Periodic Table of Elements Group VA and VB PDF

Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) Arsenic (As) Antimony (Sb) Bismuth (Bi) Properties Chemical  outer s2p3 electron configuration  sharing of 3 or 5 outer electrons → 3+ & 5+  could also have a -3 oxidation  [excep...

Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) Arsenic (As) Antimony (Sb) Bismuth (Bi) Properties Chemical  outer s2p3 electron configuration  sharing of 3 or 5 outer electrons → 3+ & 5+  could also have a -3 oxidation  [except Bi since it does Group not have the tendency to VA accept electrons] Properties Chemical  Sb, As, P, N may accept three electrons to pair up electrons in the outer p orbitals → antimonides, arsenides, phosphides and nitrides Group  Compounds are covalent VA Properties Chemical M + H2 → Hydrides  ammonia (NH3)  phosphine (PH3)  arsine (AsH3)  stibine (SbH3)  bismuthine (BiH3) Group All EXCEPT NH3 are inflammable and poisonous. VA Nitrogen (most abundant in Earth’s Atmosphere)  “Azote” without life  “Mephitic Air”  3 bonds form  Occurs free in the atmosphere  Component of plant and animal tissues  Use by plants-nitrogen fixation  Black cylinder N 2  Nitrogen (largest in Earth’s Atmosphere)  Used for the manufacture of ammonia in the Haber Process.  filler gas in electric lamps and in high temperature thermometers.  provide an inert atmosphere in metallurgy to prevent oxidation in certain industrial N2 processes.  Nitrogen Gas  Replace air in container for parenteral solution.  Triple bond-responsible for inertness Liquid Nitrogen  Refrigerant N2  cryogenics N2O  “Laughing Gas”  General anesthetic (Inhalational)  Not use alone- causes diffusion HYPOXIA  Blue cylinder N2O  Gas (brown N2O3 color or pale blue liquid) NO2 Brown gas 14   “St. Elmo’s Fire”  Light carrier (match)  Apatite  VARIETY: White/Yellow - Poisonous Red-Non- Phosphorus (P) poisonous. Use Is normally a white waxy solid, which in preparation is colourless and translucent. Stored of matches under water. 15 1. White Phosphorus  This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules. 2. Scarlet Phosphorus  Made by heating PBr3 (phosphorus tribromide) with Hg at 240°C 3.Violet Phosphorus  Heating P with small quantity of Na at 200°C. 4. Metallic or Black Phosphorus  Heating P with Pb at 530°C 16  HCO3 (bicarbonate), H2CO3 (carbonic acid) -plasma and kidneys  HPO4-2 (monohydrogen phosphate), H3PO4 (dihydrogen phosphate) -cells and kidneys  Hgb and CHON -RBC -most effective single system for buffering H2CO3 during metabolic process 18  Phosphate Buffer ▪ Adv. Enjoys containing dihydrogen & monohydrogen phosphate ions ▪ Disadv: Insolubility with Ag, Zn & Al, supports microbial growth ▪ Example. Sorensen Buffer system  Borate Buffer ▪ Feldman’s Buffer System( ph 7-8.2) acid solutions of Boric acid, NaCl & Sodium borate ▪ Atkins & Pantin Buffer System (ph 7.6-11) alkaline solutions of Na2CO3 , Boric acid & NaCl ▪ Gifford Buffer System (ph 6-7.8) –similar with Feldman but KCl is used instead of Nacl  2 0  Toxic, protoplasmic poison  Lewisite metal  Anti-syphilis discovered by Paul Erlich  Component of Salvarsan, Arsphenamine, Compound 606  Antileukemia  Preparation of various insecticide SOURCE:  Arsenopyrite (Iron Arsenic Sulfide (FeAsS)  Cu Aceto Arsenate ▪ “Paris Green”  K Arsenite ▪ “Fowler’s Solution”  Donovan’s solution ▪ Red solution containing AsI3 (Arsenic triiodide) or HgI2 (mercuric iodide) 21  When arsenic is present, a light brown spot is generated in the filter paper moistened with silver nitrate solution. 22 23  Cause pale nail bonds on finger nails  Bind with sulfhydryl group ▪ Cystein-rich in sulfhydryl ▪ Curly hair-cystein ANTIDOTE:  BAL 24 Arsenic Trioxide  “White Arsenic”  Tonic, Anti-leukemic  Ingredient in Paris green, Fowler’s and Donovan’s Solution.  1° standard for CeSO4 25 SOURCES:  Senarmontite (Antimony Trioxide)  Valentinite (Antimony Oxide)  Cervantite (Antimony Tetroxide) Principle Source:  Antimony glance (Stibnite) ▪ “orange red sulfide” Pharmaceutical Uses:  expectorant, emetic, anthelmintic 26 Antimony Potassium Tartrate  “Tartar Emetic”  Component of Brown mixture  Emetic  Expectorant  Treatment of Schistosomiasis 27 Babbit Metal  Alloy of antimony  80% Tin and 20% Antimony 28  “Beautiful meadow”  Use in silvering of mirror  Pharmaceutical Uses: astringent, antiseptic, internal protective  Protoplasmic poison Adverse Effects:  Blue black lining of gums  Black stools ANTIDOTE: BAL 29  Bismuthite or Bismuth Glance, Bi2S3,  Tetradymite, Bi2Te3, and  Bismite or Bismuth Ochre, Bi2O3. Bismuth Subcarbonate  Antacid, antiseptic, astringent  60 grams render alimentary canal opaque to x-ray Bismuth Subgallate  Active ingredient in Devrom®, an over-the-counter FDA- approved medicine commonly used to treat malodor by deodorizing flatulence and stool. 31 Bismuth Subnitrate ▪ “White bismuth” ▪ Incompatible with tragacanth (Remedy: add NaHPO4) ▪ Used in the treatment of ulcer and inflammation of the GIT 32  Milk of Bismuth  “Bismuth Cream”  Bi(OH)3 + Bismuth Subcarbonate  For H. pylori  Internal protective for gastric ulcer 33  1) Nessler’s reagent (alkaline K2HgI4): orange ppt of HgO.HgNH2I (iodide of Millon’s base) 2) Heated with strong alkali: evolution of NH3 detected by its characteristic odor and change red litmus paper NH4+ to blue  1) AgNO3: white ppt of AgCN (silver cyanide) insoluble in HNO3 2) Hg2(NO3)2: black ppt of metallic Hg CN-  1) FeCl3: blood red solution of Fe(SCN)2+ NO2- NO3- 1)Dilute Brown gas NR H2SO4 of NO2 2)Brown Brown ring Brown Ring test ring (FeSO4, conc H2SO4) If HAc or dilute H2SO4 is used instead of conc H2SO4, the brown SCN- ring will appear only for nitrite.  1) H2S: orange ppt of Sb2S3 soluble in Na2S 2) Al metal: black ppt of metallic Sb insoluble in NaOBr reagent Sb+3  1) H2S: brownish black ppt of Bi2S3 insoluble in Na2S reagent 2) Na2SnO2: black ppt of metallic Bi Bi+3 Vanadium (V) Niobium (Nb) Tantalum (Ta)   compounds → 2+ through Properties Chemical 5+ ▪ lower valence states ↓ stable = atomic number ↑  acidity of oxides ↓ = atomic number ↑ ▪ V = amphoteric [in its highest oxidation state] Group VB  basicity of hydroxide ↓ = ↑ oxidation state Properties Chemical  compounds in the lower oxidation states = colorful [transition metals]  although, they show a good reducing action on the basis of oxidation potentials -- they are inert Group to chemical action in VB finely divided form. Tantalum  Unaffected by bloody fluid  Use in sheet form for surgical repair of bones, nerves, tissues  Corrosion resistant Source: Tantalite 43 Vanadium  It is a hard, silvery gray, ductile and malleable transition metal.  Means: _____________  Sources: Carnotite, Patronite, Vanadinite Niobium  It is a soft, grey, ductile transition metal, which is often found in the pyrochlore mineral, the main commercial source for niobium, and columbite. 44  is the most abundant element in the earth’s crust. OXYGEN is also a very common element and was known to the ancients as brimstone, that is- “burning stone”. SULFUR It occurs on the earth’s crust as a free element and in combined form as metal sulfides and sulfates. occur much less abundantly than sulfur. They are found along with sulfur in metal sulfides and are SELENIUM and recovered in some quantity from lead and copper refining TELLURIUM processes. occurs only in the form of radioisotopes as a result of the POLONIUM decay of the actinide elements Oxygen  “Dephlogisticated Air” (Priestly)  “Empyreal Air” (Scheele)  Most abundant element  Non metallic element  2nd most electronegative  Essential of all elements  Responsible for the oxidative changes  In paints, fats, fixed oils  Green cylinder O2  Joseph Priestly Carl Wilhelm Scheele 7 3 Allotropes of Oxygen 8  Oxygen Requirements: 1. Anoxic – inadequate O2 tension in air 2. Anemic – decrease hemoglobin 3. Histotoxic – tissue or cell oxidation 4. Stagnant – blood circulation is retarded USE:  Treatment of hypoxia (lack of O2 O2 )  Oxygen Gas  Administration - tubes, masks, tents  Diluent for anesthetic agent O2   “Brimstone”  “Burning Stone”  Shulbari – enemy of Copper SOURCES: S  FeS2 – Iron Pyrite  PbS – Galena  HgS – Cinnabar  ZnS – Zinc blend  CaSO4 2H2O – Gypsum  BaSO4 – Heavy spar  S  Rhombic – ex. Rock sulfur, roll sulfur, flower of S  Monoclinic – needle like crystal  Mobile – straw-colored liquid  Viscous – thick and sticky like molasses  Plastic or Amorphous– rubbery, plastic mass  Sulfur Vapor – form when sulfur is heated above 1000 degrees Celsius  Forms of Sulfur  Precipitated Sulfur -milk of sulfur, fine, component of cream, ointment  Sublimed sulfur -flower of sulfur, azufre, coarse, cathartic S  USES OF SULFUR:  Preparation of scabicidal & keratolytic ointments & lotions  Stimulant cathartic  Stimulant in alopecia  Fumigant (SO2)  Depilatory (sulfides)  Keratolytic (SrS)  Antiseborrheic (CdS) S  Sulfuric Acid  “Oil of Vitriol”  Sulfonating agent  Dehydrating agent Sodium Thiosulfate  Use in photography  For ringworm S  Antidote for cyanide and Iodine poisoning  Hydrogen Sulfide  “Aitch-tu-es- gas”  Reducing agent, precipitating agent of metal ions  Rotten egg odor Sulfur Ointment  Precipitated sulfur  Liquid petrolatum  White ointment S  Scabicide  Parasiticide   “moon”  Trace element Se  Anti-oxidant  Synergistic with Vitamin E  Too toxic when taken internally  Use in the manufacture of photocopying machine Selenium  Catalyst in Nitrogen determination Selenium Sulfide  Active constituent of Selsun Blue  Anti-seborrheic 18  POLONIUM  a radioactive isotope as a result of decay of actinide elements. Po  1) dil. H2SO4: evolves H2S [rotten egg odor] 2) Pb(C2H3O2)2: black ppt of PbS S-  1) dil. H2SO4: evolves SO2 [odor of burnt sulfur] SO3-2  1) dil. H2SO4: NR 2) BaCl2: white ppt of BaSO4, which is insoluble in all acids SO4-2  1) dil. H2SO4: it evolves SO2 [odor of burnt sulfur] 2) KMnO4 or I2 solutions: the solutions are decolorized S2O3-2 Chromium (Cr), Molybdenum (Mo), Tungsten (W)  Chromium forms compounds Chromium compounds with: with oxidation states of 2+, 3+ → 2+ oxidation state are good reducing (most stable) and 6+. agents (since they are readily oxidized to 3+) Molybdenum and Tungsten → 6+ oxidation number (dichromates form compounds in which they Cr2O72-) are readily reduced to the 3+ exhibit oxidation states of 2+ state and are thus good oxidizing through 6+. agents GROUP VI-B THE CHROMIUM SUBGROUP The elements of group VI-B form The oxides form a series of compounds oxides of which those of higher such as the chromates, the molybdates, molecular weight are acidic. etc., Chromium (III) hydroxide is amphoteric salt or will dissolve in excess of alkali to form chromite(CrO2-). Chromium  Cr+2 – green  Cr+3 – blue  CrO4-2 – yellow  Cr2O7-2 – orange SOURCE:  chrome iron ore Cr  Chromium  Trace element  Glucose tolerance factor  Increases insulin sensitivity  Found in brown sugar & butter  Salts are destructive to tissues DEFICIENCY:  mimics Diabetes Mellitus K2Cr2O7 Cr  Powerful oxidizing agent  Ferrochrome (i.e. an alloy containing 40% to 80% Chromium, Cr with Iron, Fe)  Nichrome (i.e. an alloy containing 10% to 25% Chromium and 50% to 70% Nickel),  Stellite (i.e. an alloy of Chromium, Cobalt, and Tungsten) used for surgical instruments.   Essential trace element Mo  Cofactor of enzyme that are flavin dependent  Use in nitrogen fixation involve in bacterial fixing of atmospheric nitrogen Molybdenum  MoO + FeSO4 (Mol-Iron®)  Tungsten  is a hard silvery-white metal, which is stable in air at room temperature.  resembles Molybdenum in chemical properties.  Uses: ▪ in making special steel alloys, ▪ for the filaments of electric lamps, and ▪ as the anti-cathode in X-ray tubes. W  1) NaOH: grayish green ppt of Cr(OH)3 which will dissolve in excess of the alkali to form a green solution, NaCrO2. When an oxidizing agent like Na2O2 is added, it turns yellow due to Na2CrO4. Cr+3  1) BaCl2: yellow ppt of BaCrO4 2) AgNO3: brownish red ppt of Ag2CrO4 3) H2O2 and ether → blue ethereal layer due to perchromic acid (Perchromic Acid Test CrO4-2 or Vanishing Blue Test)  GROUP VII-A The members of the Halogen Family are: Fluorine (F) Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br) Iodine (I) Astatine (At).  GROUP VII-A Berzelius suggested the word “halogen” derived from the Greek words “sea salt” and “to produce” which thus means “producer of sea salt.” The term is applied to the four elements – fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine because the sodium salt of their respective hydro acids are very similar to ordinary salts.  GROUP VII-A The halogens constitute the most active family or group of non-metals in the periodic table. In the free state, these elements exist as diatomic molecules and due to their activity, the halogens are never found free in nature.  GROUP VII-A The oxidation property of Halogens decreases with increasing atomic number. The tendency to be oxidized is, of course, greatest with iodide and least with fluoride. In fact the two heaviest halides may be used as reducing agents, where as the two lightest halogens are commonly used as oxidizing agents.  GROUP VII-A 1. FLUORINE - is the first element in the Halogen group in the periodic table. Its atomic number is 9 and its atomic weight is 19 Physical State: - Pale Yellow Gas  GROUP VII-A 1. FLUORINE Chemical Properties: - Most electronegative element - Strongest oxidizing agent, pale yellow gas - Reacts with more non-metals and in a more violent manner than the other halogens. - Will react directly with all non-metals except nitrogen, oxygen and the noble gases.  GROUP VII-A 1. FLUORINE Natural Sources: - Fluorospar (CaF2), Fluoroapatite (3Ca3(PO4)2.Ca(ClF)), Cryolite (Na3AlF6) Poisoning: - Fluorosis (mottled enamel and abnormal bone growth)  GROUP VII-A 1. FLUORINE Identification Tests: - Etching test: the etches or markings on the glass become permanent after allowing H2SO4 (conc) to stay on the glass for sometime. - AgNO3: no ppt (difference from Cl¯, Br¯, I¯)  GROUP VII-A 1. FLUORINE Compounds and their Uses: a) NaF - 2% in 4 application b) SnF2 - 8% freshly preparation c) Dichlorofluoromethane - Freon, refrigerant, propellant  GROUP VII-A 2. CHLORINE - is a chemical element with the symbol Cl and atomic number 17. The second-lightest of the halogens, it appears between fluorine and bromine in the periodic table and its properties are mostly intermediate between them.  GROUP VII-A 2. CHLORINE - AKA Dephlogisticated muriatic acid - found in large quantities as sodium chloride in seawater and in-land deposits. - It is used as H2O Disinfectant  GROUP VII-A 2. CHLORINE Physical State: - Greenish yellow gas Chemical Properties: - Most predominant ANION (responsible for maintenance of osmotic pressure and anion-cation balance) - Does not readily react to carbon  GROUP VII-A 2. CHLORINE Identification Test: - AgNO3: white ppt of AgCl soluble in NH3 but insoluble in HNO3. - Hg2(NO3)2: white ppt of Hg2Cl2  GROUP VII-A 2. CHLORINE Compounds and Their Uses: a) NaOCl – Dakin’s solution b) Ca(OCl)2 – Muriate of lime c) Diluted HCL 10% - treatment to achlorhydria (lacking of HCl) d) Labarraques solution aka diluted dakins solution (2.5%) – chlorinated soda lime solution  GROUP VII-A 3. BROMINE - is a chemical element with the symbol Br and atomic number 35 and is the third-lightest halogen. - often found with sodium chloride as the sodium, potassium and magnesium bromide. - Sedative and antidepressant  GROUP VII-A 3. BROMINE Chemical Properties: - The electron affinity of bromine is high and is similar to that of chlorine. It is, however, a less powerful oxidizing agent, chiefly because of the weaker hydration of the bromide ion as compared with the chloride ion. - Bromine combines violently with the alkali metals and with phosphorus, arsenic, aluminum, and antimony but less violently with certain other metals.  GROUP VII-A 3. BROMINE Toxicity: - Bromism (skin eruption, psychosis, weakness, H/A) Treatment: NaCl or NH4Cl Physical State: - Reddish brown fuming liquid with suffocating odor  GROUP VII-A 3. BROMINE Identification Tests: - AgNO3: yellow ppt of AgBr insoluble in HNO3. - KMnO4, H2SO4, chloroform: orange to brown layer due to the liberation of Br2 Compounds and Their Uses: a)Koppeschaar’s Solution - 0.1N Bromine Solution - Sedative and used in iodometry  GROUP VII-A 4. IODINE - A chemical element with the symbol I and atomic number 53. - CCl4 or CHCl3 – violet - Synthesis of thyroid hormones  GROUP VII-A 4. IODINE Physical State: - Grayish black solid, violet colored vapor - Iodine gives a red solution in benzene, which is regarded as the result of a different type of charge-transfer complex. In inert solvents, such as carbon tetrachloride or carbon disulfide, violet-coloured solutions that contain uncoordinated iodine molecules are obtained.  GROUP VII-A 4. IODINE Uses: Expectorant, antiseptic, antimicrobial Antidote: Starch, Na2S2O3 Iodine Preparations Strong Iodine Solution / Lugol’s Solution Saturated Solution of Potassium Iodide (KISS)  GROUP VII-A 4. IODINE Chemical Properties: - Iodine combines directly with many elements. Iodine combines readily with most metals and some nonmetals to form iodides; for example, silver and aluminum are easily converted into their respective iodides, and white phosphorus unites readily with iodine.  GROUP VII-A 4. IODINE Chemical Properties: - The iodide ion is a strong reducing agent; that is, it readily gives up one electron. Although the iodide ion is colourless, iodide solutions may acquire a brownish tint as a result of oxidation of iodide to free iodine by atmospheric oxygen.  GROUP VII-A 4. IODINE Identification Tests: - AgNO3: yellow ppt of AgI insoluble in HNO3. - KMnO4, H2SO4, chloroform: violet layer due to the liberation of I2.  GROUP VII-A 4. IODINE Compounds and Their Uses: a)Potassium Iodide - Increase solubility of I2 b)Iodine Tincture - 2% iodine in 50% alcohol with NaI c)Povidone-Iodine (Betadine®) - Polyvinylpyrolidone (PVP) - Iodophores – liberates free iodine  GROUP VII-A 4. IODINE Compounds and Their Uses: d)Boulton’s Solution - Phenolated Iodine Solution - Disinfectant e)Mandel’s Solution - Carbolised Iodine Solution - Antiseptic f) Strong Iodine Solution Lugol’s Solution → contains triiodide (I3)  GROUP VII-A 5. ASTATINE -AKA Eka-Iodine - Least electronegative element - Only Synthetic halogen - Only Radioactive halogen - Only Metallic Halogen GROUP VII-B MANGANESE SUBGROUP  GROUP VII-B The members of the Manganese Subgroup are: Manganese (Mn) Technetium (Tc) Rhenium (Re)  GROUP VII-B The only metal of pharmaceutical importance in this group is Manganese. Technetium is a product of radioactive decay. Rhenium is extremely rare although fair amount of knowledge is available concerning on its properties.  GROUP VII-B 1. MANGANESE - A chemical element with the symbol Mn and atomic number 25. - Manganese occurs mostly as the oxide, MnO2. It is difficult to prepare the pure state. Since manganese is used mainly in alloy steels, it can be used without extensive purification.  GROUP VII-B 1. MANGANESE Physical State: - a silvery-gray metal that resembles iron. It is hard and very brittle, difficult to fuse.  GROUP VII-B 1. MANGANESE Chemical Properties: - Manganese exhibits oxidation states of 2+, to 7+. The 2+ compounds are good reducing agents. The permanganese ion (Mno4¯) is a good oxidizing agent since the manganese is in the 7+ oxidation state and is easily reduced.  GROUP VII-B 1. MANGANESE TWO SALT FORMS: A. Hausmannite Is a complex oxide of manganese containing both di- and tri- valent manganese B. Braunite is a silicate mineral containing both di- and tri- valent manganese  GROUP VII-B 1. MANGANESE Identification Test: - H2S: salmon or flesh colored ppt of MnS - NaBiO3: purple solution of HMnO4 (permanganic acid)  GROUP VII-B 1. MANGANESE Compounds and their Uses: a) Manganese Sulfide - Salmon-colored sulfur - Trace element - Cofactor in CHON synthesis for riboflavin - Phosphorylation, fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis Poisoning: Similar to parkinsonism  GROUP VII-B 1. MANGANESE Compounds and their Uses: b)KMnO4 - Mineral chameleon - Oxidizing agents, volumetric soln in permanganometry Mn+2 = manganous Mn+3 = manganic Mn+4 = manganite Mn+6 = manganate Mn+7 = permanganate (most common)  GROUP VII-B 2. TECHNETIUM - AKA Eka-manganese - 1st element produced artificially - Used in preparation of radiopharmaceuticals - Diagnostic agent GROUP VIII-A NOBLE GASES  GROUP VIII-A The members of the Noble Gases are: Helium (He) Neon (Ne) Argon (Ar) Krypton (Kr) Xenon (Xe) Radon (Rn)  GROUP VIII-A The noble gases are colourless, odourless, tasteless, nonflammable gases. They traditionally have been labeled Group 0 in the periodic table because for decades after their discovery it was believed that they could not bond to other atoms; that is, that their atoms could not combine with those of other elements to form chemical compounds.  GROUP VIII-A 1. HELIUM - 2nd lightest gas - Inhalation of pure helium -> Donald duck like sound - Carrier diluent for medicine - Placed in BROWN CYLINDER - Artificial gas – BROWN GREEN CYLINDER  GROUP VIII-A 2. NEON - Advertising purposes: - 2nd lightest noble gas - Bright reddish orange light  GROUP VIII-A 3. ARGON - the most widely distributed and most abundant of the inert gases. It is present in the air (0.94% v/v) in natural gas, occluded in minerals and dissolved in the oceans and all fresh waters. - Used substitute to nitrogen gas, inert atmosphere for pharmaceuticals  GROUP VIII-A 4. KRYPTON -Investigated for its use as inhalational anesthetic 5. XENON - Least abundant noble gas - Used in production of flash lamps and arc lamps - General anesthetic action  GROUP VIII-A 6. RADON - “Niton” (William Ramsay) - Inert gas given off by radium salts as decomposition product - It is itself radioactive, being a short half-lived alpha emitter and this property has a limited utility in the treatment of cancer GROUP VIII-B TRIADS  GROUP VIII This group is divided into three triads: 1st Triad---- Fe, Co, Ni (Iron Family) 2nd Triad----Rh, Ru, Pd (Palladium Family) 3rd Triad---- Os, Pt, Ir (Platinum Family)  Other names: GROUP VIII Falling star Shooting star 1. IRON - A transition metal with an atomic number of 26 - Iron, which is the chief constituent of Earth’s core, is the most abundant element in Earth - Essential to organisms since it’s needed for the creation of hemoglobin. - Partner vitamin: ____ Physical State: - lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge  GROUP VIII 1. IRON Chemical Properties: - Chemically, the most common oxidation states of iron are iron(II) and iron(III). - Iron shares many properties of other transition metals, including the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium.  GROUP VIII 1. IRON Sources: - Iron Pyrite or Fool’s Gold (FeS2) - Magnetite - Limonite - Shooting Star - Ciderite - Hematite (Fe2O3) - Falling Star Pharmaceutical use: Hematinic Toxicity: - GIT distress and cardiac collapse (antidote: DEFEROXAMINE)  GROUP VIII Ferrous – green Ferric – yellow to brown Elemental iron – silvery white metal Reduced iron – no luster, grayish Taste: Ferruginous taste 19  GROUP VIII Vitamin C Enhance absorption of iron (duodenum) Most important metal from standard point of engineering Steels-alloys of Fe 20  GROUP VIII 1. IRON Compounds and its uses: a) Ferrous Sulfate - Green Vitriol / Copperas - Most economical, most satisfactory ferrous salt A/E: black stool and constipation b) Ferrous Fumarate - BN: Toleron - Most stable, for pregnant  GROUP VIII 1. IRON Compounds and its uses: c) Ferrous Gluconate - BN: Fergon - Less gastric irritation (in px with peptic ulcer) d) Ferrous Carbonate - aka: Chalybeate pills, blaud pills - Ferruginous taste e) Iron + NH4CH3COO - BASHAM’S MIXTURE - Astringent, styptic (causes coagulation)  GROUP VIII 1. IRON Compounds and its uses: f) Ferrous Ammonium Sulfate - Ammonium iron (II) sulfate, Mohr’s Salt - For titration g) Ferric Chloride - Astringent, styptic, rgt for detection of tannins  GROUP VIII 1. IRON Blue Point Dyes Ferrous Ferricyanide [Fe3(CN)6]2 TURNBULL’S BLUE (cherry red blood) Ferric Ferrocyanide [Fe4(CN6)]3 PRUSSIAN BLUE (chocolate brown/brownish red blood) Alloys Misch Metal (30% Fe 70% Ce)  GROUP VIII 2. COBALT - Metal present in Vitamin B12 - Essential for development of erythrocytes - Use in manufacture of beer - Permanent magnet making - Deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia Physical State: Anhydrous – blue Hydrated – pink Pure – pinkish white  GROUP VIII 2. COBALT Chemical Properties: - Common oxidation states of cobalt include +2 and +3, although compounds with oxidation states ranging from −3 to +5 are also known.  GROUP VIII 2. COBALT Compound and its uses: a) Cobaltous Chloride (CoCl2) - Lover’s Ink, Sympathetic Ink - Use as indicator for silica gel beads  GROUP VIII 3. NICKEL - Old nicks copper, Raney Nickel - Found in fossil fuel combustion - Metal present in fancy jewelry (fake) - Catalyst and Poison Toxicity: Nephritis and Hypotension Identification of Nickel Dimethylglyoxime (+ result = green color)  GROUP VIII 3. NICKEL AKA: Old nicks copper, Raney nickel Metal present in fancy jewelry → Contact dermatitis Physical State: - lustrous, metallic, and silver with a gold tinge Chemical properties: - The most common oxidation state of nickel is +2  GROUP VIII 3. NICKEL Compounds and their uses: a) Nickelous Ion - Green/bluish green in solution b) Ni+ Pectinate - Treatment of diarrhea - Tomectin c) Ni+ Sulfate - Parasiticide, tonic d) Ni+ Carbonate - Tonic  GROUP VIII 3. PALLADIUM - Effective catalyst 4. OSMIUM - Heaviest and densest metal known - Osmic acid + Osmium Tetroxide Staining of microscopic specimen used in electron microscopy (Gram + bacteria)  GROUP VIII 4. PLATINUM - Catalyst, corrosion-resistant, unreactive (free state) - Use in making crucibles and wires - Sperrylite – abundant source Cisplatin Cis-diaminedichloroplatinum Antineoplastic →Tx of prostate cancer Ototoxic agent  Radiopharmaceuticals Every atom of an element is composed of a nucleus, containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons. The atomic number is determinant of elements, in that all the atoms composing an element have the same number of protons and therefore, the same numbers of electrons. Radiopharmaceuticals However, all atoms of an element are not exactly alike. Most elements contain a certain percentage of atoms, which differ in atomic weight or mass from the majority of the atoms present. These different forms of an element are known as isotopes and they vary in the number of neutrons contained in the nuclei of their atoms.  Radiopharmaceuticals Isotopes of a particular element, then, have the same atomic number (same number of protons) but different mass numbers (differing number of neutrons). The isotopes of a particular element have the same chemical and physical properties.  Radiopharmaceuticals Terminologies: Atomic number (Z) denotes the number of protons in a nucleus Mass number (A), also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in an atomic nucleus. Isobars are nuclides that have the same mass. Isotones are nuclides which possess the same number of neutrons.  Radiopharmaceuticals Nuclear Notation A mass number Z atomic number “When radioactive isotopes decay, they emit certain particles or quantities of energy that are characteristic of the particular isotope involved.”  Radiopharmaceuticals “When radioactive isotopes decay, they emit certain particles or quantities of energy that are characteristic of the particular isotope involved.”  Radiopharmaceuticals What is a radionuclide? - is an atom with an unstable nucleus, which is a nucleus characterized by excess energy which is available to be imparted either to a newly-created radiation particle within the nucleus, or else to an atomic electron  Radiopharmaceuticals 1. ALPHA PARTICLES - They constitute alpha radiation - These radiations are far the heaviest and slowest of all radioactive emissions. - The particle is actually a helium nucleus, containing two protons and two neutrons of an atomic mass of 4 and atomic number of 2  Radiopharmaceuticals 1. ALPHA PARTICLES - The range of alpha particles in air is about 5cm; the range is less than 100micrometer in tissue - Their penetrating power is very low and can stopped by a sheet of paper or a very thin sheet of aluminum. - Alpha radiation is usually emitted only from elements having atomic numbers greater than 82.  Radiopharmaceuticals 1. ALPHA PARTICLES - Isotopes emitting alpha particles will decay to the element having a mass number of 4 or less and atomic number 2 less than the original isotope.  Radiopharmaceuticals 2. BETA PARTICLES (B- OR B +) - Beta particles are negatively charged species having a mass of an electron. - The emissions from elements do not alter the mass number but do alter the atomic number.  Radiopharmaceuticals 2. BETA PARTICLES (B- OR B +) - They have more penetrating power and able to, travel 10 to 15 cm. in water or penetrate almost 1-inch thickness of aluminum.  Radiopharmaceuticals 2. BETA PARTICLES (B- OR B +) Beta radiation exists as two types: A.The negative electron (the negatron) - are emitted by unstable nuclei having neutron, in excess of protons. - If the neutron/proton ratio exceeds stable limits, a transformation of a neutron to a proton will occur, with the expulsion of beta radiation  Radiopharmaceuticals 2. BETA PARTICLES (B- OR B +) Beta radiation exists as two types: A.The negative electron (the negatron) - Element emitting this type of transformation will decay to the element having the next highest atomic number.  Radiopharmaceuticals 2. BETA PARTICLES (B- OR B +) Beta radiation exists as two types: B.The positive electron (the positron) - is the particle identical to the electron with the exception of having a positive charge. - It is emitted from nuclei having a proton/neutron ratio above stable limits, A proton is transformed into a neutron, accompanied by the emission of a positron.  Radiopharmaceuticals 2. BETA PARTICLES (B- OR B +) Beta radiation exists as two types: B.The positive electron (the positron) - Elements emitting positron radiation will decay to the element having the next lowest atomic number.  Radiopharmaceuticals 3. GAMMA RADIATION - The gamma ray may be described as a photon of electromagnetic radiation. It demonstrates both ways and particle properties, as do electrons and beta particles.  Radiopharmaceuticals 3. GAMMA RADIATION - Gamma rays are the most penetrating of all types of radiation emitted by radionuclides. *Gamma radiation- electromagnetic *Beta and alpha radiation- particulate  Radiopharmaceuticals 3. GAMMA RADIATION In Gamma radiation: 1.The rays are of short wavelength similar to x- rays and travel at the speed of light. 2.They have no mass and no charge, but they are of very high energy giving them excellent penetrating power. Very thick lead is required to protect against radiation from strong gamma emitting sources.  Radiopharmaceuticals 3. GAMMA RADIATION A type of radiation similar to gamma rays is seen in the emission of x-rays through a process known as K-capture. This type of radiation is produced by isotope with an unstable proton/neutron ratio but with insufficient energy to emit with a positron.  Radiopharmaceuticals 3. GAMMA RADIATION Alternatively, the nucleus "capture" an electron from the so called K shell Qs orbital) which combines with a proton to form a neutron. The rearrangement of the orbital electrons takes place with the release of energy in the form of x- rays.  Radiopharmaceuticals Gamma-emitting radionuclides - particularly useful for diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals; once the radiopharmaceutical has distributed within the body, the photons can penetrate the tissues and be detected externally using specially designed imaging equipment.  Radiopharmaceuticals BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION 1.The effect of radioactive particles impinging upon biological tissues depends upon a number of factors related to the ff: ability of the radiation to penetrate tissue, the energy of the radiation, the particular tissue and the surface area exposed the dose rate of the radiation  Radiopharmaceuticals BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION 2.The destructive aspect of radioactivity is directly related to its interaction with molecules present in the tissue to form abnormal amounts of ion and/or free radicals. 3.These chemical species can alter the local pH or serve to initiate free radical chain reactions, resulting in the production of peroxides and other toxic compounds.  Radiopharmaceuticals BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION 4.These and other events can create a hostile environment for tissue cells, leading to necrosis and ultimately, complete destruction of the tissue or organ.  Radiopharmaceuticals INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION OF RADIOISOTOPES Radiopharmaceuticals are preparations containing which are used internally for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. Isotopes important as radiopharmaceuticals are: 1.Those emitting beta and gamma radiation since they can penetrate body tissue. 2.Isotopes that can be concentrated in specific manner in certain organs or cells. 3.Isotopes that should be eliminated from the body easily aside from the associated radioactivity, they and the decay products should be of low toxicity.  Radiopharmaceuticals RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS USED IN MEDICINE Albumin Microspheres Tc 99m, In 111, In 113m, Pb 203 – used for lung imaging. Chromated Cr 51 Albumin Injection - detection and quantitation of gastrointestinal protein loss and placental localization. Iodinated I 125 Albumin Injection – diagnostic aid in the determination of total blood and plasma volumes. Iodinated I 131 Albumin Injection – diagnostic aid in the determination of total blood and plasma volumes, circulation times or cardiac output and as adjunct to other diagnostic procedures in the detection and localization of brain tumors, in placental localization and in cisternography.  Radiopharmaceuticals RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS USED IN MEDICINE Iodinated I 131 Albumin Aggregated Injection – diagnostic study of the lungs (pulmonary embolism) by radioisotope scanning. Chlormerodrin Hg 197 Injection – diagnostic aid for scanning the brain for suspected lesions and the kidneys for anatomical and functional abnormalities. Chlormerodrin Hg 203 Injection – same uses as above. Chromic Phosphate P 32 Injection – neoplastic suppressant for palliative treatment of pleural and peritoneal effusions.  Radiopharmaceuticals RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS USED IN MEDICINE Cobalt Co 60 and Iridium Ir 192 Sources – 60 Co has replaced radium, which is relatively expensive for many radiation uses of the latter element. Cyanocobalamin Co 57 and Co 60 Capsules and Solution – diagnostic aid to study the absorption and deposition of Vit. B12 in normal individuals and in patients with megaloblastic anemias. Ferric hydroxide In 113m – diagnostic agent for lung imaging. Ferrous nitrate Fe 59 Injection – diagnostic aid for the evaluation of the kinetics of iron metabolism.  Radiopharmaceuticals RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS USED IN MEDICINE Ferrous Hydroxide Tc 99m – diagnostic aid in pulmonary scintigraphy. Fibrinogen I 125 Injection – diagnosis and localization of deep-vein thrombosis, the accumulation of fibrinogen in clots is observable by use of a radiation detector pressed to the surface of the limb. Gallium Citrate Ga 67 Injection – diagnosis of lesions of the lungs, breast, maxillary sinuses and liver by using scanning and organ-imaging techniques. A positive 67 Ga uptake is a potential indicator of certain malignancies such as lymphomas, bronchogenic carcinoma, and Hodgkin’s disease.  Radiopharmaceuticals RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS USED IN MEDICINE Indium Chloride In 113m Injection – blood-pool studies, including visualization, aneurysms, and in placental scintigraphy. Indium Hydroxide In 113m Injection – for liver, spleen and bone marrow scintigraphy. Insulin I 125 and I 131 - in vitro assay of circulating insulin either free or bound. Iodohippurate Sodium I 131 Injection – for kidney function. Krypton Kr 81m – lung function, ventilation and perfusion and radiocardiology. Liothyronine I 125 and I 131 – in vitro evaluation of thyroid function.  Radiopharmaceuticals RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS USED IN MEDICINE Levothyroxine I 125 and I 131 – study metabolism of endogenous thyroxine, supplementing other tests of thyroid function. Oleic acid I 125 and I 131, Trinolein I 125 and I 131 – diagnostic agents for measuring fat absorption in suspected pancreatic disease and other gastrointestinal dysfunction. Pentetate Indium Trisodium In 113 Injection – diagnostic aid for brain scanning, for studies of glomerular filtration and for kidney imaging. Pentetate Indium Disodium In 111 Injection – diagnostic aid for studies of cardiac output, for cisternography, for evaluation of glomerular filtration and in renal scintigraphy.  Radiopharmaceuticals RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS USED IN MEDICINE Pentetate Ytterbium Trisodium Yb 169 Injection – for brain and kidney imaging and for cisternographic diagnosis of CSF rhinorrhea. Potassium Chloride K 42 Injection – tumor localization and studies of renal blood flow. Potassium Chloride K 43 Injection – for heart imaging. Rose Bengal Sodium I 131 Injection – diagnostic aid (liver function), especially for differential diagnosis of hepatobiliary diseases. Selenomehtionine Se 75 Injection – scintigraphy of the pancreas and parathyroid glands.  Radiopharmaceuticals RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS USED IN MEDICINE Sodium chloride Na 22 Injection – determining circulating times, sodium space and total exchangeable sodium. Sodium chromate Cr 51 Injection – biological tracer to measure circulating red-cell volume, red-cell survival time and whole blood volume. Sodium Fluoride F 18 Injection – bone imaging, especially to define area of altered osteogenic activity. Sodium Iodide I 123, I 125, I 131 – thyroid function. Sodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m Injection – detection and location of cranial lesion, thyroid and salivary glands, imaging placental localization and blood pool imaging.  Radiopharmaceuticals RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS USED IN MEDICINE Sodium Phosphate P 32 Solution – neoplastic and polycythemic suppressant, diagnostic aid for localization of ocular tumor. Strontium Sr 85 Injection – diagnostic aid for scanning bones to detect and define lesions and to study bone growth and abnormal formation. Technetium Tc 99m Etidrenate Injection – best agent for bone imaging. Technetium Tc 99m Iminodiacetic acid (TIDA) or Hepatobiliary Iminodiacetic acid (HIDA) – hepatobiliary imaging agent.  Radiopharmaceuticals RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS USED IN MEDICINE Technetium Tc 99m Ferpentate Injection – kidney imaging. Technetium Tc 99m Pentetate Injection – brain and kidney visualization, for vascular dynamic studies for measurement of glomerular filtration and lung ventilation studies. Technetium Tc 99m Pyrophosphate Injection – skeletal imaging agent used to demonstrate regions of altered osteogenesis. Technetium Tc 99m Sulfur Colloid Injection – diagnostic aid for liver scanning.  Radiopharmaceuticals RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS USED IN MEDICINE Technetium Tc 99m Gluceptate Injection – a renal imaging agent and localization of brain, lung and gall bladder lesions. Technetium Tc 99m sodium phosphates Injection – bone and renal imaging. Technetium Tc 99m Sodium Phytate Injection – for liver and spleen imaging. Thallium Tl 201 chloride Injection – myocardial perfusion imaging for diagnosis and localization of myocardial ischemia and infarction. Xenon Xe 133 Injection – as gas for lung imaging to detect alveolar blockage.