Introduction to Language and Linguistics (MT 212) 2016 PDF

READING FOR ETHIOPIA'S ACHIEVEMENT DEVELOPED TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE (READ-TA) INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS (MT 212) 2016 G.C ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA ii READING FOR ETHIOPIA'S ACHIEVEMENT DEVELOPED TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE (READ-TA) MODULE 5 Module Title: Introduction to Language and Linguistics Module Credit Hours: 4 Module Code: MT 212 Technical Assistance in developing and producing this module was provided by the Florida State University’s Learning Systems Institute, as a partner to RTI International on the READ TA project (2012- 2017) with funding from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID-Ethiopia). The Module 5: Introduction to Language and Linguistics (MT 212) has been developed by a team of reading specialists and linguists from Florida State University in collaboration with the Ethiopian Ministry of Education, Teacher Professional Development; Regional State Education Bureaus and Zones; and faculty from Colleges of Teacher Education from all regions of Ethiopia. Florida State University Team Dr. Flavia Ramos-Mattoussi (Principal Investigator/ FSU Project Director) Dr. Adrienne Barnes (FSU Reading Expert, Team Leader for this Module) Dr. Shannon Hall-Mills (FSU Reading Expert) Dr. Marion Fesmire (FSU Reading Expert) Dr. Dawit Mekonnen (National Coordinator for FSU in Ethiopia) This document was produced with support from the U.S. Agency for International Development through the USAID/Ethiopia READ TA Project under Cooperative Agreement No. AID-663-A-12- 00013 The authors’ views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government. i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Reading for Ethiopia’s Achievement Developed Technical Assistance Project (READ TA) is a five- year project (2012-2017) aimed to improve the reading and writing skills of primary-grade students in seven mother tongue languages. READ TA is implemented by RTI International, in partnership with Save the Children, Florida State University, SIL LEAD, Whiz Kids, Inveneo, and Africa Development Corps. READ TA and its partners work together for the effective implementation of the project objectives and in close collaboration with the Ethiopian Ministry of Education (MoE) and the Regional State Educational Bureaus (RSEB). The national mother tongue (MT) teacher education program has been collaboratively developed by the Ethiopian Ministry of Education (MoE), Regional State Education Bureaus (RSEB), Colleges of Teacher Education (CTE) and the Florida State University (FSU). The mother tongue teacher education program was validated in the presence of regional Teacher Development Program (TDP) heads, CTE deans, teacher educators and representatives of curriculum, TDP, gender, special education and ICT from the MoE. The inputs from the validation workshops were used in revising the teacher education program and its various courses. The FSU team of reading specialists has been providing technical assistance to the READ TA project in the revision of the preservice teacher education program; development of modules in English and in seven mother-tongue languages; and training of teacher educators on the content of each module produced for the purpose of building the capacity of teacher educators to improve the teaching of reading and writing in mother tongue languages. This and the four previous modules produced by READ TA/FSU have been developed in English and adapted to seven mother tongue languages, including: Amharic, Tigrinya, Wolayttatto, Af-Somali, Sidaamu Afoo, Afaan Oromo, and Hadiyyisa. It was prepared by the Learning Systems Institute at the Florida State University. It has been validated and reproduced for distribution to all CTEs in Ethiopia where there is a Mother Tongue Language Program for preservice teachers. This module is intended to be used by teacher educators as a guide for teaching preservice teachers at the Colleges of Teacher Education; it’s designed to help all CTE Instructors, to become fully competent to explain and to teach Introduction to Language and Linguistics (MT 212) course. The FSU team involved in the production of Module 5: Introduction to Language and Linguistics (MT212) includes: Dr. Flavia Ramos-Mattoussi (Principal Investigator/ FSU Project Director) Dr. Adrienne Barnes (FSU Reading Expert, Team Leader for this Module) Dr. Shannon Hall-Mills (FSU Reading Expert) Dr. Marion Fesmire (FSU Reading Expert) Dr. Dawit Mekonnen (National Coordinator for FSU in Ethiopia) ii The Module 5: Introduction to Language and Linguistics (MT212) has been developed and produced in English with the participation of teacher educators and linguists representing from the following languages: Amharic, Tigrinya, Wolaytta, Af-Somali, Sidaamu Afoo, Afan Oromo, and Hadiyyissa. 1 The following MT Language Instructors from the Colleges of Teacher Education (CTE) and representatives from MOE participated in the development of the final English version of module 5. They began working on this module from a prototype provided by the Florida State University, and made sure to align the contents of the module with the primary curriculum (grades 1-8). Development Workshop – Module 5: MT 212 Team Members Name Region Language CTE/Institution 1 Tesera Asmare Amahara Amaharic Debre Markos 2 Ambaw Demissie Amahara Amaharic Gondar 3 Tewodros Kidane Tigray Tigrigna Abbiyi Addi 4 Getnet Tafere Tigray Tigrigna Adwa 5 Tsgaye Anjulo SNNP Wolaytta Arbaminch 6 Fitsum Dejene SNNP Wolaytta Arbaminch 7 Yenenesh Samuel Oromia Afan Oromo Shambu 8 Bekele Habte Oromia Afan Oromo Fitche 9 Negalign Demeke SNNP Hadiyyisa Hossana 10 Dereje Adane SNNP Hadiyyisa Wachemo University 11 Abera Awaje SNNP Sidaamu Afoo Hawaasa 12 Duukamo Duguna SNNP Sidaamu Afoo Hawaasa 13 Shewangizaw Shiferaw MOE 14 Ibrahim Bashir Somali Af-Soomaali Dr. Abdulmajid We are also thankful for the support provided by the READ TA staff and regional managers; Chief of Party, Dr. Stephen Backman; the Ministry of Education in Ethiopia, W/ro Abebech Negash, Director; Abebe Garedew Preservice Teacher Education case team leader, Ato Shewangizaw Shiferaw, TPD expert; and the CTE instructors who dedicated their time and expertise to develop, adapt and revise this module. We hope this module will contribute to improving the reading and writing skills of fifteen million Ethiopian children in the near future. The Florida State University Team 1 This module deals with very complex issues related to language and linguistics. The authors have used the most recent research-based studies to provide an overview of the foundations of mother-tongue language teaching and learning in the primary grades. It is possible that not all languages used in Ethiopia are represented in this module. The study of language groups in Ethiopia is evolving and more recent research may not be published yet to be included in this module at the present time. iii Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......................................................................................................................... ii ACRONYMS.......................................................................................................................................... i INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE.......................................................................................................... 1 MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES............................................................................................... 2 ICONS USED............................................................................................................................................. 4 CHAPTER ONE: LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS........................................................................................ 6 Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 6 1.1 Definition of Language................................................................................................................. 7 1.1.1 Origin of Language................................................................................................................ 8 1.1.2 Characteristics of Language................................................................................................... 9 1.1.3 The Role of Language.......................................................................................................... 11 1.1.4 Ethiopian Language Families............................................................................................... 11 1.2 Linguistics................................................................................................................................... 13 1.2.1 Language Use....................................................................................................................... 13 1.3 International Phonetic Alphabet.................................................................................................. 17 Chapter 1: Summary......................................................................................................................... 18 Chapter 1: Review Questions............................................................................................................ 18 Chapter 1: Self-Assessment.............................................................................................................. 19 Chapter 2: Phonetics............................................................................................................................. 20 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 20 2.1 Definition of phonetics.......................................................................................................... 21 2.2 Articulatory Phonetics........................................................................................................... 22 2.2.1 Speech Organs..................................................................................................................... 23 2.2.2 Speech Sounds..................................................................................................................... 26 2.2.3 Phonetic Transcription.................................................................................................. 38 2.2.4 Syllables........................................................................................................................ 41 2.2.5 Suprasegmental features............................................................................................... 44 Chapter 2: Summary......................................................................................................................... 49 Chapter 2: Review Questions............................................................................................................ 50 Project work 1................................................................................................................................... 51 Chapter 2: Self-Assessment.............................................................................................................. 52 Chapter 3: Phonology........................................................................................................................... 53 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 53 iv 3.1 Definition of Phonology............................................................................................................. 54 3.2 Relation among Phoneme, Phone and Allophone....................................................................... 54 3.3 Phonotactics............................................................................................................................... 57 3.4. Phonological Processes.............................................................................................................. 59 Chapter 3: Summary......................................................................................................................... 61 Chapter 3: Review Questions............................................................................................................ 61 Chapter 3: Self-Assessment.............................................................................................................. 62 Chapter Four: Morphology................................................................................................................... 63 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 63 4.1 Definition of Morphology........................................................................................................... 64 4.2 Morphemes and Words............................................................................................................... 65 4.3 Types of Morphemes.................................................................................................................. 66 4.3.1 Free Morphemes.................................................................................................................. 66 4.3.2 Bound Morphemes............................................................................................................... 67 4.4 Relation among Morpheme, Morph and Allomorph................................................................... 72 4.5 Word Formation Processes......................................................................................................... 73 4.6 The Parts of Speech.................................................................................................................... 74 Project Work 2: Analysis of Primary School MT Curriculum on Morphological Issues or Contents.......................................................................................................................................................... 76 Chapter 4: Review Questions............................................................................................................ 77.......................................................................................................................................................... 77 Chapter 4: Self-Assessment.............................................................................................................. 77 Chapter 5: Syntax.................................................................................................................................. 79 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................ 79 5.1. SYNTAX................................................................................................................................... 81 5.2 SENTENCES.............................................................................................................................. 81 5.2.1 WORD ORDER OF A SENTENCE................................................................................... 82 5.2.2 STRUCTURE OF A SENTENCE....................................................................................... 83 5.3 PHRASES............................................................................................................................. 84 5.3.1 Noun Phrase......................................................................................................................... 84 5.3.2 VERB PHRASE................................................................................................................... 85 5.3.3 ADJECTIVE PHRASE........................................................................................................ 85 5.3.4 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE.............................................................................................. 86 5.3.5 ADVERB PHRASE............................................................................................................. 86 5.4 CLAUSES................................................................................................................................... 89 v 5.4.1 INDEPENDENT CLAUSES............................................................................................... 89 5.4.2 DEPENDENT CLAUSES................................................................................................... 89 5.5.1 TENSE................................................................................................................................. 91 5.5.2 VOICE................................................................................................................................. 94 Chapter 5: Summary......................................................................................................................... 96 Chapter 5: Review Questions............................................................................................................ 97 Chapter 5: Self-Assessment.............................................................................................................. 98 Module Summary.............................................................................................................................. 99 Module Self-Assessment................................................................................................................. 101 GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................................ 102 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................ 109 Chapter 1: References..................................................................................................................... 109 Chapter 2: References..................................................................................................................... 110 Chapter 3 ː References.................................................................................................................... 110 Chapter 4: References..................................................................................................................... 111 Chapter 5: References..................................................................................................................... 111 Appendix 1: International Phonetic Alphabet Chart....................................................................... 112 vi ACRONYMS COP Chief of Party CTE College of Teacher Education DCOP Deputy Chief of Party FSU Florida State University GA Graphophonemic Awareness ICT Information Communication Technology IP Implementation Plan IR Intermediate Result LSI Learning Systems Institute LTTA Long Term Technical Assistance MOE Ministry of Education MT Mother Tongue MTCDT Mother Tongue Curriculum Development Team MTTF Mother Tongue Task Force READ TA Reading for Ethiopia’s Achievement Developed Technical Assistance READ CO Reading for Ethiopia’s Achievement Developed Community Outreach RSEB Regional State Education Bureau RTI Research Triangle Institute SB Student Book SC Save the Children SCC School Cluster Center SIL-LEAD Summer Institute of Linguistics – Language Education and Development STTA Short Term Technical Assistance TF Task Force TG Teachers Guide TT Teacher Trainers USAID United States Agency for International Development ZED Zonal Education Department i INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE Dear student teachers! This module introduces the nature and the scientific study of language. Specifically, it focuses on the origin and features of languages, the nature and articulation of sounds, words, phrases, and sentences, and how the understanding of linguistic features can enhance the teacher’s ability to support literacy development of learners. This module has five chapters. The first chapter briefly introduces students to the concepts of language and linguistics. Here, ideas such as the universal characteristics of human languages, the role language plays in society, language variations within speech communities, the classification of languages, and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are discussed. The second and the third chapters emphasize speech sounds. In these chapters, concepts such as articulation of speech sounds and their distinctive features, the sound systems of languages, the coordination of speech sounds to create meaningful units, and the phonotactics of languages are thoroughly described. Understanding these concepts is necessary for teachers who are developing the literacy skills of early grade students. The fourth chapter discusses how words and units of meaning are joined together. In this chapter, concepts such as morpheme, word formation processes, and parts of speech are explained. Understanding these concepts is crucial for teachers when they are working to improve the vocabulary knowledge of their students. The last chapter focuses on sentence construction. This chapter discusses how sentences are organized and structured to convey meaning. Generally, this course provides fundamental knowledge on the concepts of language by providing the basic linguistic concepts and discussing the general nature of languages. Literacy is best taught by teachers and best achieved by students when there is a strong connection with the associated language features. 1 MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this module, student-teachers will be able to: Describe the origin and characteristics of language. Appreciate variation and diversity in students’ language skills. Define language and linguistics. Discuss phonetics and its branches. Classify consonant and vowel speech sounds depending on how they are produced. Apply knowledge of IPA symbols to transcribe MT words. Differentiate between phoneme, phone and allophone. Discuss phonological processes. Differentiate between morpheme, morph and allomorph. Identify types of morphemes. Understand how morphological knowledge helps students when learning to read and write. Demonstrate an understanding of sentence structure of their MT using tree diagrams. Describe the types of phrases and clauses of their MT. THE STRUCTURE OF THE MODULE This module is organized by chapters and sections. Each chapter includes learning outcomes, content outlines, assessment techniques, teaching and learning techniques, activities, a chapter summary, review questions, and self-assessment activities. Chapter references and a glossary of words and terms used are found at the end of the module. LEARNING ACTIVITIES, MODES OF TEACHING AND TIME ALLOCATED Explicit teaching strategy is widely introduced in this module. It is intended to be student- centered. Student-centered teaching requires interactive classrooms where students take an active role in several forms of activities, including small group work, project work, and participating in peer discussions, demonstrations, reflections. Teacher-talk and lectures should be kept to a minimum, wherein the lecturer provides the essential concept information, then provides students time to practice and discuss the concepts presented in the module. When teaching students with disabilities, instructors should take into consideration how these concepts can be understood, particularly by students with visual or hearing impairments. Visually impaired students can use the IPA Braille version of the IPA. Students with hearing 2 impairments will need explicit instruction on the place and manner of articulation of sounds, using Visual Phonics if necessary. This module provides multiple opportunities for student-teachers to review the concepts of language and linguistics. The content approaches and teaching strategies presented in this module are aligned with the new primary mother tongue curriculum. The course has been intended to be offered in four credit hours. The estimated time required for completing each chapter is indicated at the beginning of each chapter. Teachers are advised to allocate sufficient time to complete each task depending on the total amount of time planned for each chapter. ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES Continuous assessment techniques are expected to be used for evaluating student-teachers’ learning. These techniques may be used in the form of individual/peer reflection, project work, oral and written presentations, and examinations (mid-term and final). The following are suggested techniques of continuous assessment (with recommended time allocations). Table 1 - ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES No Continuous assessment technique Expected percentage (%) 1 Presentation of individual, pair, and group work 20 2 Project work 20 3 Mid Exam 20 4 Final Exam 40 Total 100 3 ICONS USED Please note that the following icons or symbols are used in this Module for making reference easier for you. The table below lists all the icons used in this module followed by their illustration. This tells you that there is an introduction to the module, unit, and section. This tells you that there is a question to answer or to think about in the text. This tells you that there is an activity to do. This tells you to note and remember an important point. This tells you that there is a self-test for you to do. This tells you that there is a checklist of the main points. This tells you that there is written assignment. This tells you that these are the answers to the activities and self-test questions. This tells you that there are learning outcomes to the Module or Unit. 4 This tells you that there is an activity to do. This tells you that there is a conclusion to the unit. This tells you that there is an assignment to do. This tells you that there is a student textbook or teacher’s manual to use. 5 CHAPTER ONE: LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS Outline of Contents 1.1. Definition of Language 1.1.1. Origin of Language 1.1.2. Characteristics of Language 1.1.3. Role of Language 1.1.4. Ethiopian Language Families 1.1.4.1. Afro-Asiatic 1.1.4.2. Nilo-Saharan 1.2. Linguistics 1.2.1. Language Use 1.2.1.1. Language Variation a. Dialect b. Accent 1.2.1.2. Language change a. Code Mixing b. Code Switching c. Code Shifting 1.3. International Phonetic Alphabet Introduction This chapter provides a brief introduction to language and linguistics. The origin of language and universal characteristics that are found in all languages are discussed. The roles that language plays in a society are also presented. Students will learn about how languages vary and change across peoples and regions, resulting in dialects and usage differences. The Ethiopian language families are described. Finally, an introduction to the International Phonetic Alphabet allows students to understand how language sounds are represented internationally, across all writing systems. 6 Learning Outcomes At the end of this chapter, student teachers will be able to: Define language. Discuss the origin of language. Describe the various characteristics of language. Discuss the role of language. Identify the Ethiopian language families. Define linguistics. Explain the use of language in different social contexts. Discuss how languages vary and change. Explain how the International Phonetic Alphabet is used. Teaching and Learning Techniques Interactive lecture Independent study Group discussion Assessment Techniques Oral questions and answers Individual, pair, and group work Peer reflection and learning Class work and homework Instructional Materials The map of Ethiopia IPA Chart 1.1 Definition of Language Language is more than just a set of sounds or a set of words with meaning. Language is the primary way in which people communicate, and this communication typically takes place within a social context. People use language to interact socially and emotionally, and to express friendliness, love, anger, and pain. Language enables ideas to be communicated and tasks to be 7 accomplished (tell a story, provide information, complain, or ask for help). Effective communication requires more than just an understanding of the words of the language being used. Effective communication requires an understanding of how the words of the language are being used by those speaking it. Oral language develops naturally in children through their interaction with other people. Children’s oral language development begins in the years prior to school, and usually without direct instruction (Brown, 2008). This development continues throughout childhood. When children use language to learn to read and write, direct instruction is needed, including instruction about how the language is organized. Language is the foundation of reading and literacy instruction, and it is therefore important for teachers to understand how language works. When teachers and students with different mother tongues come together for learning experiences, it is the teachers’ responsibility to foster linguistic understanding and acceptance within the classroom. It is also important for the teacher to know how to instruct students with diverse language skills. Activity 1: Pair Work Discuss the above definition of language with your partner and reflect your understanding to the class. 1.1.1 Origin of Language Many theories of language origin exist (Yule, 2006). Two of the more popular hypotheses (beliefs) concerning the origin of language are the Divine Creation Hypothesis and the Natural Evolution Hypothesis. The Divine Creation Hypothesis states that language is the gift of gods and humans were created with an innate capacity to use language. According to this hypothesis, language and society are inseparable. Wherever humans exist, language exists. The second hypothesis is the Natural Evolution Hypothesis. This hypothesis states that humans evolved to have more intelligence, which made language invention and learning possible. The simple vocalizations and gestures gave way to a system of language, perhaps within one or two generation(s). According to the Natural Evolution Hypothesis, as soon as humans developed the capacity for creative language, the next step would have been the development of a specific system of forms (words) with meanings. 8 Activity 2: Group Reflection Answer the following questions based on the above explanations. Share your ideas within your group, and then reflect your group ideas to the class. 1. What are the basic ideas behind the Divine Creation Hypothesis and the Natural Evolution Hypothesis on the origin of language? 2. Compare and contrast the above hypotheses and reflect your position towards them. Then, explain why you support either of these hypotheses. 1.1.2 Characteristics of Language Universal properties of language are categories or rules which all human languages have in common. Language is a systematic, human trait, and everyone using the language must understand the rules associated with the language. All languages contain the elements of phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax. These elements address different components of the language, particularly sounds and sound patterns, word structure, and sentence structure. All languages also use word categories such as noun and verb (Parker & Riley, 2010). Not only do languages use word categories, but they also have phrases and clauses to help clarify meaning (these will be discussed throughout the subsequent chapters of this module). All languages have the characteristic of productivity (are able to add new words as needed), and variation (according to the situation or purpose of use; Fasold & Connor-Litton, 2006). Language productivity refers to the speakers’ ability to create new words and add modifiers to phrases, creating long sentences that express specific ideas. As time moves on, new words are introduced to describe new technology or ideas. Every language operates in a speech community in which language variation is evident among the speakers. Dialects are part of language variation and allow communities to develop distinct cultures associated with their specific dialect. Since language is used for communication, it does not develop automatically without a culture and use. These are passed on to the younger generations. Other specific characteristics of language include: a) Language is a discrete symbolic system. This means that language is a system of spoken or written symbols (sounds and words) which people, who belong to a social group and participate in a culture, communicate. Language makes use of clearly distinguishable and identifiable symbols (sounds and words). One can clearly 9 distinguish between /s/, /I/ and /t/ in the word ‘sit’. When a speaker wishes to communicate, he or she must use the language system that is understood by the listener (Mukherjee, 2016). b) Language is human. Language is a purely human method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols (Sapir, 1921). c) Language is a form of social behavior. ‘Language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols’ (Hall, 1968). Language must be acquired and learned, it does not pass from parent to a child genetically. Learning of language is made possible in society. A human child learns to speak the language of the community or group in which he or she is placed. d) Language is arbitrary. “Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates” (Bloch and Trager, 1972, as cited in Mukherjee, 2006). This means that there is no natural connection between sounds and symbols, or between symbols and their referents; for example, the animal known as ‘dog’ in English is also known as ‘Woshicho’ in Sidaamu Afoo; ‘Kanaa’ in Wolaytta; ‘Wusha’ in Amharic; ‘Saree’ in Afaan Oromoo; ‘Wishichcho’ in Hadiyyisa; ‘Kelbi’ in Tigrigna; and ‘Ey’ in Af-Soomaali. Thus, the relation between a word and its meaning is quite arbitrary; it is a matter of how we communicate the concept. e) Language is dynamic. Language keeps changing at all the levels-sounds, words, word-meanings, and sentences. Language is changing, growing every day, and new words continue to be added to it in the course of time. Each generation modifies and changes its languages to adapt to changing needs and demands of the people who use it. Language is thus open-ended, modifiable, and extendable (Mukherjee, 2016). Activity 3: Group Work The instructor will divide the class into groups of 4-6, with each group comprised of females and males as much as possible. Each group will be assigned two of the characteristics of language listed above. In each group: 1. Summarize the characteristics of language assigned to your group using your own words. 2. Discuss how these two characteristics apply specifically to your mother tongue. 10 3. Share your findings with the class. 1.1.3 The Role of Language Language has many functions within society. Language can be descriptive, evaluative, emotive, evocative, persuasive, interrogative, directive, performative, and recreational. Descriptive: When language is used to describe factual information or provide descriptive information about a situation or object (e.g., She usually wears a beautiful, hand woven, Ethiopian scarf; or, the girl drove the car down the road,). Evaluative: When language is used to make a value judgment. This type of language expresses opinions (e.g., Drinking alcohol seriously affects health; or, the coffee ceremony was nice,). Emotive: When language is used to express emotion (e.g., I am disappointed by her absence today; or, I strongly agree with you,). Evocative: When language is used to evoke an emotional response in an audience (e.g., Let’s stand and work together to eradicate illiteracy from our country; or, this is important for our country’s future,). Persuasive: When language is used to persuade someone to accept an idea, agree with a perspective, or act in a certain way (e.g., We should keep forests very carefully, because they are homes for wild animals,). Interrogative: When language is used to elicit information. This type of language requests information without necessarily using questions. (e.g., They will tell us why they refused to accompany us; or, I am waiting for your answer). Directive: When language is used to tell someone to do something (e.g., Take these pills twice a day,). Performative: When language is used to constitute an action (e.g., I sentence you to 10 years in prison,). Recreational: When language is used for fun or enjoyment, such as in the telling of a joke. Language allows people to form a connection with one another and with their community. It also allows individuals to establish their identity. 1.1.4 Ethiopian Language Families In Africa alone there are more than 2000 distinct languages, and Ethiopia has over 80 languages and 200 dialects (SIL, 2016)! The languages of the world are grouped into different super- families. These groupings are based on their ancestral relation, linguistic features, word order, 11 tone and stress, morphological structure, etc. From the four major language super-families in Africa (Niger-Congo, Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan), the languages in Ethiopia belong to the Afro-Asiatic and the Nilo-Saharan super-families. These families are built on shared linguistic features such as morphology, syntax, and semantic features. The Cushitic, Omotic, and Semitic languages are subgroups of the greater Afro-Asiatic super-family. The Nilo-Saharan super-family is genetically distinct from Afro-Asiatic. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken in the western part of Ethiopia along the border with Sudan, mainly in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz regions (Hudson, 2003; Abebayehu & Endashaw, 2009). 1.1.4.1. Afro-Asiatic A) CUSHITIC The Cushitic languages are mostly spoken in central, southern and eastern Ethiopia (mainly in Afar, Oromia, Soomali, and SNNP regions). Cushitic languages spoken in Ethiopia include: Afaan Oromoo, Afar, Af-Soomali, Alabissa, Arbore, Awngi, Burji, Dhasenech, Gawada, Gedeuffa, Gidole, Hadiyyisa, Kambatisa, Kamir, Kemant, Konso, Libido, Mossiya, Qabena, Saho, Sidaamu Afoo, Tambarisa, and Tsamay, etc. B) OMOTIC The Omotic languages are predominantly spoken between the Lakes of Southern Rift Valley and the Omo River. The Omotic languages are also spoken in Benishangul Gumuz region. The Omotic languages spoken in Ethiopia are: Ari, Basket, Bench, Chara, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Ganjule, Gofa, Hamer, Kachama, Kafinoon, Kontta, Korete, Male, Mao, Mello, Mer, Mocha, Nao, Oyda, She, Sheko, Shinasha, Wolaytta, Yemsa, Zayse, and Zergula, etc. C) SEMITIC The Semitic languages are spoken in northern, central and eastern Ethiopia, mainly in Tigray, Amhara, Harar, and the northern part of the SNNP regions. The Semitic languages spoken in Ethiopia are: Amharic, Argobba, Gurage varieties, Harari, Siltigna, and Tigrinya, etc. 1.1.4.2. NILO-SAHARAN Languages categorized under the Nilo-Saharan super-family are largely spoken in the western part of Ethiopia along the border with Sudan, mainly in Gambella and Benshangul Gumuz regions. There are also some languages of this family spoken in SNNPR, particularly in South Omo Zone. The Nilo-Saharan languages spoken in Ethiopia include: Anywak, Berta, Bodi, 12 Fadashi, Gamili, Gebato, Gumuz, Koman, Kunama, Kwama, Mabaan, Me'en, Mesengo, Murssi, Nyangatom, Shita, and Suri, etc. Activity 4: Pair Work Working with a partner, discuss the 2 language families and 3 sub-families spoken in Ethiopia. Identify the language family of your mother tongue and identify other languages in the same family. 1. Are these languages in the Afro-Asiatic or Nilo-Saharan super-family? 2. What is the role of language in society? 1.2 Linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of language. As an academic discipline, the development of this subject has been relatively recent and rapid. Linguistics studies sounds, words, phrases, and meanings. It has the following subfields: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Phonetics refers to the production and perception of speech sounds. Phonology refers to the organization, distribution, and function of speech sounds. Morphology refers to the structure of words and smaller meaning units. Semantics refers to the meaning of words, sentences or utterances. Syntax refers to the structure of phrases, clauses, and sentences. 1.2.1 Language Use Linguistics is concerned with the study of language in interaction with other disciplines. There are many branches of linguistics. Sociolinguistics is one branch of linguistics which addresses aspects of the relationship between language and society. This branch is important for helping teachers understand language variation and change, and will help them support diverse students’ literacy skills. Language is one of the most powerful emblems of social behaviour. We use language to send social messages about who we are, where we come from, and who we associate with. In social situations, it is common for individuals to be judged based on their language, dialect, or the words they choose to use. Given the social role of language, it makes sense that at least one part of language study should concentrate on the role of language in society (Wardhaugh, 2006). Sociolinguists research how languages are used by the people, and how languages change over time. Languages are constantly changing, so teachers must maintain a positive, open linguistic attitude, particularly when their students are multilingual. Sociolinguistics has become an 13 increasingly important and popular field of study, as cultures around the world begin to form relations with each other. The relationship between language and society affects a wide range of experiences - from international meetings to individual relationships. The study of language in its social context tells us about how we organize our social relationships within a particular community (Romaine, 1994). Another concern with language and society is the effect of specific social situations on language structure. People begin to create special words and ways of speaking when speakers from different language groups need a common language for communication, such as for trading. For example, people coming from two different languages need to communicate in order to trade; therefore, they use words from both languages and create new words in order to understand one another. This new language is called a pidgin. A pidgin becomes a creole language when children learn the pidgin as their mother tongue. 1.2.1.1. Language Variation Activity 5: Brainstorming What differences in language use have you noticed among the speakers of your mother tongue? Explain why those differences might happen. The study of language variation is an important part of sociolinguistics because it addresses social factors. Languages vary from one place to another, from one social group to another, and from one situation to another. It is a universal feature of all human languages that they vary in different social groups. Language variation happens in many ways, and for many reasons. Languages may vary consciously or unconsciously for the speaker. Some of the ways language variation happens are: the meanings of words are changed, the pronunciations of words are changed, new words are adopted, old words are no longer used, sayings change, and the structure of phrases, clauses, and sentences are changed. Sometimes as children acquire the language or languages of their parents, the use or pronunciation is slightly modified. We vary our language or languages through life, as we adjust to new social conditions. Language is an important part of personal identity, and individuals sometimes modify their language to signal group identity. Two specific types of language variation are dialect and accent. a) Dialect 14 Dialect is systematic differences in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary from other varieties of the same language. Everyone speaks dialect; in fact, many dialects at different levels of discourse. The people who speak a certain dialect are called a speech community. Everyone has small differences between the way they talk and the way even their family and best friends talk, creating minimal dialect. Hence, the term dialect carries no negative connotations but it simply a neutral level to refer to any variety of language, including the standard variety (Behravan, 2012). b) Accent The term accent is restricted to the description of aspects of pronunciation that identify where an individual speaker is from, regionally or socially. For example, when we compare Bole Amharic with countryside Amharic, both speakers use the Amharic language, but may pronounce words slightly differently. Note that accent refers only the pronunciation of the language, whereas dialect includes the pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary used by a speaker. 1.2.1.2. Language Change Often language changes as a result of contact with speakers of other languages and their cultures. Language change can also happen through modernization and civilization. A language change can occur at the word or a phrase levels. Another form of language change refers to changes to the structure and use of the language itself. The way people use the language changes, and these changes become permanent. In general, a language change can be in the form of phonological change, morphological change, syntactic change, or a semantic change. Sociolinguists relate language change with code-mixing, code-switching, and code shifting. Code refers to the modality of a language component (the language: English, French, Amharic, Afaan Oromoo, etc.; or a dialect: American English, British English, Australian English, etc.). a) Code Mixing Code-mixing is the use of two different codes (languages or dialects) in the same conversation or interaction. This typically happens as bilingual children are acquiring language. This behavior may reflect the child’s lack of differentiation between the two separate languages. b) Code Switching 15 Code switching, on the other hand, is the intentional use of two different languages in a conversation or interaction (Ayeomoni, 2006). Code switching is a skilled use of language by bilinguals for symbolic, strategic, or communicative purposes. Code switching is sometimes done for the following reasons: to speak to a specific topic, to quote another person’s speech, to express strong emotion, to express group identity, to exclude or include other people in the conversation, or to provide words unavailable in the language being spoken (Blom, Gumperz, & Hymes, 1972). Code-switching is common practice in the speech patterns of bilingual individuals who must converse in multiple languages, sometimes in a single social interaction. This skill is extremely important in multilingual or multi-dialectal communities. “Sociolinguistics considers code mixing and code switching as the byproducts of bilingualism. In code-mixing, a fluent bilingual changes the language by using words from other language without any change at all in situation, whereas in code switching, anyone who speaks more than one language chooses between them according to circumstances and according to the language comprehensive to the persons addressed, the purpose is to get the right effect of communication” (Hudson, 1996, P. 53). c) Code Shifting Code shifting is when an individual or community changes the primary language he or she uses into another language. A code shift within a language can also happen when an individual begins speaking a dialect different from his or her native dialect. For example, when a person moves to a new region (or country) and begins to primarily speak the regional mother tongue (or dialect) instead of his or her own native mother tongue (or dialect). This shift is often permanent and may result in the loss of the native language or dialect. Specific to Ethiopia, the Gafat people are currently transitioning from primarily using the Gafat language to primarily using the Amharic language. > Activity 6: Group Discussion and Presentation In your groups, answer following questions and present to the class. 1. What are the similarities and differences between languages and dialects? 2. Why do languages change over time? 16 3. When do code mixing, code switching, and code shifting happen? 1.3 International Phonetic Alphabet Every language includes a unique set of speech sounds. How does one show the speech sounds in written form? Many linguists have faced this challenge. In 1888 the members of the International Phonetic Association created a set of written symbols to mark the speech sounds of various languages (Fasold & Connor-Linton, 2006). The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) provides a universal alphabet to show all speech sounds in the world’s languages (the chart is available in the module appendix). Several features of the IPA are listed below. The IPA: o Is used to show the speech sounds in written form. o Has symbols that are based on the Roman alphabet and additional symbols from other sources. o Has symbols that are consistent from language to language. o Has a one-to-one relationship with language sounds. One IPA symbol represents one sound. o Includes symbols for consonants, vowels, diacritics, and suprasegmentals. o Helps us compare speech sounds that are spoken in different languages. We can view all of the IPA symbols in the complete IPA chart. The chart has several parts. The first part shows the symbols for consonant speech sounds. These are most of the consonants of the world’s languages. They are produced with an airstream from the lungs. Where symbols appear in pairs in the same block, the symbol written to the right is voiced. Shaded blocks show articulations that are not possible. The second section of the IPA chart shows the consonants that are produced without airstream from the lungs. These consonants include the “clicks” used in some languages within African countries. The vowels section shows the vowel sounds are placed in different locations on a figure with four sides. It shows the shape of a speaker’s tongue and helps us understand where the tongue is located for each vowel sound. The final section of the IPA chart shows the suprasegmental symbols to indicate the stress, intonation, and tempo of speech (Small, 2016). This section also includes Diacritic marks, which are used when there is an alternate way to produce a speech sound, but these are mostly used by advanced linguists. The section on tone and word accents indicates how words can be pronounced using different tones (which indicates a different meaning in tonal languages). 17 Chapter 1: Summary Language is a complex, specialized skill which develops without conscious effort or formal instruction, strictly on the basis of needing to communicate. Language serves many functions and varies across locations, social identities of its speakers, and social contexts. Universal properties of human languages include: the elements of phonemics, phonology, morphology, and syntax; use word categories and phrases; have productivity (are able to add new words and can change the use of old words); contain variation (dialects and accents); and they change with time, location, and speakers. From a sociolinguistic perspective, language change includes code-mixing (where children use two dialects or languages during the same conversation), code-switching (intentional use of a different dialect or language during conversation), and code-shifting (when a speaker changes the primary dialect or language he or she speaks). Ethiopian languages are categorized in two super-families of language (Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan) based on their ancestral relation and shared linguistic features. The Cushitic, Omotic and Semitic languages belong to the Afro-Asiatic super-family and are mainly spoken in the Northern, Central, Southern, and Eastern parts of Ethiopia; whereas other Ethiopian languages categorized under the Nilo- Saharan super-family are largely spoken in the western part of Ethiopia along the border with Sudan, mainly in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz regions. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a set of symbols used to assign graphemes to language sounds without using the orthography of any specific language. Chapter 1: Review Questions Individually write the answers to the following questions. 1. Write the definition of language in your own words. 2. Mention at least three functions of language. 3. What are language variations? 4. What is language change? 5. List the Ethiopian language families and the general areas in which they are spoken. 6. What is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), and how is it used? 18 Chapter 1: Self-Assessment Below are self-assessment statements. Copy them into your exercise book and put a checkmark “√” mark on the spaces provided in the table if you agree or disagree with the statements. Make sure that you read again those sections that you marked as “disagree.” Statement Agree Disagree 1. I can define language. 2. I can discuss the origin of language. 3. I can describe the various characteristics of a language. 4. I can discuss the role of language. 5. I can identify the Ethiopian language families. 6. I can define linguistics. 7. I can explain the use of language in different social contexts. 8. I can discuss how languages vary and change. 9. I can explain how the International Phonetic Alphabet is used. 19 Chapter 2: Phonetics Outline of Contents 2.1 Definition of phonetics 2.2 Articulatory Phonetics 2.2.1 Speech Organs 2.2.2 Speech Sounds 2.2.2.1 Consonants a) Place of articulation b) Manner of articulation c) Voicing 2.2.2.2 Vowels a) Tongue height b) Tongue advancement (front/back) c) Lip position (rounded/retracted) 2.2.3 Phonetic Transcription 2.2.4 Syllables a) Syllable perception b) Syllable Structure 2.2.5 Suprasegmental features a) Stress b) Intonation and Tone c) Length/ Gemination Introduction In this chapter you will learn about phonetics, a branch of linguistics which studies speech sounds. Speech sounds in any language can be classified based on the way the speakers coordinate the speech organs. Speakers control the movement of their tongue, lips, and other speech organs, the direction and force airflow, and the on/off function of the vocal cords. An understanding of phonetics is important for multilingual education, and for teaching reading across languages. Phonetics helps us understand the phonemic part of graphophonemic awareness. Graphophonemic awareness is important for reading development. To put a spoken 20 language into writing, we use symbols (graphemes) to represent the sounds (phonemes). Phonetics has three different branches: Acoustic, Auditory and Articulatory phonetics. This chapter focuses on articulatory phonetics which contain speech organs, speech sounds, syllables, and suprasegmental features. Learning Outcomes At the end of this chapter student teachers will be able to: Define phonetics and its branches. Identify speech organs. Identify the place and manner of articulation of consonant sounds. Organize consonant sounds according to their place and manner of articulation and voice. Organize vowel sounds according to tongue height and advancement, and lip position. Describe speech sounds. Apply knowledge of the IPA symbols to phonetically transcribe words in their MT. Categorize syllable types of the mother tongue. Describe the sound structure in syllables of different syllable types. Explain suprasegmental features. Teaching and learning techniques Interactive lecture Independent study and project work Cooperative learning and peer learning Group discussion Assessment techniques Individual work, pair and group work Project work Peer reflection and learning Class work and homework Instructional materials Diagram of speech organs IPA Chart (mainstream and Braille, if needed) 2.1 Definition of phonetics Phonetics is the study of production and perception of speech sounds that occur in all languages. It is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and 21 transcription. Transcription of speech sounds involves assigning a separate written symbol to represent each distinct speech sound. The symbols often come from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). You will recall from chapter one that the IPA symbols can be used to represent sounds spoken in any language. Three branches of phonetics are generally recognized: articulatory, acoustic and auditory. (a) articulatory phonetics is the study of the way speech sounds are made (articulated) by the speech organs; (b) acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear; (c) auditory phonetics studies the perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain (Cristal, 2008). According to Westermann and Ward (2011), the study of Phonetics: is important to understand how speech sounds are pronounced and perceived. explains how learners perceive sounds based on their early experiences in learning the mother tongue. describes how the learners must compare new sounds to known sounds when they are learning in another language. ensures accuracy across languages for how we describe and classify speech sounds. explains the phonemic part of graphophonemic awareness necessary to learn reading and writing. Activity 1: Brainstorming Think about the sounds of your mother tongue. Answer the questions individually and share to the whole class. 1. What are the difference and similarities in the way you say these sounds: [b] and [m], [f] and [v]? 2. How would you describe the sounds from question 1 to someone who had not heard them? 2.2 Articulatory Phonetics As mentioned earlier, phonetics has several branches such as articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics. In this course, our primary interest will be in articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how speech sounds are made or articulated (Cristol, 2008). In articulatory phonetics, we investigate how speech sounds are produced using speech organs. 22 2.2.1 Speech Organs Speech organs are the part of the mouth and throat used to articulate speech sounds. It is important for teachers to know the role of the speech organs in speaking. This section helps us to know the speech organs and how each works for speech. It is possible to divide the speech organs into two groups based on their ability to be moved: active articulators and passive articulators. The active articulators move towards the passive articulators in order to constrict and shape the air that is moving out from the lungs. Active articulators include lips, vocal cords which can be opened or closed, and the tongue, which moves up, down, forward, and backward. The passive articulators include the alveolar ridge, hard palate, and soft palate or velum, and lie along the top of the vocal tract. Other speech organs include the structures that help articulate individual speech sounds, such as the resonating cavities. The speech organs and resonating cavities are shown in the figure below, followed by a description of the major organs Voice is made by the vocal folds in the larynx. The larynx is an important speech organ located on the front side of the neck. Also known as the “voice box”, the larynx is home to the vocal folds which make voice happen. The vocal folds open and close rapidly as they vibrate to produce voice (sound). Airflow escapes through the vocal folds each time they open. When we are trying to speak, the airflow moves upward through a series of cavities until it escapes, either through our nose or our mouth. When we open the vocal folds without vocal fold vibration, we are able to shape the airflow into a variety of speech sounds that are voiceless. Voiceless speech sounds are produced without vibration of the vocal folds. Voiced speech sounds require vibration of the vocal folds. All vowels are considered voiced speech sounds. Some consonants 23 are voiced while others are voiceless. For example, in English, the consonant /p/ is voiceless; the vocal folds do not vibrate to produce this speech sound. In contrast, a similar sound /b/ is voiced; the vocal folds must vibrate to produce the /b/ sound. If the vocal folds do not vibrate for /b/, the resulting sound is more like the voiceless/p/. A speaker can easily change voicing on and off between sounds in the same word. More information about the voicing feature in consonants is provided in a later section. The space between the vocal folds is called the glottis. Sometimes we produce sounds in this glottal space. For example, the English consonant sound [h] does not require the vocal folds to vibrate. In Amharic, a sharp puff of air through the glottis is used for some consonants, including [k’] (see ejective consonants in the later section of this chapter). Activity 2: Pair work Answer the following questions in pairs. Think about how you said the sounds [b] and [m], [f] and [v]. 1. What speech organs did you use? 2. How would you describe using your breath? 3. Now contrast those with the sounds [k’], [g]. What is the difference? Articulators: Lips o Supported by the jaw o Move in a rounded position or retracted (like a smile) o Consider how your lips move when you say “who”, “see”, and “pear”. Teeth o Upper and lower teeth o Consider how your teeth help you say: [f] in “fan” and [v] in “van”. o Consider how your teeth help you say [ɵ] in “think”, and [ð] in “that” Alveolar ridge o A bony ridge located just behind your teeth. o Front of tongue touches ridge to produce sounds like [d], [l], [s], and [t]. Hard palate o The bony, bowl-shaped part of the roof of your mouth o Separates the oral and nasal air spaces o The tongue and hard palate come together to make sounds [ʃ] in “ship” and [j] in “you”. Soft palate, or velum 24 o Muscular structure behind the hard palate o Back of tongue reaches the velum to make sounds like [k] and [g] o The velum moves up and down to direct the air coming from the lungs and larynx.  A raised velum makes contact with the wall at the back of the throat, known as the pharyngeal wall. When the velum rises, it seals the nasal cavity off from the oral cavity. This process is called velopharyngeal closure. It keeps air out of the nasal cavity. We use a raised velum to make all oral sounds.  A lowered velum allows air to flow into the oral and nasal cavities. If the mouth is closed and the velum is lowered, then you can say nasal sounds such as [m], [n]. We use a lowered velum to make all nasal sounds. Tongue The tongue is an important articulator for speech sounds. It is the main articulator for vowel sounds. The tongue is also used in combination with other articulator structures to produce consonant sounds. Various parts of the tongue assist with speech sound production: tip, front, central, back, and root. Passive articulators which work with parts of tongue:  Tip: teeth  Front: alveolar ridge  Central: palate  Back: velum  Root: uvula. Uvula o Fleshy structure at the back end of the velum. o If you look inside your mouth through a mirror, you can see the uvula hanging down. o The uvula connects with the root of the tongue to make uvular speech sounds. o English does not include uvular speech sounds. However, other languages do, including many African languages. In addition to the speech organs our speech system includes three major air spaces (pharyngeal, oral, and nasal cavities). In these air spaces, the airflow from the vocal folds can resonate, or 25 echo. Most speech sounds in English resonate in the oral cavity (the mouth). However, a few speech sounds resonate in the nasal cavity (nose), including nasal consonant sounds [m], [n], and [ŋ]. 2.2.2 Speech Sounds Speech sounds are sounds that are produced by speech organs of human beings; such as tongue, lips, vocal cords, alveolar ridge, palate, and velum. Sounds are the basic building blocks of words. They are the smallest units that make one word different from another (Moats, 2010). For example, the sound /d/ is what makes the word dot different from the word pot. The basic building blocks of sounds are consonants and vowels. The terms consonant and vowel are used to refer to segments of speech, not the letters or fidels that represent them (Moats, 2010), and can be written using symbols for each sound. This is called phonetic transcription, and requires the use of the IPA. 2.2.2.1 Consonants A consonant is defined as a speech sound that is made with some restriction of the air stream. Consonant speech sounds often involve a combination of two articulators. We can classify consonants according to the following characteristics: (a) Where in the mouth the stoppage or constriction is made (its place of articulation); (b) Whether the sound is made with a fully stopped or merely constricted airstream (its manner of articulation); (c) Whether or not the vocal folds are vibrating or not (voicing). Sounds are either voiced or voiceless; We can compare and contrast the consonant speech sounds in any language based on the following components, where changing just one feature will create a different speech sound. To consider the similarities and differences between speech sounds in a language, we can focus on the following: Place of Articulation: Where a sound is formed Manner of Articulation: How it is formed Voicing: Whether or not the vocal folds are vibrating a) Place of articulation When a consonant sound is produced, there is a constriction somewhere along the vocal tract. The location of that air constriction is called the place of articulation. To know this, we must know which speech organs are passive to produce the consonant sound. Active articulators for each sound are described below. This tells us where in the vocal tract the speech sound is made. Each place of articulation is defined with examples below. Bilabials: [b] [p] [m] [w] 26 o Lip closure and lip rounding (protrusion) Labiodentals: [f] [v] o Constriction of lower lip and upper teeth Interdentals: [ɵ] [ð ] o Tongue tip/apex protrudes between the front teeth Alveolars: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] o /d/ /t/; Tongue contact with alveolar ridge o /s/ /z/; Groove in the blade of the tongue right behind the alveolar ridge o /l/; Tongue tip contact with alveolar ridge o /n/; Tongue tip contact with alveolar ridge with sound resonance in nasal cavity Retroflex: [ɳ], [ɖ], [ʈ] o a tip of the tongue is curled back in the direction of the front part of the hard palate. o Just behind the alveolar ridge. Palatals: [ʃ] [Ʒ ] [ʧ] [ʤ] [ɹ] [j] o Central part of tongue elevated toward the palate o Tongue tip can be turned back (retroflex) or tongue blade can be bunched o Tongue constriction in the palatal area moves to the position of the following vowel Velars: [k] [g] [ŋ] [ɰ] [k’] o Back of the tongue contacts roof of mouth stopping airflow o Back of the tongue contacts roof of mouth stopping airflow but velopharynx is open to allow airflow to nasal cavity o Rounding of lips and arching of tongue near the velum Uvulars: [q] [G] o Back of the tongue retracts to uvula. Pharyngeals: [ʕ], [ħ] o a constriction between the pharyngeal walls and the tip of epiglottis which tilts backwards. o To a lesser degree, the lower part of the root of the tongue is also retracted. Glottals: [h] o Airway constriction at the vocal folds o Brief closure of the vocal folds; not a phoneme (most often occurs as an allophonic variation of [t] and [d], ladder, butter). b) Manner of articulation Manner of articulation refers to the way the airstream changes because of the interaction of the articulators. There are names for classes of speech sounds based on their manner of articulation. In General American English, the manners of articulation include: Stops, Fricatives, Affricates, 27 Nasals, and Approximates. Approximates has further classes of Liquids, Glides, and Rhotics manner of articulation. Because each language has a different number of “manner” categories, the would-be teacher should be familiar with the manners of articulation for speech sounds in the language(s) of the classroom. For General American English, each manner of articulation is defined with examples below. Stops: o Complete closure of the vocal tract o Pressure builds up, when released = stop burst, stop plosive o A stop variation = flap; quick tapping of articulator against a surface; allophones of stops; also referred to as a tap [ɾ]. o Stops = [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g] o pill, bill, till, dill, kill, gill Fricatives: o Air is forced through a narrow constriction of the airway. The air escaping between the articulators causes air to escape with continuous noise. o 9 Fricatives = [f] [v] [ɵ] [ð] [s] [z] [ʃ] [Ʒ] [h] o leaf, leave, teeth, teethe, bus, buzz, rush, rouge, he Affricates: o Combination of stop and fricative; pressure builds up and is then released; only in the palatal area o affricates = [ʧ] church [ʤ] judge Nasals: o Complete oral closure and open velopharynx o Nasals = [n] [m] [ŋ] ran, ram, rang Liquids: o Vowel-like consonant but the sound energy is somewhat more constricted than for vowels. o 2 liquids =Lateral liquid and Rhotic liquid o Lateral = midline closure of articulators and lateral opening for sound to escape; 1 lateral = [l] Lou o Rhotic = tongue tip is curled back and tongue is bunched in palatal area, sound passes through opening between tongue and palate; one rhotic = [ ɹ] rue Glides (Semi-vowels): o Vowel-like consonants, but the sound is more constricted than for vowels. o Articulators have a gliding motion o In English, a glide consonant is always followed by a vowel sound (even if it is written followed by a consonant). o 2 glides = [j] and [w]; you woo when Implosives: /ɓ/, /ɗ /, /ɠ / 28 Non-pulmonic consonants made by drawing air into the mouth instead of bringing air up from the lungs. Similar to pulmonic consonants /b/, /d/, /g/, but require the opposite direction in airflow and result in a change in meaning at the word level. In chapter 1 you were introduced to the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Recall that the second box of symbols on the IPA chart includes phonetic symbols to represent the non- pulmonic consonants. Non-pulmonic consonants do not require air from the lungs. These include sounds that require anterior click releases, implosive consonants, and ejectives. Some languages in Ethiopia may include one or more of these types of non-pulmonic consonants. Implosive consonants sound similar to the pulmonic stop/plosive consonants /b/, /d/, and /g/, but are used to show a change in meaning. The main difference is that the implosive consonant is produced by sucking air into the mouth, instead of pulling air from the lungs. For example, to make the implosive /ɓ/, you have to hold your breath briefly to increase the pressure in the oral cavity, close your lips as you would for the consonant/b/, and then draw in a little bit of air through your mouth. When the air is drawn or sucked into your mouth through your lips, is makes an ingressive sound. The symbols for implosive consonants are written with a little hook on the bottom of the consonant symbol: As an example, the following languages in Ethiopia include the implosive phoneme /ɗ /. Omotic languages of Gamo, Gofa, Dawro, and Wolayttato, etc. Cushitic languages Afan Oromo, Af Somali, Sidaamu Afoo, Rendille Nilo-Saharan language of Berta We can gather all of the English consonants that we have described into a single chart: Place of articulation Bilabial Labio- Inter- Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal dental dental Plosive/Stop pb td kg Ɂ Fricative fv ɵð sz ʃ Ʒ h Manner of articulation Affricate ʧʤ Nasal m n ŋ Approximant w l j w 29 Activity 3: Individual Work Answer the questions according to the sections above. 1. What does the term speech sounds mean? 2. Compare and contrast the consonants of your MT in terms of place and manner of articulation. c) Voicing Activity 4: Brainstorming Complete the following exercise. Make the sound [fffff], and keep it going for a count of five seconds. Now make the sound [vvvvv], and keep it going for a count of five seconds. Now alternate these two: [fffff— vvvvv—fffff---vvvvv]. What is different? You probably noticed that [vvvvv] had a “buzz” that [fffff] did not. That “buzz” is caused by the vibrating of your vocal folds. You can check by putting your fingers on your throat as you alternate between [fffff] and [vvvvv] sounds. Now try the same exercises with the first sounds of the following words: thigh/thy, sip/zip. Sounds produced with vibrating vocal folds are said to be voiced; those produced without vocal fold vibration are voiceless. Languages generally have voiced and voiceless sounds. Pairs of sounds that have the same place and manner of articulation but differ by voicing are called cognates or minimal pairs. The table below lists the cognate consonants (minimal pairs) of English. The symbols in [ ] are the phonetic representations for the sounds. The remaining English sounds are all voiced [m, n, ŋ, j, w, l], with the exception of [h] which is voiceless. Place & Manner Voiceless (no vocal fold vibration) Voiced (vocal fold vibration) Bilabial stops pay [p] bay [b] Alveolar stops toe [t] doe [d] Velar stops kill [k] gill [g] Labiodental fricatives fie [f] vie [v] Interdental fricatives thigh [ɵ] thy [ð] Alveolar fricatives sip [s] zip [z] Palatal fricatives rush [ʃ] rouge [Ʒ] Palatal affricates chump [ʧ] jump [ʤ] 30 It is important to know the place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing for the sounds in their language of instruction. This is true regardless of whether the written form of the language is based on letters (Latin script) or other symbols, fidels (Saba script). Using Amharic as an example of a language with sounds that are written within fidels, it is possible to create a chart to show the consonant sounds using the IPA. Place of articulation – Amharic Consonants Bilabi Labio- Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal al dental voiceless p T k Ɂ Voiced b d g Plosive/ ejective p’ t’ k’ Stop voiceless f S ʃ h Fricative voiced v* z Ʒ voiceless ʧ’ voiced ʤ Affricate ejective s’ Č’ Nasal voiced m n ɲ Manner of articulation Lateral l Flap/ trilled ɹ Semi- w J vowels Amharic consonant notes: Labialized consonants: [kw’, gw, fw, pw, bw, tw, mw, hw]. /v*/ occurs in Amharic for words borrowed from English; it does not occur in Amharic. [’] = sounds that also can have ejective voicing. (IPA, 2005). These are sounds not described in the table and should be learned. It is a feature of Amharic to see instances where a consonant may be pronounced as if the glide consonant /w/ immediately follows it, without fully articulating the glide /w/. The labialized consonants [kw’, gw, fw, pw, bw, tw, mw, hw ] in Amharic are produced as labial-velar sounds, requiring the lips and soft palate. The glided version of these consonants can be used to signify a slight change in meaning, and are known to be used in derivational morphology. 31 Examples of Amharic words or concepts that include a labialized consonant in their pronunciation are listed below (Ayalew, 2013). Labialized consonant Amharic pronunciation English meaning k’w k’w ät’t’ärä “count” k’w k’w ärrät’ä “cut” bw däb bw älä “grow round” bw t-d bw äläb bw älä “become round” gw gwaggw a “be eager” With fidels, the chart below shows additional written examples of the lateralized consonants in Amharic: Activity 5: Pair Work Discuss questions in pairs, then report to the class. 1. Describe the movement of speech organs in the production of [f] and [s] sounds. 2. What are the passive and active articulators of sounds [t], [s], [b] and [k]? Then, look at the table below. Think about the way you use the articulators to make sounds and words. List the sound or sounds made using that articulator. The first six are done for you as examples. In the word “nip”, we use three articulators to make the sounds in the word (lips for [p], alveolar ridge and tongue tip for [n], and the tongue for [I]). Word Lips Teeth Alveolar Hard Soft Tongue Glottis Uvula ridge palate palate / velum Nip [p] [n] [I] What [w] [t] [a] Feel [f] [l] [iː] 32 Who [o] [h] Ship [p] [ʃ] [I] Cheese [z] [ʧ] [i] Move Stop Open Book Lip Jump 2.2.2.2 Vowels A vowel is a speech sound that is formed without a significant constriction or blockage of air flow in the oral or pharyngeal cavity. In other words, the vocal tract is very much open when we speak vowel sounds. All vowels are voiced; they are produced with vibrating vocal folds (except when whispered). Vowels are produced solely by changes in jaw, tongue and lip positioning. The sound source for vowels is always at the level of the vocal folds. Vowels change along three dimensions depending on what the tongue and lips are doing: tongue height, tongue advancement, and lip rounding. a) Tongue height Tongue height refers to how high or how low the tongue is in the oral cavity when producing a vowel sound. We change the height of the tongue to produce different vowel sounds. Tongue height in the mouth ranges from high to mid to low height. The highest level is when the tongue is close to the top, or roof, of the mouth. When the tongue is placed this high in the mouth, the jaw is usually elevated or closed. With the tongue in the high tongue position in the mouth we are able to make the high vowels. The lowest level is when the tongue is in the bottom of the mouth and the jaw is usually down and open. When the tongue rests in the middle of the mouth, it is said to be in the mid height position. The following words in English help show us the way the tongue height changes across vowel sounds. Say the following words (in bold) and notice how your tongue’s movement changes for each: meat, mitt, mate, met, mat. You might notice that the words meat and mat have the largest 33 difference in tongue height for the vowels. meat (high) mitt (mid-high) mate (mid) met (mid-low) mat (low) b) Tongue advancement Tongue advancement refers to how far forward or back the tongue is in the oral cavity when producing a vowel sound. We can move the tongue back and forth within the mouth to make different vowel sounds. Tongue advancement includes front, central, and back positions of the tongue in the mouth. When the tongue is near the teeth and lips it is at the front of the mouth. When the tongue is closer to our soft palate (velum) and uvula, the tongue is in the back of the mouth. In between these positions is the tongue’s central position. As the tongue moves forward in the mouth, we say the tongue is advancing (advancement). When the tongue is moving backward in the mouth, we say the tongue is retracting (retraction). Look at the words in the list below. Say each set of words. Start with heat-hurt-hoot. Notice how your tongue is moving from the front to the back of your mouth with each vowel sound. Also try to read the words from back to front vowel position (hoot-hurt-heat). Front Central Back 1. heat hurt hoot 2. hat hut hot 3. deed dud dude 4. lick lurk look 5. weigh were woe A helpful way to remember tongue height and advancement for vowel sounds is the figure below. In the example below, the English vowels are listed based on their tongue height (high, mid, low) and tongue advancement (front, central, back). A pronunciation key is located below the vowel box. English vowels: 34 Phonetic Symbol Example word in spelling i Bead ɪ Bid E Bayed Ɛ Bed ᴂ Bad ʌ,ə Bud ɝ, ɚ Bird U Booed Ʊ Good o Bode ᴐ Pawed ɑ Pod 35 a IPA (2005). American English vowels [a] is a mid, central vowel used in American English in some cases as a dialect variation of front vowel [ᴂ] or back vowel [ɑ]. It is important for would-be teachers to know the tongue height and advancement of vowels sounds in their language of instruction. This is true regardless of whether the written form of the language is based on letters (Latin script) or fidels (Saba script). Using Amharic as an example of a language with sounds that are written within fidels, it is possible to create a chart to show the vowel sounds using the IPA. A pronunciation key is located below the vowel box. In the Amharic vowel sounds box above, the symbols in parentheses ( ) are different ways that Amharic speakers say the central vowel sounds [ɨ] and [ə]. The table below includes vowels not found in English but which occur in Amharic. Phonetic Example word in Example word in Example word Symbol phonetic symbols Amharic spelling translated in English spelling i kis ኪስ “pocket” ɨ mɨn ምን “what?” ɪ jih - jɨh ይህ “this” 36 e k’es ቄስ “priest” Ɛ jƐmmil የሚል “he who says” a bal ባል “husband” ə kəbt ከብት “cattle” ᴐ gwᴐrf ጎርፍ “flood” o s’om ጾመ “fast” u bəkkul በኩል “direction” Ʊ kwƱlf ቁልፍ “lock” IPA (2005). Amharic vowels. c) Lip position (rounded/retracted) Vowel sounds can also be described by the shape the lips take. The shape of the lips for vowel production is either rounded or unrounded. By making the lips round we make the vocal tract longer. In English, only back and central vowels are rounded. There are no front rounded vowels in English, but there are in French, German, and Swedish. For the rounded position, the lips are in the shape of a circle. For the unrounded, or retracted, position the lips are pulled tighter along the sides, such as in a smile. You must change the shape of the lips to accurately pronounce the vowel sounds in the following words. Say cheese. The vowel in this word, [i], has a retracted, unrounded lip shape. Say chose. The vowel in this word, [o], has a rounded lip shape. Vowel combinations Sometimes a language can have other types of vowel sounds that are made from the combination of two or more other vowel sounds together. Vowels that move or glide from one vowel sound to another are called diphthongs. An example of a diphthong in English is the vowel sound “oy”, as in boy, phonetically written as [ᴐІ] to show the combination of the back vowel [ᴐ] and front vowel [i]. Say the word boy. After the [b] consonant at the beginning of the word, your mouth prepares to make the vowel sound “oy”. First your mouth starts with a back tongue position and rounded lips. Your mouth moves quickly to a front tongue position with retracted, or smiley lips. This quick movement between vowel positions is called gliding between vowels. This gliding happens very quickly. Speakers and listeners often hear just one vowel sound, not two. Because diphthongs are two vowels in one, they have a longer duration than the single vowels. Some languages also have three and four vowel combinations, which are even longer in duration. Other languages do not use diphthong vowel sounds (UCLA, 2016). 37 Note: You may see the term diphthong used to describe a grapheme or written symbol that represents a consonant and two vowel sounds together. Amharic is a language where this happens. Amharic has diphthong fidels used in writing and spelling to indicate consonant and diphthongs sounds together in a syllable. This is a different use of the term diphthong. Examples of English diphthongs are listed in the table below. Diphthong English [аi] As in my, buy, ice [аƱ] As in cow, couch [ᴐi] As in boy, moist Activity 6: Group Work Work in a small group to complete these activities. Then, reflect to the whole class. 1. Pronounce the initial sounds of the following words and then determine the place of articulation of each. hand____________ foot ______________ belly ___________ chin ______________ calf ____________ knee _____________ 2. Identify the manner of articulation of the initial sounds in the following words. silly ___________ crazy _____________ merry ___________ dizzy _____________ loamy __________ funny _____________ 3. Which of the following words end with voiceless (-v) sounds and which end with voiced (+v) sounds? crash ____________ smack ____________ bang ____________ splant ____________ wham ___________ fish _____________ 4. Describe the following consonant sounds in terms of voice and place/manner of articulation: [v], [m], [k’], [g], [f], [s], [h] and [n] 5. Describe the following vowel sounds according to their tongue height, tongue advancement, and lip position. Item Tongue height Tongue Lip position advancement 1. [a] low central retracted 2. [e] 3. [i] 4. [o] 5. [u] 2.2.3 Phonetic Transcription Standard alphabetic writing is unsatisfactory to represent the speech sounds across languages. It is not possible to write a transcription of speech sounds unless some standard, cnsistent method of representation is used (Paul, 2010). In 1888 the International Phonetic Association 38 (based in Paris) tackled the problem of how to precisely describe any sound the members might encounter in their efforts to describe all the languages of the world. They published symbols for a new alphabet, the International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA] (Fasold, 2006). A writing system is considered phonetic when one sound corresponds to one symbol. A phonetic alphabet represents all of the sounds in the world’s languages so that speech can be described with a common symbol system (Paul, 2010). This writing system reflects only the sounds of the language, not the orthography of the particular language. Therefore, the IPA can be used for languages written using Latin letters and those languages using fidels. Fidel Phonetic transcription Notes ተ / tƐ /, / tə/ There are two speech sounds in the pronunciation of ተ. The first is a consonant sound /t/. The second is a vowel sound. Two possible vowel pronunciations are provided. ቱ /tu/ There are two speech sounds (one consonant and one vowel sound) in the pronunciation of ቱ. ቲ /ti/ There are two speech sounds (one consonant and one vowel sound) in the pronunciation of ቲ. ታ /ta/ There are two speech sounds (one consonant

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