Study Guide Chapter 4: Nutrition, Enzymes, Metabolism PDF

Study Guide Chapter 4: Nutrition, Enzymes, Metabolism The Peanut Butter Project: One doctor’s crusade to end malnutrition in Africa, a spoonful at a time Driving Question 1: What are the macronutrients and micronutrie...

Study Guide Chapter 4: Nutrition, Enzymes, Metabolism The Peanut Butter Project: One doctor’s crusade to end malnutrition in Africa, a spoonful at a time Driving Question 1: What are the macronutrients and micronutrients provided by food? Why should you care? We are what we eat. Research over the last 40 years or more has increasingly pointed to a proper diet—one that includes the right kinds of nutrients from the right kinds of foods— as a major component of overall health, longevity, and quality of life. The macronutrients we consume are broken down into smaller subunits; these, in turn, are used to build the molecules that comprise our cells and cell components. In contrast, essential nutrients are nutrients that our bodies need to function normally yet cannot be made by the body itself. Therefore, essential nutrients must be obtained through the diet. When it comes to food, knowledge is power: knowing what kinds of nutrients are in different kinds of foods is the first step toward making good food choices. What should you know? To fully answer this Driving Question, you should be able to: 1. List the three dietary macronutrients and the foods in which each predominates. 2. Explain why a healthy diet must include a variety of food sources to provide all necessary macronutrients. 3. Describe how the macronutrients in your diet are broken down and what their building blocks are. 4. Define and give examples of the three types of micronutrients. Infographic Focus: The infographics most pertinent to the Driving Question are 4.3, 4.4, 4.9, and Table 4.1. Test Your Vocabulary: Match these terms to their definitions: [MALNUTRITION] [NUTRIENTS] [ENERGY] [MACRONUTRIENTS] [ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS] [STARCH] [ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS] [MINERAL] [MICRONUTRIENTS] [VITAMIN] 1. List the three dietary macronutrients and the foods in which each predominates. Complete the following table to identify the three macronutrients and foods in which they predominate: Macronutrient Source Carbohydrates Protein Fats Food Type 1 Food Type 2 2. Explain why a healthy diet must include a variety of food sources to provide all necessary macronutrients. Use the information above and in Infographic 4.4 to explain why you need to eat a variety of foods to acquire all the macronutrients you need. Can a vegetarian acquire all the macronutrients he/she needs? Explain. Can a vegan (someone who eats only plant products) acquire all the macronutrients he/she needs? Explain. 3. Describe how the macronutrients in your diet are broken down and what their building blocks are. What process breaks down the macronutrients in our food into their building blocks? Where does this process take place? (Hint: it may occur in more than one place.) 4. Define and give examples of the three types of micronutrients. Define the terms “micronutrient,” “mineral,” and “vitamin,” and give an example of each. Why are vitamins and minerals considered micronutrients? Review Questions 1. Proteins and fats are two of the macronutrients our bodies need. The third is: A. carbohydrates. B. vitamins. C. minerals. D. simple sugars. E. dairy products. 2. Which type of food is a good source of both protein and fat? A. grain products such as bread and pasta B. legumes such as beans and lentils C. fruits and vegetables D. olive oil E. red meat 3. An essential nutrient (choose all that are correct): A. can be added to foods. B. can be found naturally in certain foods. C. can be manufactured in the body if sufficient subunits of macronutrients are available. D. has no effect on the health of an individual.  Driving Question 2: What are enzymes, how do they work, and how do they contribute to reactions of metabolism? Why should you care? Without enzymes to speed the rate of chemical reactions, complex life could not exist. Missing or malfunctioning enzymes lie at the heart of many diseases and syndromes, including PKU (see the warning labels on foods containing Nutrasweet) and Tay-Sachs disease. When we digest food chemically, we rely on many different digestive enzymes, each of which targets a specific macromolecule or group of molecules. In one of the first stages of digestion, for example, the enzymes in our saliva start breaking down complex carbohydrates; they can’t, however, break down proteins. Enzymes from the pancreas take on that job when food arrives in the small intestine. What should you know? To fully answer this Driving Question, you should be able to: 1. Compare and contrast the ways in which enzymes facilitate catabolic and anabolic reactions. 2. Predict the effect that an enzyme has on the activation energy of a reaction. 3. Explain the role of micronutrients in enzyme function. Infographic Focus: The infographics most pertinent to the Driving Question are 4.5, 4.6, and 4.7. Test Your Vocabulary: Match these terms to their definitions: [CHEMICAL REACTION] [CATABOLIC REACTION] [ANABOLIC REACTION] [METABOLISM] [ENZYME] [CATALYSIS] [SUBSTRATE] [ACTIVE SITE] [ACTIVATION ENERGY] [MINERAL] [MICRONUTRIENTS] [VITAMIN] [COFACTOR] [COENZYME] 1. Compare and contrast the ways in which enzymes facilitate catabolic and anabolic reactions. List the similarities in the steps by which enzymes facilitate catabolic and anabolic chemical reactions. List the differences in the steps by which enzymes facilitate catabolic and anabolic reactions. 2. Predict the effect that an enzyme has on the activation energy of a reaction. Which reaction would have the lowest activation energy for an enzyme that binds its substrate only in the presence of a cofactor? A. Substrate + Enzyme → Product B. Substrate → Product C. Substrate + Cofactor → Product D. Substrate + Enzyme + Cofactor → Product 3. Explain the role of micronutrients in enzyme function. Why do enzymes need micronutrients to do their jobs?  Driving Question 3: What are the consequences of a diet lacking sufficient nutrients? Why should you care? One of the most important things you can do to ensure your long-term health and fitness is to eat a balanced diet that (1) provides the nutrients you need in appropriate amounts; (2) supplies adequate (but not too many) calories; and (3) minimizes foods that increase your risk of developing long-term conditions such as diabetes, osteoporosis, and heart disease. When your regular diet lacks sufficient nutrients, your body cannot perform necessary tasks efficiently or at all. What should you know? To fully answer this Driving Question, you should be able to: 1. Describe how vitamins and minerals have essential functions and, if not consumed in proper amounts, the effect it has on the body. 2. Explain the relationships among essential nutrients, a balanced diet, and malnutrition. Infographic Focus: The infographics most pertinent to the Driving Question are 4.1, 4.2, 4.8, and Table 4.1. 1. Describe how vitamins and minerals have essential functions and, if not consumed in proper amounts, the effect it has on the body. List three vitamins and three minerals that are essential for proper body function. Pick one vitamin and one mineral you listed above and describe the effect that a lack of said vitamin and mineral would have on your health. Is it safe to take a supplement that promises 500% of your daily need for vitamin B12? Why or why not? Is it safe to take a supplement that promises 500% of your daily need for vitamin D? Why or why not? 2. Explain the relationships among essential nutrients, a balanced diet, and malnutrition. Think about the typical middle-class American child’s diet. In your opinion, what does that diet look like? Think about the typical child from a poverty-stricken Malawi family. What does that diet look like? Nutrient deficiencies exist in both diets. Compare and contrast what you think those deficiencies are and why they exist.  Study Guide Chapter 5: Energy and Photosynthesis The Future of Fuel? Scientists seek to make algae the next alternative energy source Driving Question 1: Why are photosynthetic organisms like algae so important? Why should you care? Do you notice plants? Many people don’t register more than a green background when they are outside. The next time you are outdoors, look for plants and notice their variety; even if you live in a city, there are likely several kinds just growing through the pavement cracks. In every terrestrial ecosystem, a great variety of plants make up the largest group of organisms by weight—usually at least 90%. This preponderance of plants exists because they are producers, or autotrophs—organisms that can grow by making organic molecules from inorganic molecules. Land plants are the youngest group of photosynthetic autotrophs; they were preceded by algae, which is a general term for photosynthetic organisms that are mostly single-celled and mostly aquatic. The first photosynthetic organisms were the prokaryotic bacteria, primarily the cyanobacteria, formerly called the blue-green algae. It is thought that the first eukaryotic algae arose from a symbiotic relationship between a heterotrophic eukaryotic organism and a cyanobacterium that became a semiautonomous organelle living inside the eukaryote’s cells. Eventually, this cyanobacterium became what we now call chloroplasts. The three groups of photosynthetic organisms—modern land plants, eukaryotic algae, and photosynthetic bacteria—are responsible for both the oxygen in our atmosphere and the organic molecules that are the foundation of nearly every food chain. Whether or not you notice them, you could not live without them. What should you know? To fully answer this Driving Question, you should be able to: 1. Describe the difference between heterotrophs and autotrophs, and provide an example of each. 2. List the main types of photosynthetic autotrophs. 3. Explain the general importance of photosynthetic organisms to the biosphere. Infographic Focus: The Infographics most pertinent to the Driving Question are 5.6 and 5.7. Test Your Vocabulary: Match these terms to their definitions: [HETEROTROPHS] [AUTOTROPHS] [CHLOROPLAST] [PHOTOSYNTHESIS] 1. Describe the difference between heterotrophs and autotrophs, and provide an example of each. 2. List the main types of photosynthetic autotrophs. What are the main types of photosynthetic autotrophs? 3. Explain the general importance of photosynthetic organisms to the biosphere. Why is the fact that photosynthetic organisms, including algae, use carbon dioxide (along with water and some nutrients) to convert sunlight to usable energy important in terms of the environment? List some benefits of photosynthetic organisms for the biosphere as a whole. (Remember that the biosphere consists of all ecosystems on Earth.) Review Questions 1. Based on your knowledge of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, which of these organisms does NOT contain chloroplasts? A. cyanobacteria B. algae C. sunflower D. grass E. moss 2. Which of these is a product of photosynthesis? A. water B. solar energy C. carbon dioxide D. oxygen E. chlorophyll 3. What do autotrophs provide to heterotrophs? A. energy B. protein C. oils D. more than one of these E. none of these  Driving Question 2: What are the different types of energy, and what transformations of energy do organisms carry out? Why should you care? It is sometimes hard to conceptualize, but energy never goes away. When a car drives up a hill, it converts chemical energy in gasoline to kinetic energy. If parks at the top of the hill, it has converted kinetic energy to potential energy, because it now has the potential to roll down the other side. Through photosynthesis, algae can take light energy, water, and carbon dioxide and convert them to chemical energy. This energy can be stored in the form of carbohydrates, oils, or proteins. Heterotrophs, such as humans, must obtain chemical energy from the food we eat. All organisms convert carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into high-energy molecules that their cells can use to power essential functions. To humans, an important use of those high-energy molecules is to convert chemical energy to kinetic energy, or heat. The heat can be used to maintain a constant body temperature, but much of it is lost to the surrounding air. Thus, we cannot use the chemical energy in our food without some of it escaping to our surroundings, but the original amount of energy never changes. Understanding that energy is both conserved and transformed is essential to understanding how you can conserve energy resources. What should you know? To fully answer this Driving Question, you should be able to: 1. Differentiate between chemical energy, light energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, and heat energy. 2. Explain, in general terms, the ways that organisms convert energy from one form to another and the efficiency with which they do it. Infographic Focus: The Infographics most pertinent to the Driving Question are 5.4 and 5.5. Test Your Vocabulary: Match these terms to their definitions: [ENERGY] [CHEMICAL ENERGY] [CONSERVATION OF ENERGY] [POTENTIAL ENERGY] [KINETIC ENERGY] [HEAT] 1. Differentiate between chemical energy, light energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, and heat energy. Imagine that you had to turn the light on, go upstairs to get your jacket, and take it downstairs. Describe all of the transformations of energy that take place for this to happen. Be sure to include the following forms of energy: chemical, kinetic, potential, light, and heat. 2. Explain, in general terms, the ways that organisms convert energy from one form to another and the efficiency with which they do it. You might say that the sandwich you had for lunch powered your walk up and down the stairs to get your jacket. Was all of the potential energy in that sandwich converted to the kinetic energy of your legs moving? Why or why not? Discuss your answer in terms of energy conversion efficiency. How can we say that some energy is lost to the environment as heat if energy is neither created nor destroyed? How is the initial conversion of energy into food sources (or chemical energy) different between you and algae? Review Questions 1. When a fan is plugged in and turned on, electrical energy is transformed into _____ energy. A. kinetic B. potential C. chemical D. heat 2. The specific type of potential energy in the gasoline you use to power a vehicle is called _____ energy. A. kinetic B. chemical C. light D. heat 3. The specific type of kinetic energy that causes water molecules to move fast enough to change to steam is _____ energy. A. potential B. chemical C. light D. heat 4. Coal is derived from the decayed bodies of ancient plants. You could, therefore, say that coal contains _____ energy that has been stored for millions of years after being transformed into chemical energy. A. kinetic B. light C. heat  Driving Question 3: How do plants and algae convert the energy in sunlight into energy-rich organic molecules? (And why can’t other organisms, including humans, do this?) Why should you care? When organisms use light to convert carbon dioxide and water to carbohydrates, they are transferring the sun’s energy into the food chain. You are part of a food chain too, and even if you hate veggies, you rely on photosynthesis to feed you and provide you with oxygen to breathe and the food you eat. This is because we heterotrophic consumers cannot convert inorganic molecules to organic molecules from which we can derive energy. Photosynthesis requires a specific set of cellular machinery that can capture carbon dioxide, harness light energy, and process them with water into carbohydrates. Once you know more about it, you will see that photosynthesis is a minor miracle that happens all around us every day. What should you know? To fully answer this Driving Question, you should be able to: 1. Describe the relationship between photon energy level, wavelength, and color of light. 2. State the general equation of photosynthesis. 3. Explain how the light (photo-) reactions and carbon (synthesis) reactions work together to make photosynthesis happen. 4. Identify the features required for photosynthesis that are absent from humans and other non-photosynthetic organisms. Infographic Focus: The Infographics most pertinent to the Driving Question are 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, and 5.9. Test Your Vocabulary: Match the following definitions to the terms they describe: [LIGHT ENERGY] [PHOTONS] [CHLOROPHYLL] [ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)] [CARBON FIXATION] [CHLOROPLAST] [PHOTOSYNTHESIS] 1. Describe the relationship between photon energy level, wavelength, and color of light. Order the wavelengths of light in the following list from highest energy to lowest energy.  yellow green purple red blue 2. State the general equation of photosynthesis. 3. Explain how the light (photo-) reactions and carbon (synthesis) reactions work together to make photosynthesis happen. Next to each component of photosynthesis listed in the table, fill out whether that component is associated with the light reaction or carbon reaction. Water Oxygen Glucose Sunlight Carbon dioxide What is the energy molecule that connects the light reactions to the carbon reactions of photosynthesis? Why can plants do photosynthesis, but animals and fungi cannot? Review Questions 1. True or False: Because plants appear green to us, it means that they are using only green photons to drive the photosynthesis reaction. 2. The visible spectrum of light is electromagnetic radiation whose particles’ wavelengths are between 400 and 750 nm. What color would light with a wavelength of 725 most likely be? A. blue B. violet C. yellow D. red 3. The auto in autotroph means “self,” whereas troph means “nourishment.” Therefore, autotrophs are organisms that feed themselves or produce their own food. What is the food that autotrophs make for themselves? A. glucose B. carbon dioxide C. cellulose D. oxygen 4. Where do the electrons needed to make ATP during photosynthesis come from? A. photons released from chlorophyll B. electrons released from chlorophyll C. electrons released from water D. photons released from water  Study Guide Chapter 6: Dietary Energy and Cellular Respiration A “Neat” Path to Weight Management? Burning calories through everyday living Driving Question 1: How does the body use the energy in food? Why should you care? Physiologically, we become overweight/obese by consuming more food energy (Calories) than our body needs, and then storing the excess as fat. Foods vary in their energy content because they vary in the proportion of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins they contain. If we know the energy content of different macromolecules and the proportions of those macromolecules in different kinds of foods, we can better control our Calorie intake and, ultimately, our body composition. Our bodies have evolved an efficient way to deal with excess calories. (This is good news or bad news, depending on your perspective!) Excess simple sugars are bound into glycogen, a complex carbohydrate, and stored in our muscles and liver. Glycogen is an excellent short-term energy storage molecule, because it is quickly broken down. Triglycerides (a type of fat), on the other hand, are better long-term energy storage molecules because they are so energy dense: a little fat stores a lot of energy. Understanding how energy reserves are stored and mobilized can help with proper nutrition and smart exercise plans. What should you know? To fully answer this Driving Question, you should be able to: 1. List the energy-containing biomolecules and the approximate amount of energy each one contains. 2. Explain the process by which excess dietary Calories are converted to energy storage molecules. 3. Compare and contrast glycogen and fat as energy storage molecules. Infographic Focus: The infographics most pertinent to the Driving Question are 6.2, 6.5, and 6.10. Test Your Vocabulary: Match these terms to their definitions: [calorie] [Calorie] [GLYCOGEN] [TRIGLYCERIDES] 1. List the energy-containing biomolecules and the approximate amount of energy each one contains. In the table below, choose the biomolecule, its subunits, and its final energy content and mark them with the same letter (A, B, C, or D). The first one is filled out as an example. Nucleic Acid __A__ Amino Acids ______ 4 Calories/gram ______ Protein ______ Fatty Acids and Glycerol ______ Zero __A__ Carbohydrate ______ Nucleotides __A__ 9 Calories/gram ______ Fat ______ Simple Sugars ______ 4 Calories/gram ______ 2. Explain the process by which excess dietary Calories are converted to energy storage molecules. Before bears hibernate for the winter (i.e., go into a state of inactivity and metabolic depression, sometimes for months), they eat a large amount of food. Why do they do this? What form of energy storage are they utilizing, and what biomolecules are involved? Many marathon runners “carbo-load” the night before a race, meaning that they eat a meal consisting of a large amount of carbohydrates (like pasta and bread). Why do they do this? What form of energy storage are they utilizing, and what biomolecules are involved? 3. Compare and contrast glycogen and fat as energy storage molecules. Compare and contrast glycogen and fat as energy storage molecules by completing the table. Glycogen Fat Location in which stored Order in which stored (first/second) Amount of energy stored (most/least) Order in which used (first/second) Write one or two sentences describing the similarities and differences between glycogen and fat (triglycerides) as energy storage molecules. Review Questions 1. Given what you know about the American diet and the percentage of obese citizens, what form of energy storage do many people’s bodies utilize? A. short-term storage B. long-term storage 2. If you wanted to lower your percentage of body fat, along with exercising, which biomolecule would you avoid eating a lot of? A. proteins B. fats C. carbohydrates D. nucleic acids  Driving Question 2: How does aerobic respiration extract useful energy from food? Why should you care? Just as you can’t take a bar of gold to a convenience store to buy coffee, our bodies can’t use a complex carbohydrate to fuel muscle contractions or other forms of cellular work. Instead, our cells carry out a complex process of energy conversion that results in the production of ATP, the single molecule that acts as energy “currency” for all living things. Aerobic respiration is a metabolic process that uses oxygen to break down energy-rich food molecules to extract and store their energy in the form of ATP. This process takes place when we are at rest, of course, but also when we are performing aerobic exercise. Aerobic exercise is a critical component of weight control because it involves large muscles using up huge amounts of ATP. To keep the ATP supply going, we break down glycogen and fat and use their subunits as the raw material for aerobic respiration. What should you know? To fully answer this Driving Question, you should be able to: 1. Explain the role of ATP in living things. 2. List the major inputs and outputs of aerobic respiration. 3. Describe how the inputs are delivered to cells and the waste products are removed. 4. Describe the three major stages of aerobic respiration. Infographic Focus: The infographics most pertinent to the Driving Question are 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, and 6.11. Test Your Vocabulary: Match these terms to their definitions: [ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)] [AEROBIC RESPIRATION] [GLYCOLYSIS] [CITRIC ACID CYCLE] [NAD+] [ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN] 1. Explain the role of ATP in living things. What is ATP?  How does ATP store energy? How is energy released from ATP? What do we use ATP for? What primary process is used to convert food energy into ATP? 2. List the major inputs and outputs of aerobic respiration. List the molecules required for aerobic respiration and the molecules that are produced as a result of the process. 3. Describe how the inputs are delivered to cells and the waste products are removed. Describe where inputs originate and how they are delivered to cells. Describe where waste products are generated and how they are removed from cells. 4. Describe the three major stages of aerobic respiration. Complete the table to compare and contrast the three stages of aerobic respiration: Outputs (including Amount of ATP Location Inputs waste products) produced Glycolysis Citric acid cycle Electron transport Write a one-sentence description of each stage of aerobic respiration, summarizing the information you have provided above. Which of the three stages yields the greatest output of ATP? If that stage were blocked (by, for example, a poisonous gas that interfered with its critical enzymes), what would happen? Explain. Review Questions 1. Which form of ATP has more stored energy? A. one that has three phosphate groups B. one that has two phosphate groups 2. True or False: Aerobic respiration can occur without oxygen. 3. Which molecule is critical for the correct functioning of aerobic respiration? A. carbon dioxide B. water C. ATP D. NADH  Driving Question 3: When does fermentation occur, and why can’t a human survive strictly on fermentation? Why should you care? Fermentation is a metabolic process that some of our body cells can use to generate ATP when oxygen is scarce. Sprinters and power lifters train to build up their anaerobic capacity—their ability to power their muscles over relatively short intervals when their bodies cannot supply oxygen rapidly enough for their activities to be fueled aerobically. Because anaerobic activities can only be sustained for a few minutes, they are ineffective (on their own) for weight control and building heart health. What should you know? To fully answer this Driving Question, you should be able to: 1. Describe the overall process of fermentation. 2. Compare the ATP output from fermentation to the output from aerobic respiration. 3. Explain the role of fermentation in a healthy organism. Infographic Focus: The infographic most pertinent to the Driving Question is 6.8. Test Your Vocabulary: Match these terms to their definitions: [FERMENTATION] 1. Describe the overall process of fermentation. Complete the table to compare and contrast the two stages of fermentation: Outputs Amount of Location Inputs (including waste ATP produced products) Glycolysis Fermentation reactions Write a one-sentence description of each stage of fermentation, summarizing the information you have provided above. 2. Compare the ATP output from fermentation to the output from aerobic respiration. Approximately how many molecules of ATP are produced by fermentation? Approximately how many molecules are produced by aerobic respiration?  The ATP produced through glycolysis aside, approximately how many molecules of ATP are produced by aerobic respiration? Approximately how many molecules are produced by fermentation? 3. Explain the role of fermentation in a healthy organism. For many organisms, aerobic respiration is the main generator of ATP. Because fermentation only produces a fraction of the total amount of ATP, is there a benefit of this process in these organisms? Review Questions 1. True or False: The products produced by fermentation are always hazardous to the cell and organism. 2. Where do the fermentation reactions happen? A. mitochondria B. mitochondrial membrane C. cell cytoplasm D. nucleus 3. On a long-distance run, the process likely to generate ATP is: A. aerobic respiration B. fermentation 4. To lift a heavy log off your little cousin’s toe, the process likely to generate ATP is: A. aerobic respiration B. fermentation