Even when A muscle is relaxed, a small number of its fibers are contracted, enough to keep the muscle taught but not enough to cause movement. This state of partial contraction is called muscle tone. To maintain this, groups of muscle fibres take it in turn to contract. Poor muscle tone leads to poor posture. Exercise improves muscle tone, it makes muscle fibres thicker so they contract more strongly. Muscles and flexibility training Here are 2 different ways to train muscles based on different kinds of muscle contraction. Both involve pulling, pushing or lifting a load. Isotonic training To bend your arm at the elbow, your biceps muscle shortens. This is called an isotonic contraction/ dynamic contraction. All your body movements depends on isotonic contractions. In this type of training, you use isotonic contractions to improve muscle strength and endurance, e.g. push-ups and sit-ups. Advantages: full range of movement and you can choose exercises to suit your sport. Disadvantages: can make muscles sore and you gain most muscle strength at the weakest point of the action. Isometric training When you push against a closed door, your arm muscles contract but stay the same length this is called an isometric contraction. Isometric contractions produce static strength. Advantages: quick to do, does not hurt, doesn’t need expensive equipment and you can do it anywhere. Disadvantages: a muscle only gains strength at the angle you use in the exercise and during this type of exercise, blood flow to the muscle stops, blood pressure rises and less blood flows to the heart. This could be dangerous. Isometric training is best if you combine it with isotonic training. The heart Your blood works non-stop. It carries food and oxygen to your body cells. It carries carbon dioxide and other waste away. Blood is pumped and the body by the heart, it flows along blood vessels. The blood, heart and blood vessels together make up your circulatory system. A first look at the circulatory system Below is a simple plan of your circulatory system, it shows just the heart and 4 main blood vessels. The heart is divided down the middle. It is a double pump for a double circulation. The right side pumps blood to the lungs and then it returns to the heart. This is called the pulmonary circulation. The left side pumps blood to the body and then it returns to the heart. This is called the systemic circulation. The aorta is an artery and goes away from the heart. The vena cava is a vein and veins go towards the heart. As shown in the diagram, oxygen is picked up in the lungs and then transported to the body passing through the heart on the way. Carbon dioxide does the opposite. The heart has 4 hollows or chambers inside. The 2 upper chambers are called atria, each is an atrium. The 2 lower chambers are called ventricles. The walls of the heart are made of cardiac muscle. The wall down the middle is called the septum. Valves prevent back flow of blood. The 2 Between the atria and the ventricles are the tricuspid and bicuspid valves and the ares between the heart and the arteries are semi- lunar(half-moon) valves. How the heart pumps blood The heart pumps blood by contracting. It does this in 2 stages. First the atria contract,then, the ventricles contract. Both sides fill with blood from the veins, then when the atria contract, the blood from the atria is forced into the muscles, then the ventricles contract,the valves between the ventricles and atria close, so blood is forced out of the heart. These steps are then repeated. The heart and exercise Heart rate is the number of times your heart beats per minute(bpm). At each heart beat blood is pumped into your arteries. One expansion and one contraction (of the artery walls) is called a pulse. By counting your pulse, you can tell your heart rate. I pulse point is the carotid artery in your neck. Another is the radial artery. Press gently on the pulse point with your first 2 fingers. Note the time. Start counting and stop when a minute is up. When we are at rest, the average heart rate is about 70 bpm. To find your maximum heart rate, use the equation: 220-your age. This happens because your body becomes desperate for oxygen. This rise is known as a short-term effect of oxygen. A long-term effect is that it grows bigger and stronger(hypertrophy). This means it will have a bigger stroke volume. Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart by each ventricle during 1 contraction. When the heart gets fuller, its fibres stretch more. Because of this, the heart contracts more strongly. A stronger contraction forces out more blood. Cardiac output is the amount of blood ejected from the heart in 1 minute. Heart rate X stroke volume = cardiac output. The fitter you are, the slower your resting heart rate will be. A fit person can keep going for longer since they has more blood traveling round the body. Blood We have 3 different types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins. Arteries can become larger (vasodilate) or smaller (vasaconstrict). Vascular shunt is when during exercise, little blood goes to the working muscles but lots to the working muscles. The valves in veins At lower pressure veins have valves to make sure it can't flow backwards. Blood vessels The biggest artery is the aorta. Arteries divide into arterioles. These divide into capillaries. Capillaries join together to form venues (small veins). These join together to form veins. The largest vein is the vena cava. Arteries pulsate. Veins flow under low pressure and carry deoxygenated blood while arteries flow under high pressure and carry oxygenated blood. Control of temperature One of the major functions of our blood is to control temperature. Normal body temperature is 37°C and your blood is around 50% water. If you get too hot Exercise makes you warm. Blood vessels under the skin expand(vasodilation). It loses heat by radiation. Sweat glands make more sweat, heat from your body makes it evaporate. If sweat doesn’t evaporate your temperature may rise out of control, this is called heat stroke and it can kill you. If you get too cool When your body temperature drops below 37°C, your body stops sweating, the blood vessels under the skin contract (vasodilation) and your muscles may start to shiver. If you get cold enough, your reactions slow down, you are suffering from hypothermia, it can kill you. Water intake is vital since lack of water can cause dehydration. What’s in blood Blood is a liquid called plasma with red cells, white cells and platelets. You have nearly 5 liters of it in your blood. Plasma It is a yellowish liquid. It is mostly water.it includes glucose, nutrients, carbon dioxide and more. Red cells They are the body's oxygen carriers. They contain haemoglobin which combines readily with oxygen. The red cells are made in red marrow in some bones. How red cells carry oxygen White cells They defend your body against disease. There are many different kinds of white cells all doing different jobs, e.g. phagocytes eat up germs. Other while cells make antibodies, these are chemicals that destroy germs. White cells are made in your red bone narrow, lymph nodes and spleen. Your blood has far fewer white cells then red ones. Platelets Platelets are fragments from special cells made in red bone marrow. Their job is to stop you losing blood. Platelets stick to the surface of the wound, form a clot, after this hardens to a scab, it will fall off when new skin grows. What blood does Your blood’s jobs are to carry things around the body and to protect against infection What blood carries Your blood picks up things in I part of the body and carries them to another part. How blood protects you Germs are bacteria and viruses that cause disease. Platelets and white cells protect you. Platelets cause blood to clot, this stops germs getting into cuts. White cells eat germs in the body. Once your white cells have met the germs and they return next time, they are destroyed immediately, you are immune to the disease. The narrower the blood vessel, the higher the pressure. Arteries have the highest pressure, it is Lower in the capillaries and lowest in the veins. Measuring blood pressure Blood pressure is always measured at an artery in you arm. The blood pressure in the artery rises when your heart contracts (systolic) and falls when it relaxes. Normal blood pressure is 120/80, this means that the pressure is 120mm when the heart contracts and 80mm when it relaxes. Blood and exercise Short-term effects When you exercise your heart beats faster and pumps out more blood, so blood pressure rises. If this rises too much it is dangerous. To prevent this, 1 of the things the body does is: the brain sends a message to the arterioles to open wider, this reduces blood pressure. Long-term effect Training results in more blood cells being produced and more capillaries being made,.i.e. Capillarisation. This means that more oxygen can be carried and gas exchange can happen quicker and more efficiently. The respiratory system Aerobic respiration gives your cells energy. The nose is filtered by tiny hairs and warmed and moistened by mucus. The voicebox/larnyx makes sands for speaking. The windpipe/trachea is a flexible tube held open by rings of cartilage. The trachea branches into 2 bronchi each is a bronchus. The bronchi branch into bronchioles. The bronchioles end in bunches of tiny air sacs called alveoli. The epiglottis stops food from going into the wind pipe instead of the gullet. The lungs are soft and spongy. The lungs are in the thoracic cavity. The pleural membrane is a slippery skin lining the cavity. It protects the lungs. The ribs protect the lungs. The intercostal muscles between the ribs kept you breathe in and out. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle below the lungs. How much air do you breathe? The tidal volume is the amount of air you breathe in or out with each breath. Respiratory rate is how many breaths you take in a minute. The vital capacity is the maximum amount of air you can breath out, after breathing in as deeply as you can. Breathing and exercise Breathing is also called external respiration or just respiration. Breathing in is inspiration/inhaling and breathing out is expiration/exhaling. When you breathe in The intercostal muscles contract (out). The diaphragm contracts (down). The lungs and chest expand. When you breathe out The intercostal muscles relax(in). The diaphragm relaxes (up). The chest gets smaller. Effects of training Your breathing muscles grow stronger which allows deeper breaths, so vital capacity increases. More alveoli become surrounded with capillaries so gas exchange is more efficient. Aerobic/stamina work can continue longer before you tire. Effects of exercise on the respiratory system At rest we still need oxygen. Alveoli Lungs take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide. This gas exchange takes place between the alveoli and capillaries. Changes during exercise The harder the exercise, the more energy you need and the more oxygen you use. Therefore, you will breath out less oxygen. The harder the work, the more energy is needed and so more carbon dioxide and water are made. Therefore you will breathe out less oxygen. Tidal volume, respiratory rate and minute volume are all higher during exercise than at rest. Summary of training effects The effects of aerobic training On the heart and circulation: heart grows bigger, holds more blood and contracts more strongly; resting heart rate falls; after exercise, heart rate returns to its normal resting rate faster than it did before; volume of blood in your body increases. On the respiratory system: increases the fitness of lungs and respiratory system; more alveoli are available for gas exchange; more capillaries grow around the alveoli; you can move oxygen to the muscles faster and get rid of carbon dioxide quickly. The effects of anaerobic training Heart walls get thicker and muscles are able to tolerate lactic acid better than before and clear it away faster. The effects of muscle training Endurance training: muscles get better at using oxygen; get better at using fat for energy; more capillaries grow around the muscles. Strength training: muscles grow thicker, an increase in muscle size and strength is called hypertrophy(atrophy is the opposite); they contract more strongly and efficiently; tendons get bigger and stronger. The effect on bones Osteoblasts build new bone and osteoclast break it down again. Training puts extra stress on bones, so osteoblasts work harder. The effects on joints Exercise makes ligaments stronger. Thickens the cartilage at joints, so bones are better at absorbing shocks. Stretching increases range of movement at a joint (flexibility). The effects on body fat Training increases basal metabolic rate, you burn up stored body fat faster even when you are resting. Since muscles get better at using fat for energy, more hat is burned up during exercise too, so you get slimmer. Exercise and the body systems Your body has different systems. All of them work together. Skeletal system is made up of bones and joints. Muscular system is made up of muscles. Circulatory system is made up of blood, heart and blood vessels. Respiratory system is made up of the lungs and breathing tube. Nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal card and a network of nerves. Digestive system is made up of the stomach and gut. Excretory system is made up of the lungs, kidneys and intestine. The vertebral column Cervical vertebrae (7): this is your neck, includes the 2 bones called the atlas and axis. Thoracic vertebrae(12): the ribs are attached to these, they form part of the chest area. Lumbar vertebrae(5): they are part of the lower back. These are the largest individual vertebrae. They support the weights of the others. Sacrum vertebrae(5): these are fused together to make a large triangular bone, and is also fused to your pelvis. Coccyx vertebrae(4): these are fused together as well. This is the remains of our tail. There are 33 vertebrae in total. The atlas allows us to nod and the axis allows us to move our head from left to right. Between each vertebra you have a disc of cartilage, a small amount of movement in each one allows a lot of movement overall. If you lift something badly or bend over or twist unexpectedly you tear or strain the ligaments holding the vertebrae together. You may slip a disc. This is when the disc is being squashed out of position by bending too far. Posture Good posture means your body is in the position that puts least strain on your muscles, tendons, ligaments and bones. Advantages of good posture: helps heart, breathing system and digestive system work properly; helps prevent strain and injury; makes you less tired since you use less energy. Disadvantages of bad posture: muscles have to work harder so you get tired sooner; strain on bones, ligaments and tendons can lead to injury; round shoulders make it harder to breathe deeply. Damage to the spine When curves in your spine are out of shape, they are easily damaged. Pressure on vertebrae can squash the cartilage disk so much that it presses on the spinal disk. This is called a slipped disk, it is very painful. Practicing good posture Keep spine upright as possible with its normal curves. Good standing posture includes: spine stretched upwards and chest high and open, so that you breathe freely. Good sitting posture includes spine and neck lengthened. Good lifting posture includes: bending your knees to reach the item; keeping spine straight; using full strength of your legs to help you lift it. Testing muscle fitness There are 4 tests to measure muscle fitness, these are: the grip dynamometer test; the sit-up test; the vertical jump test; the sit-and-reach test. Cell respiration Movement is caused by muscles contracting, this needs energy. Muscles obtain energy from food. Food is a mix of carbs, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and fiber. Digestion is when food is broken down into liquid in your gut. The liquid food passes through the gut wall into your blood. The blood carries it to all your cells. The cells use it for energy, growth and repair. Testing your cardiovascular system Testing aerobic fitness: the only foolproof method is in a lab with special equipment. The air you exhale is collected and run through a special computer. This measures your maximal oxygen consumption or vo max, this is the maximum volume of oxygen you are able to use when exercising. The larger the value, the fitter you are. The multistage/bleep fitness test Equipment : A distance of 20 meters is marked out on the ground. A tape recorder and a tape with bleeps recorded on it. Is is a maximal test( you give your full effort). The Cooper test Equipment: A measured running track. A stopwatch and whistle. Run as many laps as you can in 12 minutes. This is a sub-maximal test. The Kasch-Boyer step test Equipment: 1 bench, 30cm high. A stopwatch. This test will last 3 minutes.  Skills testing and training A balance test Equipment: A gymnastics bench. A stopwatch. In this test you have to stand on 1 leg. The 5-metre shuffle/agility test Equipment: A running lane 5 meters long and 1.2 meters wide A stopwatch. A test of your 30-metres sprint speed Equipment: A 30-metre distance marked. A stopwatch. Reaction time test Equipment: A metre ruler. Injuries Sports injuries fall into 2 groups: 1. Injuries caused by a sudden stress on the body, this is an acute injury. 2. Injuries which develop through overuse. This can be brought on by heavy training programs, insufficient rest, poor technique badly designed footwear or equipment, this is a chronic injury. You can avoid injuries by being fit for the activity, developing the right techniques, playing at the right level, obeying the rules of your sport, etc. Emergency action If an ill/injured person collapses in front of you, do DRABC. Danger- to you, others and casualty, make sure no ore else gets hurt and only proceed if it safe to do so. Response- is the casualty conscious, gently shake casualty and ask questions. If they Are conscious, check for and manage bleeding and other injuries. If casualty is unconscious, he/she should be turned to the side. Airway- clearing airway and/or opening airway. Breathing- look for chest rising and falling, if they are breathing, ensure that they are in a stable side position, inversely, if they are not breathing, start expired air resuscitation(EAR). Circulation- feel for the carotid pulse, if pulse is present continue EAR, if pulse is not present, start cardiopulmonary resuscitation(CPR). Seek medical help. Mouth to mouth ventilation Place hand on casualty's forehead and gently tilt back. Place fingertips under their chin and lift it. Allow mouth to open. Take a breath and place your lips around casualty's mouth. Blow steadily into casualty's mouth. Take mouth away from casualty and watch for the chest to fall. Repeat the sequence above, giving 2 breaths in total. Cardiac massage When there is no pulse, you must also do cardiac massage. Place one hand on top of the other, press down about an inch, keeping elbows straight. Do this about 70 times per minute. Do 2 mouth-to-mouth respirations after every 10 compressions. The recovery position The safest position for an unconscious breathing person. Head is tilted so tongue can't block throat. Since head is a little lower than the rest of the body vomit will drain from the mouth and not choke them. Bone fractures A fracture is a break or crack in a bone. A fracture brings pain and bleeding. There are 2 types: simple/closed and compound/open. Signs and symptoms: heard or felt a snap; pain and tenderness around injury; not able to move the part normally; bleeding leads to swelling. Do not move the casualty. Support the limb above and below the fracture. Make a sling if fracture is in an arm bone. Dislocation This is where a bone is pulled out of its normal position at a joint. It is usually caused by violent twisting. Signs and symptoms: severe pain, joint appears deformed, there is swelling, etc. Support injured part. Sprain A sprain occurs when a ligament gets stretched out and torn. Signs and symptoms: pain and tenderness, swelling appears, etc. if in doubt, treat as a fracture. For minor sprains follow RICE routine. The aim of RICE is to stop blood leaking. RICE: Rest- stay still Ice- cold makes blood vessels constrict which reduces bleeding. Compression- bandage injured part firmly which reduces bleeding. Elevate- elevate injured limb. Strain-pulled muscle A strain or pull is a tear in muscle or its tendon, caused by evident over-stretching. Signs and symptoms: sudden sharp pain, followed by swelling, stiffness and sometimes cramp. Follow RICE routine(minor strains) and a casualty with a serious strain must be brought to hospital. Cuts The secret of treating a cut is to stop the bleeding and let the blood clot as quickly as possible. Cover the cut and press down firmly. Lie casualty down and raise injured part. Continue to apply pressure until bleeding stops. If bleeding is severe, dial 112. Bruises Bruises are caused by blood leaking from damaged blood vessels under the skin. First there is pain and swelling, then skin discolours. Do RICE routine, apply an icepack or cold compress. Compress serious bruising with a bandage.  Shock Shock is when there is not enough blood circulating round your body. It may be caused by fluid loss or severe pain. Signs and symptoms: skin is cold; pulse is rapid and weak; casualty feels dizzy, thirsty and may try To vomit, etc. Dial 112 for an ambulance, but treat for bleeding first. Place them in the recovery position. Cover casualty with a blanket. Concussion Concussion results from injury to the brain. It is caused by a knock on the head which shakes the brain around. Signs and symptoms: casualty may became unconscious; feel sick, dizzy or drowsy; get confused, etc. Place an unconscious casualty in the recovery position, dial 112. Someone who's been knocked unconscious should be kept under medical observation for at least 24 hours. Cramp Cramps happen when muscle fibers fail to relax and their blood supply is cut Off. This usually happens when muscles are tired, or when you have lost a lot of salt through sweating. Stretch muscle slowly and gently. Hold the stretch. When the muscle has relaxed, massage it very gently. Sports in society There are 4 main types of competitions: knock out and plate; ladders; round-robin; league. Knock out and plate- A type of competition where loser is eliminated and winner advances to the next round. However, in some sports, you have to lose twice to be eliminated. A knock out competition is used when you have a big group of competitors. Plate is a competition held for the eliminated teams/players. Ladders competition- A competition in which players go up or down on a chart (ladder) according to the results with higher performing players. Some players stay in the same position by not playing and it takes a lot of time to climb a ladder. Round robin- all players will compete against the other players of their group once. This is mainly used in short-term tournaments. League- similar to a round robin, but teams or players play twice or more against the other players/teams, normally on a home and away basis. Points are given depending on if you won or lost. Sports bodies and organizations in the local scene Sports Malta- aims to implement sport programmes and policies. MOC Assocjazzjonijiet Nazzjonali The Olympic Games Created by Pierre de Coubertin in 1914. Every flag has at least 1 of the colors of the Olympic rings. The motto of the Olympics is citius, altius, fortius, Meaning swifter, higher, stronger. He wrote an oath for the athletes to recite at each Olympic Games. There is also an Olympic creed, flame and hymn. The Olympics are always hosted in a city not a country. The media and spectators The media influences sports activities a lot. We can divide the media in 3 areas: television, radio and press. Apps and social media fall under the internet. Television and radio Allows many people to follow or watch sports from home. Television has made a big impact on sports activities, negatively and positively. Everyone assumes that a big sports activity will be covered by TV. Press Newspapers and magazines like sport because it helps to sell them. Some magazines are completely dedicated to sport. News can now be given in real time. Positive influences on sport Media helps to promote sport. Media creates sport stars. Media creates interest in a sport. More media coverage=more sponsors. More examples on pg 105 of students’ pack. Negative influences on sport Media exposure may encourage the desire to win at all costs. More pressure on players and coaches. Sports stars may lose their privacy. TV may force changes in a sport. The media may exaggerate events.