Part 1.docx

Chapter 1: Introduction to Organizational Behaviour Organizational Behaviours Studies what people think, feel, and do in and around organizations Organizations Groups of people who work interdependently towards some purpose Collective entities Collective sense of purpose WHY OB MATTERS OB Help...

Chapter 1: Introduction to Organizational Behaviour Organizational Behaviours Studies what people think, feel, and do in and around organizations Organizations Groups of people who work interdependently towards some purpose Collective entities Collective sense of purpose WHY OB MATTERS OB Helps People Understand and predict workplace events Adopt more accurate personal theories- why we (and others) do what we do… the way we do it Vital to Organizational Survival and Success Predicts performance Predicts quality Can make or break an organization The World is Changing Technology Higher productivity (at a cost..?) (Can) Improve health and wellbeing Less work/ non work separation, more ‘techno-stress’ Globalization Larger markets, lower cost, more knowledge Increase intensity of work, reduce job security Remote Work / Gig Economy Better for the environment; lower cost for company But… even less work-life balance; isolating; disconnected Diversity Better creativity and results but more conflict and complexity Organizational Behaviour ‘Anchors’ Anchor 1: Systemic Research OB knowledge is built on systematic research; evidence-based management Anchor 2: Multidisciplinary May OB concepts adopted from other disciplines; OB develops its own theories, but scans other fields Anchor 3: Contingency An action may have different consequences in different situations Anchor 4: Multiple Levels of Analysis Individual, team, organizational levels of analysis Organizational Effectiveness The ultimate dependant variable in OB GOAL ATTAINMENT: discredited view of effectiveness Organizational effectiveness is a composite of four perspectives: Open Systems Organizational Learning High-Performance Work Practice (HPWP) Stakeholders Chapter 2: Individual Behaviour, Personality, and Values MARS Model of Individual Behaviour Motivation internal forces that affect a person’s voluntary choice of behaviour; variables associated with motivation include direction intensity persistence Ability Aptitudes and learning capabilities required to successfully complete a task Person-Job Matching Selecting Developing Redesigning Role Perceptions Understanding the job duties (or similar) expected of us Role Perceptions are clearer when we: Understand our tasks or accountable consequences Understand task/ performance priorities Understand the preferred behaviours/ procedures Benefits of clear role perceptions Higher proficient job performance Better coordination with others Higher motivation Situational Factors Conditions beyond person’s short-term control that constrains OR facilitates behaviour Constraints: time, budget, facilities, etc. Cues: e.g. signs warning of nearby hazards Values in the Workplace Stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences: Define right/wrong, good/bad – what we “ought” to do Direct our motivation, potentially decisions/ behaviour VALUE SYSTEM=HIERARCHY OF VALUES Compared with personality, value are: Evaluative (not descriptive) May conflict strongly with each other Affected more by nurture than nature Personal Values and Behavior How personal values influence decisions/behaviour: Affect the RELATIVE ATTRACTIVENESS of choices Frame PERCEPTIONS ACT CONSISTENTLY with self-concept and public image Why personal values have limited influence: SITUATION- interferes with value-consistent behaviour COUNTER-MOTIVATIONAL FORCES- influences us to act contrary to our values AWARNESS (salience)- relevance to values isn’t obvious Values are abstract Routine behaviour isn’t evaluated for values consistency Values Congruence Similarity of a person’s values hierarchy to someone else Importance of Values Congruence TEAM values congruence-higher team cohesion and performance PERSON-ORGANIZATION value congruence-higher job satisfaction, loyalty, and organizational citizenship, lower stress, and turnover Schwartz’s Values Model 57 values clustered into 10 categories, further clustered into four quadrants Openness to Change Motivated to pursue innovative ways Conservation Motivated to preserve the status quo Self-Enhancement Motivated by self-interest Self-Transcendence Motivated to promote welfare of others and nature Ethical Values and Behaviour ETHICS: study of moral principles/values – whether actions are right or wrong, outcomes are good or bad Three Ethical Principles ULITIATIANISM: greatest good for the greatest number INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS: everyone has the same natural rights DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE: benefits/burdens should be proportional Personality in Organizations Relatively ENDURING PATTERNS of thoughts, emotions, and behaviour that CHARACTERIZE A PERSON, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics Personality Traits are: Clusters of internally caused behaviour tendencies Situations can suppress behaviour tendencies, but still evident Nature vs. Nurture of Personality Influenced by NATURE Heredity explains about 50% of behavioural tendencies Influenced by NUTURE Socialization, learning Personality STABILIZES in young adulthood: Self-concept gets clearer, more stable with age Executive function regulates behaviour Some traits change throughout life Five Factor Personality Model (CANOE) Conscientiousness: organized, dependable, thorough Agreeableness: trusting, helpful, good-natured Neuroticism: anxious, insecure, self-conscious Openness to Experience: imaginative, creative, curious Extraversion: outgoing, talkative, energetic Five Factor Personality and Individual Behaviour Jungian Personality Theory Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jun- identified preferences for perceiving the environment and obtaining/processing information MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI): Measures Jungian types Most widely used personality test in business Good for self and other awareness Higher scores are neither better nor worse than lower scores Poor predictors of performance, leadership, team development Jungian and Myers-Briggs Types Extraversion and Introversion The way people naturally prefer to direct and get energy EXTRAVERTS are energized by the outer world of people and activity By interacting with other people INTROVERTS are energized from within By the inner world of thoughts and reflections Sensing and Intuition The way people prefer to take in information SENERS prefer to take in information with that is real and factual, by way of the five senses INTUITIVE people prefer to take in information by way of seeing the bug picture, focusing on relationships and connections between facts Thinking and Feeling The way people prefer to make decisions THINKING preference people decide on the basis of logic and objective considerations FEELING preference people decide on the basis of personal, subjective values Judging and Perceiving The way people prefer to organize their external world JUDGING people prefer a decisive, planned, and orderly lifestyle PERCEIVING people prefer a flexible, adoptable, and spontaneous lifestyle Chapter 3: Perceiving Ourselves and Others in Organizations Self-Concept Defined An individual’s self beliefs and self-evaluations “Who Am I?” and “How Do I Feel About Myself? Guides our decisions and actions We compare current with desired self Three Self-Concept Levels; individual, relational, collective Three Self-Concept characteristics and four processes Self Concept Characteristics (3 C’s) Complexity We have to MULTIPLE SELVES (e.g. student, family member, employee, friend, partner) Complexity increases with NUMBER of selves and INCREASE SEPERATION (e.g. not all about work) Consistency More consistent when multiple selves require SIMILAR ATTRIBUTES; person’s attributes; person’s ATTRIBUTES are compatible with self-concept Clarify More clear when confidently described, STABLE; clarify increases with AGE, CONSISTENT multiple selves Why Self-Concept Matters People have BETTER WELL-BEING with: Multiple selves (complexity) Highly consistent selves Well established/stable selves (clarity) Effects on Individual BEHAVIOUR AND PERFORMANCE: Complexity HIGH: more adaptive, diverse networks, but more stressful LOW: more resources to develop identities Clarity HIGH: better performance, leadership, career development, less threatened in conflict VERY HIGH: role flexibility Self Concept: SELF-ENHANCEMENT Drive to a more POSITIVE SELF-VIEW Competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, valued Self-enhancement outcomes: Better personal adjustment and mental/physical health Higher motivation due to “can-do” beliefs Riskier decisions, inflated perceived personal credit, slower recognition of mistakes Self-Concept: SELF-VERIFIACTION Motivation to CONFIRM/MAINTAIN self-concept Stable-verification outcomes: Tend to recall information consistent with self-concept Dismiss/forget feedback inconsistent with self-concept Motivated to interact with those who affirm our self-view Self-Concept: SELF-EVALUATION SELF-ESTEEM High self-esteem: less influenced by others, more persistent, more logical thinking SELF-EFFICACY Belief that we can successfully preform a task General self-efficacy- “can do” belief across situations LOCUS OF CONTROL General beliefs about personal control over life events Higher self-evaluation with internal locus of control Self-Concept: SOCIAL SELF Opposing motives: Define self as unique, distinctive (personal identify) Define self as socially connected to some groups/different from other groups (social identity) Perception and Selective Attention PERCEPTION: the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us SELECTIVE ATTENTION: selecting versus ignoring sensory information Affected by characteristics of perceiver and object perceived Emotional markers are assigned to selected information Selective Attention Biases ASSUMPTIONS and EXPECTATIONS CONFIRMATION BIASES Mental Models in Perceptions Knowledge structures we develop to DESCRIBE, EXPLAIN, and PREDICT the world around us Visual: image road maps Relational: cause-effect Important for SENSE-MAKING Fill in missing pieces Predict events Problem with Mental Models: May block recognition of new opportunities/perspectives Stereotyping Assigning traits to people in social categories Why people stereotype: Categorical thinking Drive to comprehend and predict others’ behaviour Supports self-enhancement and social identity Problems with Stereotyping Over generalizes, doesn’t representing everyone in category Stereotype threat effects Foundation of systemic and intentional discrimination Overcoming stereotype biases Difficult to prevent stereotype activation Possible to minimize stereotype application Attribution Process INTERNAL Attributes Perception that behaviour is caused by person’s own motivation or ability EXTERNAL Attribution Perception that behaviour Attribution Errors Self-Serving Bias Tendency to attribute our success to internal factors and our failures to external factors Fundamental Attribution Error Tendency to overemphasize internal cause of another person’s behaviour compared to our own behaviour Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Effect is Strongest… …at the BEGINNING of the relationship …when SEVERAL PEOPLE have similar expectations about the person …when the employee has LOW rather than high past ACHIEVEMENT Other Perceptual Effect HALO Effect One trait affects perception of person’s other traits FALSE-CONSENSUS Effect Overestimate extent that others share our beliefs/traits PRIMACY Effect First impressions are difficult to change RECENY Effect Most recent information dominates perceptions Improving Perceptions Awareness or Perceptual Biases MORE MINDFUL of our thoughts/actions Problems: has limited effect, may reinforce stereotypes Improving Self-Awareness Implicit association test Applying JOHARI WINDOW Meaningful Interaction Based on contact hypothesis Improves empathy Specific conditions for meaningful interaction Chapter 4: Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress What are Emotions? Where do they come from? PSYCHOLOGICAL, BEHAVIOURAL, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL response that create a state of readiness We are HARDWIRED in our BIOLOGY to have emotions; emotions are not ‘good’ or ‘bad’, they just are Most emotions are NON-CONCIOUS We CANNOT CONTROL emotions, but we CAN INFLUENCE how they affect and impact us (and others) Attitudes Versus Emotions Attitudes JUDGMENTS about an experience/event/person CONSCIOUS LOGICAL reasoning LONG-LASTING and STABLE Emotions REACTIONS related to an experience/event/person NON-CONCIOUS EMOTIONAL response SHORT-TERM and CHANGING How Emotions Influence Attitudes (and Behaviour) Emotional ‘MARKERS’ attach to incoming sensory information (see, hear, smell, taste, touch) Emotions arise from RECALLING PAST EXPERIENCES (recalling ‘turns on’ attached markers) ATTITUDES influenced by CUMULATIVE emotional episodes We ‘LISTEN IN’ on our emotions POTENTIAL CONFLICT: cognitive versus emotional thinking Emotions also directly AFFECT BEHAVIOUR Emotions and Attitudes in Real Life Stimuli trigger nonconscious biological responses Recurring biological responses become imprinted (markers) Markers influence subconscious emotions and beliefs (stories) Conscious attitudes are formed and reinforced by our stories Behaviours are manifested Cognitive Dissonance EMOTIONAL response to INCONGRUENT beliefs, feelings, and behaviour: Violates image of being rational Emotion motivates consistency REDUCING cognitive dissonance: Difficult to undo/change behaviour Typically CHANGE BELIEFS/FEELINGS about attitude/object Compensate by recognizing previous consonant decisions Emotional Labour Effort, panning and control to express ORGANIZATIONALLY DESIRED emotions Higher in jobs requiring: FREQUENT/LENGTHY emotion display VARIETY of emotions display INTENSE emotions display Emotion display norms vary across cultures: Expressed emotions discouraged: Ethiopia, Japan Expressed emotions allowed/expected: Kuwait, Spain Emotional Intelligence and Law Enforcement Toronto Police Service wants officers with strong emotial intelligence and empathy. Other police forces in North America have also recognized that emotional intelligence is a critical skill for improved community relations and in de-escalating real-time conflict So… What about STRESS?! STRESS arises when we feel CHALLENGED or THREATENED (physically, emotionally, psychologically) or experienced COGNITIVE DISSONANCE Stress is ‘GOOD’: prepares us to ADAPT/RESPOND to hostile environments…but… TOO MUCH stress for TOO LONG=RESISTANCE; EXHAUSTION Managing Stress: EI is KEY! Everyone experiences stress DIFFERENTLY; manage it by: Improving PSYCHICAL HEALTH (exercise; lifestyle) Adopting appropriate COPING STRATEGIES and SUPPORTS Working toward a more positive SELF-CONCEPT INCREASING YOUR EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI) EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE = ability to RECOGNIZE and capacity to MANAGE FEELINGS (ourselves and others) Emotional Intelligence Outcomes/Development EI Outcomes Better teamwork Better emotional labour Effective leadership Better decisions with others Positive mindset in creativity MANAGE STRESS! Developing EI Training, coaching, practice, feedback, and age Chapter 5: Employee Motivation and Engagement EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION- forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and PERSISTANCE OF VOLUNTARY BEHAVIOUR EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT- employees with emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focus, intense, persistent, and purposive EFFORT TOWARD WORK-RELATED GOALS Drives vs. Needs DRIVES (‘less’ evolved): Hardwired brain activity toward correcting deficiencies (filling gaps); innate and universal; typically, emotion-based NEEDS (‘more’ evolved) Goal-directed forces that people experience; contextual (environment; relative to other; past experience); typically, logic-based Four Drive Theory Drive to ACQUIRE: seeks, acquire, control, retain objects or experiences Drive to BOND: form social relationships and develop mutual caring commitments with others Drive to COMPREHEND: satisfy our curiosity, know and understand ourselves and the environment Drive to DEFEND: protect ourselves physically and socially Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory SEVEN categories – five in a hierarchy – captured most needs Lowest unmet need is STRONGEST UNTIL SATIFIED, then next higher need becomes top motivator Models lack empirical support Main Problem: each of us has a unique need hierarchy – NOT UNIVERSAL Learned Needs Theory Needs can be strengthened/weakened (learned) through self-concept, social norms, past experience Training, learning and development can change a person’s need strength through reinforcement and altering their self-concept Three learned needs studied in research Need for achievement (nAch) – want to accomplish goals, clear feedback, moderate risk tasks Need for affiliation (nAff) – seek approval from others, conform to others’ wishes, avoid conflict Need for power (nPow) – seek power for social or personal purposes Social Cognitive Theory LEARNING BEHAVIOUR OUTCOMES Observing consequences that other experience Anticipate consequences in other situations BEHAVIOUR MODELLING Observing and modelling behaviour of others SELF-REGULATION We engage in intentional, purposive action We set goals, set standards, anticipate consequences We reinforce our own behaviour (self-reinforcement) Intrinsic Motivation at Airbnb Intrinsic Motivation Motivated to do an activity for its own value- fulfills needs directly Related to drives for competence and autonomy Extrinsic Motivation Motivated to receive something beyond own control- fulfills needs indirectly Three forms of extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation will almost always outweigh extrinsic Chapter 6: Applied Performance Practices INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Value from the activity/task itself (directly fulfills a drive or need) Satisfaction of doing something well (a ‘job well done’) Using/improving abilities; opportunity to learn Meaningfulness: Autonomy, Mastery, Purpose (AMP) EXTRINISIC Value comes from receiving something (indirectly fulfills a drive or need) Avoid consequences/punishment (e.g. being fired) Social status; approval from other; fame Material/external rewards (pay, promotion, grades, awards, etc.) Meaning of Money at Work Multiple perceptions/emotions of money Money “ethic” Money as a tool or drug Gender differences – valued more by men Men – money is a symbol or power/status Women – money is instrumental (exchanged) Cultural Differences High power distance – money has higher respect/priority Nurturing cultures – less discussion/display of wealth Membership/Seniority Based Rewards FIXED WAGES, SENIORITY-BASED REWARDS “The longer you’re around, the more you get” Advantages: may attract job applicants; less financial insecurity; less turnover Disadvantages: no performance motivation; discourages poor performances from leaving; at act as golden handcuffs Job Status BASED ON JOB CHARACTERISTICS (PERCEIVED SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPORTANCE), STATUS “The higher up and more important you are, the more you get” Advantages: more pay fairness, less pay discrimination; motivates competition for promotions Disadvantages: encourages bureaucratic hierarchy; reinforces status vs egalitarian (equal) culture; employees exaggerate duties, hoard resources Competency-Based Rewards BASED ON RELATIVE (COMPARATIVE) COMPETENCE AND/OR SKILL “The more competent (or skilled) you are, the more you’re, worth” Advantages: motivates learning new skills; multi-skilled, flexible, adaptive employees; higher product/service quality Disadvantages: very complex; potentially subjective; higher training costs Performance-Based Rewards BASED ON RELATIVE/COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE (INDIVIDUAL; TEAM; ORGANIZATION) “The better you/the team/the organization does, the more you get” Individual: bonuses; piece rates; commissions Team: bonuses; gain-sharing plans Organization: bonuses; ESOPs; share options; profile-sharing Advantages: creates an “ownership culture”; adjusts depending on (un)profitability Disadvantages: weak link to performance; impacted by poor strategy, leadership, market, etc. Job Design Assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other jobs ULTIMATE GOAL: design jobs that can be performed efficiency, yet employees are still motivated and engaged Job Specialization and Scientific Management Improve Work Efficiency: Less time changing activities Jobs mastered quickly (fewer tasks to master, more frequent practice) Better person-job matching Job Specialization Problems Low motivation Absenteeism/turnover Higher wages to offset tedium (aka boringness!!) Affects work quality (brains ‘turns off’, work gets sloppy) So… What Else Can We Do…? JOB ROTATION: moving from one job to another JOB ENLARGEMENT: add tasks to existing job JOB (EMPLOYEE) EMPOWERMENT: give people more freedom and discretion (self-determination); show them how their work is important (meaning); create opportunities for them to seek mastery/get better (competence); connect how their work is connected to their success (impact)