P101 8037 Unit 1 Study Guide PDF

History of Psychology Philosophical beginnings The beginning: Psychology has its conceptual foundations in philosophy Plato (428-347 BC) Influential Greek philosopher was a proponent of a type of Nativism: that is certain kinds of knowledge we have as human being is innate or inborn with no need...

History of Psychology Philosophical beginnings The beginning: Psychology has its conceptual foundations in philosophy Plato (428-347 BC) Influential Greek philosopher was a proponent of a type of Nativism: that is certain kinds of knowledge we have as human being is innate or inborn with no need for experience. Aristotle (384-322 BC) Student of Plato and Influential Greek philosopher and polymath who was a proponent of Empiricism: that all or most knowledge must be acquired through experience Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Influential French philosopher and polymath who dveloped the form or specific type of dualism referred to as interactive dualism or Descarte Substance Dualism that serves as the starting ground for many psychological debates that were to arise in Psychology. Interactive Dualism: mind and body are separate entities of different substances that interact in some manner. Believed this interaction happened at the pineal gland due to its unique morphology that is anatomy and its relatively central location within the brain. 19th –early 20th century Germany Herman von Helmholtz – studied human reaction times using new machines that allowed for millisecond resolution timing, and estimated the speed of the nerve impulse Wilhelm Wundt ( student of Helmholtz used reaction times to measure psychological processes; found the first lab purely devoted to psychology in 1879 at University of Leipzig. Hermann Ebbinghaus - German Psychologist consider the father of human memory research. Notable for long running and detailed experiments on himself. Discovered a number of key findings in human learning and memory including but not limited to Spacing Effect: spacing studying periods out produces greater improvement in memory than cramming. Forgetting Curve: The typical rate of decay for memories without explicit memory rehearsal. 19th – early 20th century English & American Psychology Edward Titchener English psychologist and a student of Wilhelm Wundt Founder of Structuralism: focus on the basic components of consciousness Relied on introspection that is a systematic form of reporting sensations & feelings to the experimenter. William James Father of American Psychology Associated with Functionalism: study of purpose or function of behavior and mental experiences Influenced by Chales Darwin The idea of natural selection & Evolution that behaviors including mental ones like emotions or desires are themselves adaptations to the environment. This is to emphasize the purpose and utility of mental states rather than their structure. “it is improper to judge the abilites of fish by asking it fly” Structuralism vs Functionalism Functionalism was introduced as a counter argument to structuralism Structuralism is a theoretical approach that analysis the basic elements of consciousness. Breaks down mental process to their parts. To understand the underlying structure or organization. Use of introspection. Functionalism emphasizes the study of how the mind functions in adaptations to its environment that is the purpose rather than structure of mental states. Example Question : How does the mental state of fear help our survival? Psycho Dynamic Perspective Sigmund Freud & The Psychodynamic Perspective - Austrian neurologist who proposed that conflict between the conscious and unconscious mental entitles influence and even largely determine our behavior, in particular mental disorders. Founder of Psychoanalysis – the theorizing and pratical application of psychodynamic perspective in regard to actual clinical therapy practice. The psychodynamic perspective dominated psychology and in particular therapy for several decades. While no longer the mainstream this perspective remains influential particularly for therapists. Behaviorism John Watson & Behaviorism – Founder of the school or framework of Behaviorism Dissatisfied by the lack of empirical accounting for unconscious mental entites Ivan Pavlov – Russian physiologist associated with Behaviorism Learn more about him and conditioning when we cover learning later in the semester B.F. Skinner – American psychologist who was a proponent of Radical Behaviorism that is all behavior can be explained through Stimuli and Response Sequences, learned through experience. Treated the mind as “black box” into which we can not observe or measure Therefore was unfit for study by the empirical science of psychology. Invented the Operant conditioning box known as a Skinner box, Cognitive Revolution – The Cognitive Revolution of the 50’s and 60’s was an explosion of interest and work in the fields of psychology, linguistics, and formation of field of cognitive science all inspired by advances in modern computers and computing theory. The Cognitive Revolution was also motivated by the failures of Behaviorism to account for many types of behavior both humans and in animals. For Example Noam Chomsky published a strong critique of BF Skinner work that attempted to explain language development in young children. Other Voices The field of Psychology is more diverse today than ever. Important voices include for example: Mamie and Kenneth Clark who's ground breaking research into race and its intersection with developmental psychology. Was cited in the supreme court ruling that ended school segregation Contemporary Psychology Psychology today is larger and more complex than never before. To help make sense of all this we of course organize and categorize ourselves and our research activates. Researchers are typically referred to and understood in relation to their perspective and/or their specialty area of training. Different Frameworks of Psychology Psychobiology (biological) - focused on the physical basis of beahvior Now referred to as the neuroscience(s): study of the physiological mechanisms of the nervous that produce behavior. This perspective takes into account spatial and temporal scale of the the nervous system, from studying individual molecules or genes, up to entire complex behaviors and large- scale brain networks. Behavioral: focused on how behavior is acquired and modified via interactions within the environment. Example: focus on behavior modifications in clinical setting. Cognitive Perspective Focuses on mental processes, memory perception, language, etc. Influenced by development of modern computers in 50s Humanistic Perspective  Focuses on personal growth, interpersonal relationships, self-concept, and importance of choice and self-direction in reaching one’s potential Carl Rogers (1902-1987) Emphasized person’s conscious experience, unique potential for growth, free will, the importance of choice Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Developed theory of motivation that emphasized psychological growth Famous for his Maslow hierarchy of needs. Evolutionary Perspective: applies principles and concepts from evolution to explain psychological processes. That is assumes that psychological processes are subject to evolutionary forces just like biology is. That is to say the mind in some way or another evolved! Cross Cultural Perspective: focus on culture and its relationships with the human mind, that is the attitudes, values, beliefs & behaviors shared by a group of people. Two example findings from this perspective: Ethnocentrism: a very common human belief that one’s own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others as well as the tendency to use one’s own culture as a standard to judge other cultures Individualistic vs Collectivistic Cultures – the level and type of relationship the individual has to others is different across cultures. With western cultures being relative to Eastern cultures more individualistic that is people have low or few obligations to their fellow man (the collective). While Asian cultures are in turn more Collectivistic, that is humans have strong or important obligations to the collective. Positive Psychology: a focus on positive emotions, and psychological states, traits and the social institutions that promote these qualities. An attempt to counterbalance the tranditional emphasis on problems and disorders and to advance our understanding of positive emotions which lag behind our understanding of anxiety, fear, or aggression. Specialty Areas in Psychology Clinical or counseling psychologist are usual PsyD or PhD Typically restricted to non drug interventions like therapy. Research Psychologists will almost always have A PhD While psychiatrists (is a branch of medicine) are MD or DO and can also prescribe drug treatments. Many different types of researchers at IU in the Psychology and Brain Sciences Department There are today many different careers and specialties in Psychology. Introduction to Psychological Science Why Research is Important Addresses fundamental questions about human behavior. Guides policy decisions. Informs personal decision-making. Scientific Method Scientific method: set of assumptions norms and procedures that guide researcehrs Create hypothesis or hypotheses to investigate which leads to Generate DATA draw CONCLUSIONS from the DATA Psychologists are or should be openmind and have a healthy dose of skepticism Step 1: Formulate a Testable Hypothesis  Step 2: Design the Study and Collect the Data Step 3: Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions Step 4: Report the Findings Variable: a Factor that can vary or change and can be observed measured or relevant to the hypothesis Has at least two defined states Example light switch on or off is a variable Temperature of room is a variable Theories Vs Hypothesis Hypothesis: A tentative, testable statement about the relationship between variables. Requires operational definitions of variables. Theory: An explanation that integrates findings and observations. Theories generate testable predictions and evolve as new evidence emerges. Types of Research Claims Frequency Claims: Describe the rate or level of a single variable (e.g., "40% of students experience anxiety"). Correlational Claims: Describe relationships between two or more variables (e.g., "Alcohol use is linked to depression"). Causal Claims: Establish cause-and-effect relationships. Descriptive Research Methods Naturalistic Observation: Observing behaviors in their natural environment. This is great for studying complex behaviors or behavior that are heavily context dependent Case Studies: Detailed investigations of individuals, often for rare or extreme cases. Provide very important knowledge despite not being reproducible or subject to inferential stats. Example Phineas Gage > frontal lobes are critical for personality Example Patient H.M. > medial temporal lobe is critical for memories of everyday life. Surveys: Use questionnaires or interviews to gather data from a representative sample. Correlation Studies Correlation Coefficient: Measures the strength and direction of the relationship between variables (ranges from -1.0 to +1.0). Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together. Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases. Key Limitation: Correlation does not imply causation. Importance of Samples in Research Representative Sample: Reflects and is not different from the population being studied.  Random Selection:Ensures every group member has an equal chance of being included. Observing, Measuring, & Evaluating in Psychology Key Questions to Consider What is operationalization? What are conceptual vs. operational variables? Why are measurements important? How do psychologists assess reliability and validity? Operationalization Definition: Creating precise definitions of constructs for measurement. This is very important for psychology which as to deal with psychological or mental things that are not immediately obvious what is the best operational definition Example: Aggression: Measured by the number of button presses to administer shocks or seconds taken to honk in a driving simulation. Employee Satisfaction: Measured by punctuality or self-reported job satisfaction ratings. Measurement is important in science and psychology as a science needs effective measurement methods to ensure data quality. If you have poor data you can’t draw or are not justified in drawing scientific conclusions. Reliability of Measures Test-Retest Reliability: Measures consistency over time. Example: A personality test should yield similar results two weeks apart. Interrater Reliability:  Consistency across different observers. Example: Observers coding children's behavior during play should agree. Internal Reliability: Consistency within a measure assessing the same construct. Example: Items on an anxiety questionnaire should produce similar responses. Validity of Measures Validity assesses whether a measure truly captures what it intends to measure. Content Validity: Measures must be relevant, comprehensive, and clear in covering all aspects of the construct. If the construct has multiple parts or components they must all be accounted for! Known Groups Validity: A measure must distinguish between groups known to differ in the construct being assessed. Example if you have a measure of stress it should distinguish between an individual who just woke up from a person who jsut underwent a period of intense exercise. Example: Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) Developed in 1961 by Dr. Aaron Beck. Measures depression based on the "cognitive triad" of negative thoughts about the self, environment, and future. Beck was unsatisfied with measures available to him. Scores range from 0 to 63 across 21 items. Used the validity of professional psychiatrists judgments of known groups to validate his Inventory Psychology & Experiments Experimental Research Overview Purpose: To demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships between variables.  Key Concepts: Independent Variable (IV): The factor intentionally manipulated by the researcher. Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome variable measured to assess the effect of the IV. Experimental Design Groups in Experiments: Experimental Group: Participants exposed to the IV. Control Group: Participants not exposed to the IV or given a placebo. Design Types: Within-Group Design: Participants act as their own control. Independent-Group Design: Different participants are in experimental and control groups. Random Assignment: Ensures every participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group, reducing bias. Blinding: Single-Blind Study: Only researchers know critical information. Double-Blind Study: Neither researchers nor participants know the group assignments. How Experiments Support Causal Claims Covariance: Changes in the IV are related to changes in the DV. Temporal Precedence: The cause (IV) occurs before the effect (DV). Internal Validity: Ensures the observed relationship is not due to other factors or confounding variables. Key Concepts in Experimental Design Testing Effect: Practicing mental retrieval improves long-term memory retention more than simply restudying material. Placebo and Expectancy Effects: Placebo: A fake treatment with no direct effects. Placebo Effect: Changes caused by participants' beliefs in the treatment rather than the treatment itself. Demand Characteristics: Subtle cues from researchers that influence participants’ behavior. Limitations of Experimental Design Internal vs. External Validity: Strong internal validity in controlled lab settings may reduce ecological validity (real- world applicability). Ethical Considerations: Creating realistic or lifelike situations may pose ethical challenges. Artificial Behavior: Strict laboratory conditions may not accurately reflect real-world behavior. Ethics & Psychological Research Ethics is of vital importance in Psychological Research, Psychologist whether they are teaching, counseling, or researching are obligated to follow relevant policies and laws. Historical Harm Example “Tuskegee” Research Study 1. Duration: Conducted from 1932 to 1972 in Macon County, Alabama, by the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS).  2. Purpose: Studied the natural progression of untreated syphilis in African American men under the guise of providing free medical care. 3. Participants: a. Involved 600 African American men: 399 with syphilis and 201 without the disease. b. Participants were mostly poor, uneducated sharecroppers. 4. Deception: a. Men were told they had "bad blood" (a vague term for various ailments) and were never informed they had syphilis. b. Promised free medical exams, meals, and burial insurance but were not given proper treatment. 5. Withholding Treatment: a. Even after penicillin became the standard treatment for syphilis in 1947, participants were not offered the cure. 6. Exposure: a. The study came to light in 1972 through a whistleblower and subsequent media investigation, leading to public outrage. 7. Termination: a. The study was officially ended in 1972 following widespread condemnation. Was important for the formation of the Belmont Report which codified ethical principles for human research. Examples from Psychology studies: Milgram Experiments (1961) Purpose: To study obedience to authority figures. Method: Participants (teachers) were instructed to administer electric shocks to a "learner" for incorrect answers. Shocks increased in intensity, though no real shocks were given. Findings: Majority (65%) administered the highest shock level, demonstrating strong obedience to authority. Ethical Issues:  Deception: Participants were misled about the true nature of the experiment. Psychological harm: Participants experienced significant stress and guilt believing they were harming someone. Lack of informed consent: True consent was not obtained due to deception. Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) Purpose: To investigate the psychological effects of perceived power in a prison setting. Method: College students were randomly assigned roles of prisoners or guards in a simulated prison environment. Findings: Guards quickly exhibited abusive behavior; prisoners displayed extreme stress and helplessness. Experiment ended after 6 days (planned for 2 weeks). Ethical Issues: Psychological harm: Participants endured significant distress and humiliation. Lack of informed consent: Participants were not fully aware of the potential risks. Lack of intervention: The researcher (Zimbardo) failed to stop the harmful behavior promptly. Alberts White rabbit Experiment (1920) Purpose: To study classical conditioning and how fear can be learned. Method: A baby (Albert) was exposed to a white rat paired with loud noises, leading him to fear the rat and similar stimuli. Findings: Demonstrated that fear could be conditioned and generalized to other objects (e.g., rabbits, fur coats). Ethical Issues: Lack of informed consent: Albert's mother may not have fully understood the implications. Psychological harm: Induced fear and distress in a child with no effort to decondition him afterward. Long-term effects: Potentially lasting psychological impact on the child. All of these studies would under today's norms be classified as unethical and would not be approved. They show the importance of ethical frameworks like the APA’s Ethical Principles for Psychologists and Code of Conduct The Belmont Report and Standards Today Belmont Report (1979) published by a National commission of psychologists, ethicists, doctors, and other researchers. Created in response to human right violations in research most notably the Tuskegee Study. This report established the ethical principles or rseearch invovling human subjects Provides a framework for US regulations to protect human subjects. Guide to resolve ethic issues that arise when conducting resarch Beneficence – requires that potential benefits Justice – Fairness must be given to subjects, for example they must selected fairly and the risks and benefits are distributed equally among subjects. Respect for Persons – people must be treated as automouns agents with their own will that cannot be violated. That means you must get the individuals voluntary and INFORMED CONSENT. Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) These committees of experts exist at research institutes to ensure compliance with all relevant laws, policies, and procedures are followed by Researchers doing Human Research including Psychological Research Definition of IRB: An IRB is a committee established to review, approve, and monitor research involving human participants. Ensures ethical standards and federal regulations are met. Key Functions of IRBs:  Protect the rights, welfare, and well-being of human research participants. Assess research proposals for ethical concerns, including risks, benefits, and informed consent. Approve, modify, or disapprove research studies based on ethical guidelines. Regulatory Basis: Governed by federal regulations, such as the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the FDA. Complies with ethical standards outlined in the Belmont Report (Respect for Persons, Beneficence, and Justice). Composition of IRBs: Must include members with diverse backgrounds, including scientific, non-scientific, and community representatives. Ensures a balanced review of proposals from multiple perspectives. Types of Research Reviewed by IRBs: All studies involving human participants, such as surveys, experiments, and clinical trials. Includes research with vulnerable populations (e.g., children, prisoners, disabled individuals). Review Process: Researchers submit a detailed proposal, including objectives, methods, and participant recruitment strategies. The IRB evaluates risks, benefits, confidentiality measures, and informed consent procedures.  Studies are classified as Exempt, Expedited, or Full Review based on the level of risk involved. Importance in Psychology: Ensures ethical treatment of participants, minimizing harm and maximizing benefits. Builds public trust in psychological research. Protects vulnerable populations from exploitation or undue harm. Ensures that participants’ privacy and data confidentiality are respected. Consequences of Non-Compliance: Researchers may face legal penalties, loss of funding, or institutional sanctions. Potential harm to participants and damage to the credibility of psychological science. Examples of Ethical Concerns Addressed by IRBs: Preventing studies like the Tuskegee Syphilis Study or the Milgram experiment without proper oversight. Ensuring informed consent is clear, voluntary, and culturally appropriate. Reviewing studies to prevent coercion or undue influence on participants. Ongoing Monitoring: IRBs continue to monitor approved studies to ensure ethical standards are upheld throughout the research process. Researchers are required to report adverse events, deviations, or unexpected findings.