Patho Final Exam Study Guide PDF

Patho Final Exam- Study Guide to Success Nervous System: CAD (coronary artery disease) is diagnosed by: - Physical exam: doctor listens to carotid artery in the neck with a stethoscope for a bruit to indicate blockage - Carotid ultrasound: non-invasive test t...

Patho Final Exam- Study Guide to Success Nervous System: CAD (coronary artery disease) is diagnosed by: - Physical exam: doctor listens to carotid artery in the neck with a stethoscope for a bruit to indicate blockage - Carotid ultrasound: non-invasive test that uses sound waves to create images of carotid arteries & any plaque buildup - MRI & CT & CT Angiogram - Carotid angiography- x ray that uses contrast dye to create images of the carotid arteries Neurons: Fundamental unit of nervous system; specialized cells responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting info throughout the body Communicate by electrochemical signals Basic structure: Soma- cell body (contains the nucleus & organelles_ Dendrites- fingerlike cells that are branched extensions of the soma that receive signals from other neurons Axon- carries nerve impulses away from the soma to other neurons, muscles, and glands; action potentials start @ the axon hillock - At the end of the axon are terminal branches, which form synapses (junctions) where they communicate with other cells Most common neuron is a multipolar It has sensory neurons (transmit impulses from peripheral sensory receptors to the CNS), interneuron (decision-making neuron), motor neuron (transmit impulses from the CNS to an effector organ) Motor neurons: Transmit impulses from the CNS (brain and spinal cord) to an effector organ (muscles and glands) Transmitted by efferent pathway Primary function is to initiate and control movements Upper motor neurons: - Control fine motor movements - Modify spinal reflex arcs & circuits - Destruction- initial paralysis followed by partial recovery Lower motor neurons: - Direct influence on muscles - Axons extend into the PNS - Destruction- permanent paralysis Cerebellum: - Maintains balance & posture - Damage is ipsilateral (same side) loss of equilibrium, balance, and motor coordination - Conscious and unconscious muscle synergy Occipital lobe functions: Maps the visual world Determines color properties of items in the visual field Assessing distance, size, and depth Identifying visual stimuli Transmitting visual info to other brain regions Frontal lobe functions: Coordinating voluntary movements Assessing future consequences of current action Formation and retention of long-term memories Language Emotional expression & regulation The development of personality Meninges: Protective membrane that surrounds the brain and spinal cord - Dura mater: tough, outermost layer that adheres to the skull - Arachnoid mater: thin, impermeable layer beneath the dura mater - Pia mater: thin, vascular layer that closely adheres to the brain & spinal cord Has 3 spaces: - Subdural space  - Subarachnoid space - Epidural space Subdural space: - Located between the dura and arachnoid mater CSF Clear, colorless fluid similar to blood plasma & interstitial fluid Prevents the brain from tugging on the meninges, nerve roots, and blood vessels Produced in the choroid plexuses & reabsorbed in the arachnoid villi Located in the subarachnoid space Exerts pressure within the brain and spinal cord Afferent pathway: Ascending (carries info towards that CNS)-->sensory to spinal column Impulses transmitted from the peripheral sensory receptors to the CNS via sensory neurons Efferent pathway: Descending (carries info away from the CNS to the muscles & glands); innervate effector organs) Impulses transmitted from the CNS to the effector organ via motor neurons Stroke risk factors: Age (age over 55) Family history Race (AA, Hispanics, native americans) Sex Hypertension High cholesterol Heart disease DM Smoking Obesity Poor diet Sleep apnea Drug usage Stimulation of sympathetic nervous system: Decrease peristalsis Increase BS levels, temperature, and BP Regulates vasomotor tone “Fight or flight” Stimulation of parasympathetic nervous system: Promotes rest & tranquility (rest & digest) Reduces HR Enhances visceral functions leading to digestion Control pupil constriction & tear secretion Increase salivary secretion Contract urinary bladder Dermatome: Area of skin on your body that relies on specific nerve connections on your spine; has a specific single sensory nerve fiber Dementia: - Progressive failure of many cerebral functions that cause impairment - Onset is gradual - Progressive dementia produce nerve cell degeneration & brain atrophy - Age is the GREATEST RISK FACTOR Patho: - Compression of brain tissue - Genetic predisposition - CNS infections - Brain trauma - Neuron degeneration - Atherosclerosis of cerebral vessels s/s: - Impairment of intellectual function, memory, & language - Alterations in behavior Tx: - No cure or specific treatment; goal is to delay the process - Restore functions, if possible - Accommodate lost abilities & control behavioral changes Musculoskeletal System: Articular Cartilage: Type of hyaline cartilage that covers the end of each bone It reduces the friction in the joint & distributes forces of weight-bearing Has chondrocytes (cartilage cells) & intercellular matrix (collagen, polysaccharides & mostly water) Has no blood vessels, lymph nodes, or nerves (very insensitive to pain and regenerates slowly after injury) Layered by - Surface layer- dense protective mat - Middle layer- arranged fibers for weight bearing - Perpendicular fibers to resist shear forces & calcified layer (tidemark) that anchors them to the bone at the bottom layer Pennate muscles: Broad, flat, and slightly fan shaped Fusiform muscles: Elongated muscles that are shaped similar to straps; they run from one joint to another Anatomy related to the function of muscle stretching: Sensory receptors: Sends signal to the CNS Spindles: mechanoreceptors that respond to muscle stretching These are responsible for muscle stretch response & maintenance of normal muscle tone Oxygen debt: Amount of oxygen needed to convert the buildup of lactic acid to glucose & replenish ATP & phosphocreatine stores Effects of aging on the musculoskeletal system: Bones: - Loss of bone tissue - Stiff, brittle, decreased strength - Lengthened bone remodeling cycle - Slow mineralization - Evidence of osteoporosis - Increased bone resorption Joints: - Cartilage: more rigid, fragile, stiff; increased risk of fraying - Decreased range of motion Muscles: Apoptosis of cell death Sarcopenia(age related loss of muscles from loss of satellite cells) Decreased muscle strength & bulk Reduced oxygen intake, basal metabolic rate & lean body mass Amphiarthrosis - Slightly moveable joint - Ex. intervertebral disks, ribs, and pelvis joints Comminuted Fracture: Bone breaks in more than two fragments Phases of healing in a fracture: Inflammatory phase: Lasts 3-4 days Bone tissue destruction triggers an inflammatory response Hematoma formation Repair phase: Last several days  Capillary ingrowth, mononuclear cells, and fibroblasts transform hematoma into granulation tissue Osteoblasts within the procallus synthesize collagen and matrix to form callus Remodeling phase Lasts months to years Unnecessary callus is resorbed, and trabeculae are formed At the end, bone can withstand normal stresses Gout: Metabolic disorder that disrupts the body’s control of uric acid production or excretion Patients will have high levels of uric acid in the blood & other body fluids Uric acid concentration increases to high levels to crystallize →tophi (small white visible nodules) – crystal deposition can be caused from Low body temp Decreased albumin or glycosaminoglycan levels Trauma Changes in ion concentration & pH Gout is r/t purine metabolism - Caused by purine synthesis or breakdown is accelerated - Poor uric acid secretion in the kidneys s/s: Pain in the great toe (usually) worse at night Increase in serum urate concentration (hyperuricemia) Recurrent attacks of monoarticular arthritis- inflammation in one joint Deposits of tophi in & around the joints Renal disease, involving glomerular, tubular, & interstitial tissues & blood vessels Formation of kidney stones Myoblasts: Primary cells that responsible for muscle growth & regeneration aka satellite cells in the inactive state Once muscle is injured, satellite cells become ACTIVATED to form myoblasts & assist in repair Osteoarthritis: - Common age-related disorder of synovial joint  - Inflammatory joint disease - Aka degenerative joint disease - Local areas of damage, loss of articular cartilage, bone spurs, thickening of joint capsule s/s: - Pain, stiffness, enlargement of joint, tenderness, limited motion, & deformity - Joint swelling in the fingers: Heberden & Bouchard nodes - Joint effusion: exudate or blood entering the joint Compact bone - AKA cortical bone - 85% skeleton - Solid and strong bone - Has a haversian system; with a haversian canal, lamellae, lacunae, osteocyte, and canaliculi Long Bones Diaphysis - long shaft of the long bone - Contains fat - “yellow marrow” in the medullary cavity Metaphysis- has a broad neck Epiphysis- the end of the long bone - Medullary cavity help with blood formation→”red marrow” - Epiphyseal plate or growth plate In kids, epiphysis is separate from the metaphysis by a cartilaginous growth plate, but after puberty the epiphyseal plate calcifies & the epiphysis and metaphysis merge together Endosteum- lines the medullary cavity Renal/urinary system Acute Kidney Injury: - Sudden decline in kidney function with a decrease in glomerular filtration & accumulation of nitrogenous waste products in the blood - Increase in CRT & BUN - Oliguric