Oxford IB Psychology Course Preparation PDF

OXFORD IB COURSE PREPARATION PSYCHOLOGY FO R IB DIPLO MA CO URSE PR EPARATIO N Darren Seath Lee Parker  OXFORD IB COURSE PREPARATION PSYCHOLOGY F O R IB D IPLO MA CO U RS E PR E PARATIO N Darren Seath and Lee Parker 1 ...

OXFORD IB COURSE PREPARATION PSYCHOLOGY FO R IB DIPLO MA CO URSE PR EPARATIO N Darren Seath Lee Parker  OXFORD IB COURSE PREPARATION PSYCHOLOGY F O R IB D IPLO MA CO U RS E PR E PARATIO N Darren Seath and Lee Parker 1  Acknowledgements 3 The authors and publisher are grateful for permission to reprint the following copyright material: Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Bartlett, F: excerpt from Remembering: A Study in Experimental Oxford University Press is a department of the University of and Social Psychology by Frederic Bartlett, 1932, Cambridge Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in University Press. research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. David M Buss, Todd K Shackelford, Lee A Kirkpatrick, Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press in and Randy J Larsen: excerpt from A Half Century of Mate the UK and in certain other countries Preferences: The Cultural Evolution of Values from Journal of © Oxford University Press 2019 Marriage and Family, volume 63, issue 2, pages: 283-597, May 2001, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. First published in 2019 Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI): excerpts from All rights reserved. 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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Ritchhart, R, Church, M, and Morrison, K: short extracts and Data available exercises adapted from Ritchhart, R, Church, M and Morrison, K (2011) Making Thinking Visible: How to Promote Engagement, 978-1-38-200494-7 Understanding, and Independence for All Learners, © 2011 by Ron Ritchhart, Mark Church, Karin Morrison, all rights reserved, 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. CA, USA, reprinted by permission of Paper used in the production of this book is a natural, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. recyclable product made from wood grown in sustainable Sapolsky, RM: quotation by Robert M Sapolsky published forests. The manufacturing process conforms to the on www.wgbh.org, WGBH’s Innovation Hub, reprinted by environmental regulations of the country of origin. permission of WGBH and Robert M Sapolsky. 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Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work.  Contents Introduction to the Diploma Programme 2 1 Concepts in psychological research 11 Concept One: Using the scientific method 12 Concept Two: Ethical research 16 Concept Three: Research methods 20 Concept Four: Research quality 28 2 Concepts in biological psychology 36 Concept One: Biological reasons for behaviour 37 Concept Two: Behaviour can be inherited 52 Concept Three: Animal research 60 3 Concepts in cognitive psychology 66 Concept One: Mental representations guide behaviour 67 Concept Two: Humans are active processors of information 73 Concept Three: Biological and sociocultural factors 81 Concept Four: Digital technology is reshaping your brain 85 4 Concepts in sociocultural psychology 92 Concept One: Social influence 93 Concept Two: Culture and cultural norms 101 Concept Three: Globalization and the interaction of cultures 107 5 Concepts in applied psychology 113 ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY 114 Concept One: Normality 114 Concept Two: Diagnosis 117 Concept Three: Etiology 119 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 121 Concept One: Maturation 121 Concept Two: Learning 124 Concept Three: Attachment 127 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY 129 Concept One: Wellness 129 Concept Two: Health problems 133 Concept Three: Health promotion 135 PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS 139 Concept One: Love 139 Concept Two: Communication 143 Concept Three: Helping 146 6 Assessments—how to show your understanding 152 Introduction 152 Assessment 153 What counts as evidence in psychology? 155 How to show your understanding 157 Taking it to the next level 158 Short answer responses and essay responses 161 Bibliography 163 Index 165 iii  Introduction to IB psychology In this introduction, you will learn: ➔ why this book was written a handbook for your mind the biopsychosocial model—approaches to behaviour and concepts ➔ about the IB Programme mission and purpose—the IB mission the learner profile approaches to learning (ATL) practising ATL skills theory of knowledge (TOK) ➔ how to use the features in this book Key studies, Psychology in real life, Reflection activities, Links to IB psychology topics, the IB psychology syllabus, Exam-style questions, Big ideas ➔ about the IB psychology syllabus Why this book? A handbook for your mind If you are reading this book, you have a brain. Congratulations! You are the proud owner of most complex known object in the universe. There is nothing more worthy of study than the lump of tissue in your skull responsible for every thought you think, every breath you take, every friend you make (or not), and every decision you have ever made. You are a learning machine. In fact, it is impossible for you not to learn. You were born intuitively interpreting everything you see, hear, feel, smell, taste and touch. You automatically activate prior learning, compare, contrast, evaluate and seek answers to questions incessantly. In short, your brain is fascinating, to say the least. You may think you know how to use your brain, after all, you have been using it your whole life, haven’t you? You might be surprised to learn that there is much to know below the surface of perception. Your thinking is full of biases and predictable errors, automatically triggered actions and behaviours that you would probably prefer to avoid. This book is an introduction to your brain and your mind. Think of it both as a “heads up” and a “how to” manual for your brain. This book is organized conceptually and aligned with the IB psychology syllabus. Each chapter is organized into concepts and big ideas. There is a focus on ideas explaining human 2  Introduction to IB psychology behaviour; examples of research and evidence for ideas are given but they are deliberately not a focus of this book. Research is central to knowing things in psychology, but first you have to understand the concepts and ideas they claim to support. The biopsychosocial model—approaches to behaviour and concepts IB psychology is organized around a core made up of biopsychosocial approaches to understanding mental health and human behaviour. This means that human behaviours are explored through three lenses or approaches. These approaches make up the biological, cognitive and sociocultural chapters of this book. The IB psychology curriculum follows these approaches when exploring human behaviour. The table below shows the IB psychology outline. General Approaches Options Research methodology Biological Abnormal psychology Ethics in research Cognitive Health psychology Sociocultural Developmental psychology Psychology of human relationships In addition to the core, IB psychology contains four options. Each option explores concepts in applied psychology. Applied psychology is an umbrella term that describes the use of the biopsychosocial lenses when studying one specific area. Like other IB courses, psychology is broken into higher level and standard level. Students at standard level study one option. Students at higher level study two options and place a stronger emphasis on research methods. physical health disability Biological genetic vulnerabilities drug effects temperament IQ peers Mental self-esteem health Social family Psychological relationships family coping skills circumstances trauma school social skills Figure 1.1 The biopsychosocial model applied to health 3  The table below summarizes the content of chapters 1–6 in this book. Chapter title Content 1 Concepts in psychological research Explores how psychologists learn new things about behaviour Explores how the structure and chemistry of your brain and body 2 Concepts in biological psychology determine your behaviour Explores how you think, speak, pay attention, remember (and 3 Concepts in cognitive psychology forget), solve problems and show creativity 4 Concepts in sociocultural psychology Explores how other people impact all of your cognitive processes listed above Briefly introduces you to the options in IB psychology (abnormal 5 Concepts in applied psychology psychology, developmental psychology, health psychology and the psychology of human relationships) 6 Assessments—how to show your Explores the best practices in writing responses to assessment understanding prompts in psychology It is not enough to know the concepts of the course, it is also necessary to show that you have understood them. IB psychology requires learners to write clearly and concisely on complicated concepts. This book provides guidance on communicating those complicated concepts in a way that is designed to set you up for success on IB psychology assessments. The IB Programme This book is meant as an introduction to the IB psychology course at both standard and higher levels. It is designed to be accessible for people whose only experience with their brain and mind is having one. If this is your first time studying psychology, welcome to a fantastic journey! Mission and purpose The IB mission “The International Baccalaureate® aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect. To this end the organization works with schools, governments and international organizations to develop challenging programmes of international education and rigorous assessment. These programmes encourage students across the world to become active, compassionate and lifelong learners who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be right.” 4  Introduction to IB psychology The learner profile The purpose of an IB education is to foster the growth of “internationally minded people who, recognizing their common humanity and shared guardianship of the planet, help to create a better and more peaceful world” (www.ibo.org). Responsible local and global citizens have to think about their place in the world in a particular way. The IB learner profile is a starting place for fostering responsible globally-minded and locally-minded people. IB learner profile The aim of all IB programmes is to develop internationally minded people who, recognizing their common humanity and shared guardianship of the planet, help to create a better and more peaceful world. As IB learners we strive to be: INQUIRERS OPEN-MINDED We nurture our curiosity, developing skills for inquiry and We critically appreciate our own cultures and personal histories, research. We know how to learn independently and with others. as well as the values and traditions of others. We seek and We learn with enthusiasm and sustain our love of learning evaluate a range of points of view, and we are willing to grow throughout life. from the experience. KNOWLEDGEABLE CARING We develop and use conceptual understanding, exploring We show empathy, compassion and respect. We have a knowledge across a range of disciplines. We engage with issues commitment to service, and we act to make a positive difference and ideas that have local and global significance. in the lives of others and in the world around us. THINKERS RISK-TAKERS We use critical and creative thinking skills to analyse and take We approach uncertainty with forethought and determination; responsible action on complex problems. We exercise initiative in we work independently and cooperatively to explore new ideas making reasoned, ethical decisions. and innovative strategies. We are resourceful and resilient in the face of challenges and change. COMMUNICATORS We express ourselves confidently and creatively in more than one BALANCED language and in many ways. We collaborate effectively, listening We understand the importance of balancing different aspects carefully to the perspectives of other individuals and groups. of our lives—intellectual, physical, and emotional—to achieve well-being for ourselves and others. We recognize our PRINCIPLED interdependence with other people and with the world in which We act with integrity and honesty, with a strong sense of fairness we live. and justice, and with respect for the dignity and rights of people everywhere. We take responsibility for our actions and their REFLECTIVE consequences. We thoughtfully consider the world and our own ideas and experience. We work to understand our strengths and weaknesses in order to support our learning and personal development. Activity Read through the IB learner profile. Decide which of the characteristics you think is the most important to be an effective learner and rank this characteristic as 1. Explain why you made that choice. Now rank the rest of the characteristics from 2 to 10. Reflect on why you put each one where it is on your list. Show your list to other students and discuss the similarities and differences between lists. 5  Approaches to learning (ATL) The ATL categories are a group of strategies, attitudes and skills that help to build successful and engaged learners. They include thinking, self-management, communication, research and social skills. ATL skill Meaning Emphasis is placed on skills such as metacognition, reflection and critical thinking. Thinking You will be given the chance to practise these skills throughout this book. Self-management covers a wide variety of skills in two categories: Self-management affective skills: resilience, self-motivation and mindfulness organizational skills: managing your time and your tasks and goal-setting. Communication includes the ability to listen, read and understand as well as to write, Communication formulate arguments and communicate in a variety of forms. Research skills include practising responsible and ethical research and information Research literacy during independent, self-managed, inquiry learning. Social skills involve practising self-management of emotions and behaviours while Social working collaboratively with others towards a common goal, focusing on the ability to understand the perspective of others. This book is written with the ATL in mind. Throughout this book there are tasks that provide ATL skills practice. Completing these tasks will improve learning and encourage thoughtfulness, action and collaboration. Practising ATL skills ATL skills boxes are designed to give you a chance to practise the DP ready Thinking skills ATL skills of a learner. These boxes are often accompanied by a task The visual cortex that is designed to improve your understanding of the concepts being presented. An example of a Thinking skills box is shown If a person is born blind, opposite. what happens to the visual cortex (the part of the cortex Thinking: these tasks encourage you to take it to the next level. responsible for interpreting You may be asked to make a metaphor or to challenge an idea or information from the person’s theory. ATL thinking skills will often be paired with research or eyes)? communication skills. Self-management: self-management tasks ask you to reflect on how you think about things and how you behave. These reflections can be uncomfortable at times. You may be asked to think about and record how often you check your phone, or to reflect on what makes you frustrated. The aim is that you apply psychological concepts to your daily life. Communication: these tasks vary widely. You may be asked to write a paragraph, or create a chart or table, poster or mind map. The aim is to start you thinking about how you can show your learning. This does not always have to be in writing; in fact, it can be very helpful to explore various ways to show understanding. Research: these tasks are designed to take your learning beyond the pages of this book. Responsible researching can be done online but requires that you consider your sources. Despite 6  Introduction to IB psychology its flaws, Wikipedia can be a great first step in your research. Considering your sources means asking yourself several questions. Is this information recent? Is this information consistent with other sources? Who is the author? Who is the publisher? Is the information referenced? Social: these are tasks that encourage you to share your ideas and discuss with others. They normally require you to talk and listen with others to understand how others might think differently from you. Theory of knowledge (TOK) TOK encourages students to reflect on what they think they know and how they know it. In essence, TOK encourages questioning— that is, it is where curiosity is fostered so learners can begin to question their own assumptions about the nature of knowledge and learning. TOK asks you to slow down and think carefully about some important questions. TOK questions What is the difference between scientific and unscientific knowledge? Which is better and why? Is psychology a science? What is the difference between a “hard” and “soft” science? How do you know you have free will? Can two opposing ideas be true at the same time? What is truth? What is knowledge? TOK is a part of all IB subjects. Psychology is a unique field of study: it has one foot in the natural sciences and one in the social sciences. This raises some very interesting questions about the value and accuracy of knowledge gained from reasoning and experimentation in psychology. You will find TOK sections throughout this book, asking compelling questions about the nature of “knowing” and “knowledge” in the field of psychology, with some including linked TOK activities. Here is an example. TOK What determines whether a discipline is a science? Many would argue that the more certain you can be of an answer, the more scientific the discipline is. For example, many would argue that physics is a science because it has discovered many fundamental and unchanging truths about the universe. Rank the following disciplines in order of how much you trust their findings: mathematics, psychology, physics, English literature, chemistry, biology. Why did you rank them link that order? 7  How to use the features in this book In addition to the TOK and ATL features (explained above), the following features are included to help you understand and engage with the concepts in this book. These features are designed to improve understanding and support learning new concepts. Key studies KS Summaries of key studies are included to draw your attention to Key Study an important piece of research that helps to explain and support one of the key concepts. The summary oftens include the aim, procedure, results and conclusion of the key study. Psychology in real life PRL This feature shows you how the ideas you are studying connect Psychology in real life to everyday life or issues in the news. You will find these features where theories can be used to explain something you see in your world, perhaps every day. Reflection activities These are activities designed to encourage you to think deeply Reflection Activity about a series of ideas after a unit of learning. You will find these at the end of concepts sections and at the end of chapters. The following example gives ideas for reflection activities. Reflection Activities This list gives examples of possible reflection activities. 1. “I used to think ….” “Now I think ….” 2. Reflection and sharing a concept 3. Create your own concept map, to help you briefly explain one of the concepts in this section. 4. The Four Cs: connections, challenge, concepts, changes 5. Claim, support and question 6. Step inside: step into the mind of a person or animal impacted by the concepts discussed 7. Sentence—phrase—word—share These activities were inspired by some great work by Harvard University’s Project Zero. Adapted from: Ritchhart, Church and Morrison (2011) Links to IB psychology topics Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5 include a flowchart to show you how the Internal link concepts covered in the chapter are organized into the syllabus for the IB psychology course. A flowchart showing the whole syllabus is given on page 9. In addition, in some chapters, Internal link boxes point you to other places in this book where a particular topic is discussed. 8  Introduction to IB psychology Exam-style questions Exam-style questions Q In IB psychology you will be asked some very challenging questions. To give you an idea of the types of question you may be asked in your exams, sample questions appear at the end of each chapter. Big ideas At the end of each chapter the “big ideas” that have been covered are summarized. You can use these sections as a review to Big ideas make sure that you have read and understood all the ideas in the chapter. The IB psychology syllabus Biological approach to understanding behaviour Hormones and The brain and behaviour Genetics and behaviour pheromones and behaviour Techniques to study the brain Hormones and behaviour Genes and behaviour Localization Pheromones and behaviour Genetic similarity Evolutionary explanations of behaviour HL extension: The role of animal research in understanding human behaviour Cognitive approach to understanding behaviour Reliability of Cognitive processes Emotion and cognition cognitive processes Models of memory Reconstructive memory Cognition and emotion Schema thinking Biases in thinking and The influence of emotion on Thinking and decision-making decision-making cognitive processes HL extension: Cognitive processing in the digital world Sociocultural approach to understanding behaviour Cultural influences on The individual Cultural origins of Individual attitudes, and the group behaviour and cognition identity and behaviour Social identity theory Culture and its influence Enculturation Social cognitive theory on behaviour and cognition Acculturation Stereotypes Cultural dimensions HL extension: The influence of globalization on individuals’ attitudes, identity and beliefs 9  Chapter conclusion We sincerely hope you enjoy reading this book and that it inspires fun and curiosity. Today’s researchers are a long way from having a full understanding of the brain or the mind; there is a lot of work ahead. Psychology as a field of research is a lot like physics was 300 years ago or biology was 200 years ago. We know some things definitely, some things probably, and some things not at all. With dedicated researchers and scientists like you preparing to shine a light into the dark areas of the brain and the mind, we will eventually pry more and more secrets from ourselves. Stay curious and open-minded as you read this book. What follows this introduction is an explanation of psychology as it is understood today. No doubt, future researchers will discover truths not yet learned and theories not yet proposed. Maybe one of those researchers will be you. 10  1 Concepts in psychological research In this chapter, you will learn four key concepts in psychological research. ➔ Concept One: Using the scientific method the scientific method forming hypotheses ➔ Concept Two: Ethical research—how should psychologists determine right from wrong in research? ethical considerations of research using humans ethical considerations of animal research why we use animals in psychological research ethical decision-making in research ➔ Concept Three: Research methods—what methods do researchers use to study behaviour? using quantitative methods: studying behaviour “by the numbers”: laboratory experiments field experiments using qualitative research methods—the search for meaning: case studies semi-structured interviews observations ➔ Concept Four: Research quality—is research in psychology trustworthy? validity sampling credibility, bias and generalizability Introduction This chapter explains four key concepts in psychological research. Research using the scientific method—is psychology a science? Ethical research—how should researchers determine right from wrong in research? Research methods—what methods do researchers use to study behaviour? Research quality—is research in psychology trustworthy? Research methods are the “how” of psychology—including how psychologists conduct research, and how psychologists test and develop their theories. A psychologist’s choice of method will be influenced by whether the psychologist is studying human behaviour from a biological, cognitive or social perspective, and by the topic or nature of the research. Each research method brings with it a specific set of strengths and limitations that will influence the extent to which researchers can trust the findings. 11  You should always use your critical thinking skills and search for alternative explanations for findings. You may even be able to Concept One suggest better ways of conducting research. Psychology uses both human and animal participants. Both of these are living beings with feelings and rights that need to be protected. As a result, psychologists need to consider the ethics of research in order to protect the safety of participants. You will learn how all these factors interact as you read through this chapter. What: psychologists study human behaviour and mental processes. How: they use objective, scientific research methods. Why: their aim is to better understand why humans act the way they do. Concept One: Using the scientific method This section focuses on three main ideas. Psychology can be studied using the scientific method. Researchers form hypotheses. What does it mean? Empirical: based on, or verified by, A psychological hypothesis must be testable. observation or personal experience rather than on logic or reason alone; The scientific method empirical evidence is testable Theory: a system of ideas that Psychology can be defined as “the scientific study of human intends to explain or give reasons behaviour and mental processes”. It is considered a social science, for something which is the study of people and their relationships. People have Cause and effect: a relationship free will; they are alive and unpredictable. This makes studying where one thing (a cause) is the them a complex and often difficult process. When possible, reason why a second thing (effect) occurs psychologists employ the scientific method in studying human behaviour. Make observations What do I see in nature? This can be from one’s Develop own experiences, thoughts general theories Think of or reading. General theories must be interesting questions consistent with most or all Why does that pattern occur? available data and with other current theories. Refine, alter, expend or reject hypotheses Gather data to test predictions Formulate Relevant data can come from the hypotheses literature, new observations or What are the general causes of formal experiments. Thorough the phenomenon I am testing requires replication to wondering about? verify results. Develop testable predictions If my hypothesis is correct, then I expect a, b, c,... Figure 1.1 The scientific method as an ongoing process 12  1 Concepts in psychological research This process has some key implications. Psychological theories should be able to be tested and possibly Concept One proven false. Psychological research should be supported by empirical research. Psychological research should be as objective as possible. It is important to be able to test a theory as this allows researchers to develop the theory further and build on the body of knowledge related to human behaviour. Without the ability to test a theory, there is no possibility of generating any supporting evidence. Testing a theory allows for a relationship to be examined and possibly strengthen the validity of a hypothesis. DP ready Thinking skills ATL Human behaviours Let’s conduct a quick thought experiment. Make a list of human behaviours that you find interesting. For example, sleep, addiction or stress. Pick one and work through these steps. 1. Develop a general theory about the behaviour. 2. Make some general observations and questions in relation to the behaviour. 3. Make some predictions relating to the behaviour, based on your observations and questions. 4. Outline how you would test your predictions. You have just been through the scientific research process. Creating the experiments and procedures that would make this possible in real life is a lot of hard work. You will explore each stage of this process as you progress through this chapter. TOK link Can human behaviour be studied objectively? Watch this www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zohkzd0MYiI Search terms “Is psychology a science? SciShow Psych” Do you think that we can study human behaviour without our personal values influencing the process? What makes you say that? Forming hypotheses In order to be able to test a psychological theory, researchers form well-constructed predictive statements about a behaviour. These statements demonstrate what is known as a cause and effect relationship between the behaviour and something else—known as a variable. For example, a researcher may believe that there is a relationship between the hours spent studying and academic 13  test performance. In this example, the hours of study can easily be manipulated by researchers in test conditions so that they Concept One can observe variations in performance. A variable manipulated by the researcher is called the Independent Variable. Academic performance could simply be measured by using a test score. The variable that is measured by the researcher is called the Dependent Variable. A simple hypothesis statement makes clear the influence of the Independent Variable on the Dependent Variable. Table 1.1 shows a simple way of constructing hypotheses. Levels of hypothesis formation Basic structure Independent Variable will affect Dependent Variable Non-operational Hours of study will affect academic performance statement The number of hours Operational hypothesis the final test score on a (0, 2, 4 or 6) spent will affect statement (two-tailed) written maths test studying for a maths test The number of hours Operational hypothesis will have a positive the final test score on a (0, 2, 4 or 6) spent statement (one-tailed) effect on written maths test studying for a maths test Table 1.1 Constructing hypotheses This first example in the table is rather vague as it does not tell you how the researcher is controlling the Independent Variable or how the researcher is measuring academic performance. These factors need to be made explicit so that another researcher can test the theory if needed. This process of making the variables clearly defined and measurable is called operationalization. For a variable to be considered operational you should be able to see how the researcher is changing the Independent Variable. In this case, an experiment may involve allowing a student no time for study, and other students between two and six hours. What does it mean? Finally, hypotheses can vary in the level of detail of their predictions. Independent Variable: the Some may claim that there will be a relationship between two variable that is manipulated by an experimenter; this variable affects variables but show no indication of the direction of this relationship. the Dependent Variable This is called a two-tailed hypothesis. If the hypothesis states the Dependent Variable: the direction of the relationship, such as better academic performance, it variable that is measured by is known as a one-tailed hypothesis. In the Internal Assessment in an experimenter; this variable IB psychology, you will be required to write a one-tailed hypothesis. is affected by the Independent For an easy way to remember this, try to imagine a one-tailed fish Variable swimming downstream. This fish has a clear direction and knows Operationalization: the process of strictly defining variables in which way to go. A two-tailed fish may find it harder to swim straight a measurable way; this enables and may be unsure about which direction to travel. concepts to be measured and quantifiable DP ready Thinking skills ATL Two-tailed hypothesis: a hypothesis that explores both sides of the Hypothesis formation relationship that you are looking at One-tailed hypothesis: a Write your own one-tailed hypothesis statements for: hypothesis that explores one the effect of the number of people witnessing an accident on side of the relationship that you helping behaviour are looking at, by predicting an outcome in a specific direction the effect of rote rehearsal (learning by repetition) on memory 14  1 Concepts in psychological research A clear one-tailed hypothesis will always: Concept One contain clear Independent and Dependent Variables be testable identify how the variables will be measured be clear and easy to understand explain what you expect will happen. TOK link To what extent can we test theories of our unconscious mind? Examine Sigmund Freud’s interpretation theory of the Oedipus Complex. Is it a good theory? What makes you say that? Explore the idea of an unconscious mind by watching this video. Watch this www.youtube.com/watch?v=DAPq2GUUhiY Search terms “great courses—Do you have an unconscious mind? scishow” Figure 1.2 Sigmund Freud Psychology is a fascinating, yet complicated discipline that aims to answer questions about human behaviour. These questions may arise from observations of specific everyday human behaviours, genuine wonderings about why we do the things we do, and sometimes in response to real-life events such as high school shootings, terrorist attacks and natural disasters. Some of these behaviours are controlled by our biology, some by our thinking and some by other people and the environment. Table 1.2 shows sample research questions in psychology. Psychological approach Possible research questions How does brain damage influence behaviour? Biological To what extent do our genes influence our intelligence? Is our memory reliable? Cognitive How does our attention influence our decision-making? How does belonging to a group influence violent behaviour? Social What factors influence stereotype formation? How does communication influence the success of a relationship? Human relationships What factors influence helping behaviour? How does stress affect your health? Health How can we encourage positive healthy behaviours in children? How does the development of healthy attachments to a parent influence the Developmental behaviour of children? What is the impact of childhood trauma on child development? How does culture influence the diagnosis of depression? Abnormal What causes schizophrenia? Table 1.2 Sample questions in psychological research 15  Watch this Conclusion: Concept One The job of psychologists is to ask and test questions about human Concept One For a short overview of the research methods covered in this chapter behaviour. The method they choose to conduct their research will watch this video: www.youtube. depend on the nature of the behaviour. Sometimes researchers will com/watch?v=hFV71QPvX2I want to control the environment. At other times they will want Search terms to observe a natural situation. Natural experiments can result in “Psychological research a less scientific approach to research and data collection because Crash Course Psychology #2” researchers cannot control all variables. This leads to questions surrounding truthfulness and bias in research. Concept Two A thorough understanding of research methods used by psychologists will not only strengthen your understanding of psychological research, but also allow you to understand the decisions made by researchers when conducting research. This will make you a better psychologist. Concept Two: Ethical research What does it mean? Practical decision: a decision How should psychologists determine right from based on the factors involved in getting the job done wrong in research? Ethical decision: a decision based Studying human behaviour and mental processing is a complicated on moral principles process. It requires you to make practical and ethical decisions The Belmont Report: a when designing and conducting research in order to protect the psychological report that proposed participants you are studying. Human beings and non-human ethical guidelines that would animals have rights, feelings and opinions, therefore they must be protect research participants treated with respect. Much research in psychology is performed on animals and a robust set of guidelines exist for their treatment. In the 1970s the Belmont Report was written to help ensure that human participants will be protected, and today psychological associations around the world maintain human safety by ensuring all researchers abide by this code of ethics. Ethical considerations of research using humans Ethics is a branch of knowledge that is concerned with what it means to “to the right thing”. Acting morally and ensuring that you do the right thing is important all the time. Ethics in psychological research is important because it is essential that psychologists do not harm their participants and do not damage the reputation of the field, or of the researchers themselves. The main ethical considerations used when conducting research on human participants are as follows. Informed consent: participants in research must volunteer to participate and be aware of the aims of the study. This is made possible by providing as much information about the research as possible before participants begin the study. When studying children (usually below the age of 18 years), parents or guardians will be required to give consent on their children’s behalf. 16  1 Concepts in psychological research Protection from harm: all participants should enter and leave the experiment in the same mental and physical health. Researchers should follow-up and support participants if they think there may be longer-lasting effects from participating in the study. Deception: some studies will not work if participants are fully aware of the aims of the study. This is because the participants may act differently, thus influencing the results (an issue known as demand characteristics). Psychologists must ensure that deception is kept to a minimum when it is needed, and Concept Two that participants are made aware of the true nature of the experiment after the study is complete. Debriefing: after participating in the study, participants must be given all the details surrounding the experiment. This includes explaining the need for any necessary deception. Researchers must explain what theory they were testing, their predictions, and how the participants’ data will be used. Right to withdraw: participants are volunteers and can therefore leave the experiment at any time. The right to withdraw from the research must be made clear to participants. Researchers must allow participants to withdraw from the research at any time. Anonymity and confidentiality: When participants agree to take part in psychological research they do so knowing that their personal information is confidential. This means researchers will not share their details with anyone outside the study. Sometimes, not even the researcher is aware of a participant’s identity and, in this case, the participant would be considered anonymous. DP ready Research skills ATL Ethics across cultures Create a Venn diagram like the one below. Now select three countries such as Japan, the UK and the Netherlands. Go online and look for the ethical guidelines for psychological research for each country. For the UK this would be the British Psychology Society (BPS). Identify any differences between the ethical guidelines for each of the three countries you have chosen. Place similar information in the centre of your Venn diagram and any information unique to each country in that country’s own section. Country A Country B Country C Are there differences in the way psychologists conduct their research across cultures? What makes you say that? 17  Ethical considerations of animal research As a psychologist your aim is to understand human behaviour. Animal models have often been used to help achieve this aim. Animals and humans share similar biology, which means that, to some extent, we can generalize the findings of animal research to humans. Psychologists debate the extent to which this generalization is possible, and ask this question: even if we can generalize to humans, should we be using animals in psychological research? Concept Two Why do we use animals in psychological research? Animals are often used to study certain areas of behaviour where Internal link it would not be possible to study humans. These areas include, The main reasons why psychologists but are not limited to, stress, cognitive processes, disease and use animals to study human behaviour are discussed in detail in addiction. Animals are used in research for a variety of reasons. Chapter 2 on concepts in biological Humans and animals share similar physiology and genetics. psychology: “Concept Three: Animal research”. Animals often live shorter lives and so it is possible to study animals over the course of their entire lifespan. This is useful when looking at developmental and genetic psychology. Invasive procedures are more easily administered, allowing psychologists to study the effects, such as brain damage and substance abuse. Animals are easy to find and cheaper than humans to study. One example of animal research is Weaver et al (2004) who studied stress and rats. The study investigated how the ways in which a mother nurtured (licked or groomed) her young influenced the way the young rats responded to stressful situations as adults. The researchers found that the rats who received less nurturing in their early years were more likely to suffer the consequences of stress in adult life due to the increase in production of stress What does it mean? hormones. This was due to the suppression of a particular gene. By understanding the influence of a harmful environment or neglect Invasive procedures: procedures that involve entering or inserting on health, it is believed that we may be able to discover ways to instruments such as needles, into reverse these negative effects. the body There are specific guidelines for the use of animals in psychological Hindsight: understanding a situation and its implications, after research. The American Psychological Association (APA) states the it has happened following. Using animal subjects must be justified by increasing the scientific knowledge of behaviour. The results should add value to both human and animal life. The animal used must be carefully chosen so that it best fits the demands of the research question. Animals must be treated as humanely as possible and it should not be forgotten that animals feel pain. In cases where chronic pain is caused, the animal should be euthanised. 18  1 Concepts in psychological research Ethical decision-making in research It is very easy to look back on a situation with hindsight and label it as good or bad. The same is true for psychological research, and many of the most famous psychological studies owe their reputation to poor ethical decision-making. This may be due to the nature of the topic under study, such as violence or obedience, or a lack of judgment on the part of the researcher. Whether using human or animal participants, often the ethical issues surrounding psychological research can be minimized if the researchers ask themselves the following questions. Concept Two Can this research be conducted without breaking any ethical guidelines? What is the benefit to society and the field of psychology from this research? Do the benefits of breaking or relaxing the ethical guidelines outweigh the costs? In other words, will the ends justify the means? DP ready Research skills ATL Studies you could not do now Watch this video on psychological studies that you could not do Watch this nowadays. www.youtube.com/watch?v=zZ3l1jgmYrY Watch the video then conduct Search terms your own research on one of the “5 psychology experiments SciShow Psych” five studies described. Choose the study you find most interesting and answer the questions below. What are the ethical considerations associated with the study? Could the research have been conducted without breaking any ethical guidelines? What makes you say that? How did the research benefit society and the scientific community? Consider the study you have chosen, or select a different one featured in the video, and imagine you are the researcher responding to criticism of your study. Write a short article for a newspaper, explaining why you believe that the aim and the findings of your research justify the methods you used. Conclusion: Concept Two Psychologists have an obligation to protect both human and animal participants in their research. Conducting a cost–benefit analysis (a way of assessing the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches) prior to the study may reduce ethical issues associated with research. Psychological research aims to increase scientific knowledge and benefit society. All ethical decisions should therefore be considered with the aim in mind. 19  What does it mean? Concept Three: Research methods Qualitative research: research that involves small sample sizes What methods do researchers use to study and collects data that is rich behaviour? in subjective detail about an individual’s experience of the world Two main types of research are used when studying psychology. Quantitative research: research Qualitative research is a process that seeks an in-depth that involves the collection of understanding of a behaviour or event in a natural setting. This numerical data, such as surveys type of research normally uses small sample sizes and collects data and laboratory experiments that is rich in subjective detail about an individual’s experience of Causal relationships: when there is a correlation between two variables; the world. Researchers analyse this descriptive data to develop new the first variable is manipulated explanations and theories. and this has an effect on the other Another type of research is quantitative research. This is an Operational definition: a clearly empirical investigation of observable behaviour or events that results defined explanation of the variables under study in statistical or mathematical findings. This is very different from qualitative research and normally focuses on large samples sizes. This data is measurable (numbers) and strives to generalize the Concept Three findings to a larger population of people, rather than limiting itself to understanding the subjective truth of a few individuals. Quantitative research: Qualitative research: focuses on behaviour focuses on human experiences outcomes in controlled and their meaning conditions collects words and voice collects numbers has more bias due to the is standardized and objective nature of data collection includes experiments and field includes interviews, case experiments studies and observations Table 1.3 Comparing quantitative and qualitative research methods Using quantitative methods: studying behaviour “by the numbers” Quantitative research refers to a way of collecting data in the form of numbers. Collecting large amounts of data allows theories to be tested and then generalized to large groups of people. This is because the method used to collect the data often allows large groups of people to be tested. One such method is the laboratory experiment. DP ready Thinking and research skills ATL Media violence 1. “Violent video games make the people playing them more aggressive in real life.” If this is true, it means that these games are bad for you and society and should be restricted or even banned. It is not surprising, therefore, that psychologists have been fascinated by this topic and conducted much research in this area. 20  1 Concepts in psychological research Without looking online or anywhere else, consider the problem and how you would choose to research it. Create a mind map of your ideas. Make sure you consider the questions below. How do you research the topic of violence in video games on behaviour? What practical and ethical issues do you need to consider? 2. Design an experiment so that you can test the hypothesis: “Violence in video games can be learned and applied by those who watch it.” Your experimental design should include: a clear and testable hypothesis Independent and Dependent Variables specific reference to your chosen participants Concept Three an account of your proposed procedure to explain how you will test your hypothesis an explanation of any ethical considerations related to the study a consideration of any possible practical or ethical issues. It is important that you go through this process now as you will return to your experimental design at the end of this chapter. Hint: it may help you to bullet point the events so that you can make sense of your procedure more easily. Laboratory experiments Earlier in this chapter you learned that psychologists aim to study human behaviour in an objective and scientific way. The laboratory experiment is often used for this purpose as it allows psychologists to infer causal relationships between the Independent Variable and the Dependent Variable. No other research method can do this. The key characteristics of a laboratory experiment include the following. It is conducted in a laboratory or artificial setting. It uses a standardized procedure that manipulates the Independent Variables and controls other variables. Participants are randomly allocated to a condition. In order for an experiment to infer a cause and effect relationship it is essential that the psychologist create an operational definition of the phenomena being studied. This definition should make very clear how the phenomena being studied are measured and manipulated. Think back to your experimental design on violence and video games. How did you define violence? Did you distinguish between verbal and non-verbal violence? In order to conduct a successful controlled experiment you would need to define clearly what you mean by violence. This will allow you to make sure that you are measuring and testing violence accurately. 21  What does it mean? Confounding variable: a variable Failure to operationalize your variables (make them measurable) that was not controlled or and control your laboratory environment may mean that you eliminated by the experimenters cannot infer a cause and effect relationship for the following which will, in turn, damage the reasons. internal validity of the experiment Construct validity: the degree to Confounding variables—these are outside variables that may which an experiment correctly influence one or both of the variables you are studying. For measures what it is claiming to example, if you are studying sleep and academic performance measure you may need to control the number of sleeping hours and Demand characteristics: the restrict stimulants such as caffeine so that all participants process where participants may change their behaviour due to the receive a standard number of hours of sleeping time. factors of the experimental design, Construct validity—if you have clearly operationalized your the actions of the experimenter or variables you will have high construct validity allowing you the belief that they should act in a particular way to claim that the Independent Variable was responsible for the Ecological validity: the extent to effect on the Dependent Variable. If the variables are not clearly which research can be generalized defined and made measurable, you cannot claim that you have and applied to conditions outside found a causal relationship as the Dependent Variable may be the experimental setting responding to a confounding variable, such as caffeine. Concept Three Reliability: the extent to which research findings are consistent if Demand characteristics—participants may respond differently repeated under similar conditions from the way they would normally behave because they may Researcher bias: the process have guessed the nature of the experiment, or the design of where the experimenter may the experiment may have affected the behaviour it is trying to influence the outcome of an examine, thus becoming its own confounding variable. experiment DP ready Thinking skills ATL Reflection and review Look at your video game experiment. Do you think you have operationalized your variables? Strengths of a laboratory experiment Limitations of a laboratory experiment It can determine a cause and effect relationship It often has low ecological validity due to being between the Independent Variable and the Dependent conducted in an artificial setting. This means the Variable. This is because all variables except the findings may not always be generalized to a Independent Variable are controlled. real-life setting. The control of the variables and the standardized Results may be influenced by demand procedure allows for replication. This means that this characteristics and researcher bias. method has high levels of reliability. Table 1.4 Laboratory experiments—strengths and limitations In order to test his social learning theory, Bandura proposed that behaviour is learned from observing other people. He studied aggression, and was interested to see if children would copy aggressive behaviour when performed by adult role models. In order to do this, he first needed to create a strong operational definition of aggression and operationalize his hypotheses. Read the summaries provided in the links on page 23 before attempting to answer the questions. 22  1 Concepts in psychological research DP ready Thinking and research skills ATL Learning through observation A classic study in psychology conducted by Bandura and colleagues in the 1960s aimed to answer the question “Can children learn aggressive behaviour from observing other people?” Read the summaries of the study at: http://psychyogi.org/bandura-1961/ www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html Search terms “Bandura et al Psych Yogi” and “simply psychology bobo doll social learning” To check your understanding, identify and explain: the experimental hypothesis in the study the Independent and Dependent Variables Concept Three how the variables are being operationalized the control variables two strengths of the method used to study this particular form of human behaviour two limitations of the method used to study this particular form of human behaviour. Suggest an alternative or additional research method that may improve the quality of the findings. Field experiments Social psychologists often wish to observe behaviour in a real-life (or natural) setting. Field experiments allow this, but they lack the control of a laboratory experiment and so may be subject to many confounding or extraneous variables. The following are key characteristics of field experiments. The research takes place in a real-life (or natural setting), increasing ecological validity. As events are allowed to evolve naturally in a field experiment, researchers have less control than when using other research methods. The researcher manipulates the Independent Variable (or Variables). Hofling’s (1966) famous hospital experiment is an example of a field experiment. Nurses were asked to administer an unauthorised medication to patients after receiving a phone call request from an unknown doctor. Following this request would mean that the nurse broke three hospital rules. The results demonstrated that 95% of the nurses were willing to administer the dose at the doctor’s request. The researchers concluded that people are unlikely to question people in authority even when they may have good reason to do so. 23  Strengths of a field experiment Limitations of a field experiment It has increased ecological validity because it has Replication is difficult as the procedure is not taken place in a natural environment. standardized due to less control of the variables in the study. Less control of the variables increases ecological One practical issue is an increased difficulty in validity but can also reduce demand characteristics recording the data. Events may occur unexpectedly or and bias. The natural setting reduces the quickly, making data difficult to notice or record. experimenters’ hold over the order of events. Table 1.5 Field experiments—strengths and limitations DP ready Thinking and research skills ATL Field studies and ethics Find out about the Robbers Cave experiment at www.age-of-the-sage.org/psychology/social/sherif_robbers_cave_experiment.html Concept Three Search terms “Robbers Cave experiment Muzafer Sherif social psychology” Read the summaries of this field experiment and the brief summary of ethical guidelines for psychological research. Describe the ethical considerations that the researchers applied in the study. Do you think further ethical considerations should have been applied? What makes you say that? Describe the ethical considerations that the researchers would face when reporting these results. For example, what would have been the ethical considerations after they have collected all the data and wanted to publish their findings? What factors would you take into account if you wanted to apply the findings of the study to another setting? Using qualitative research methods— the search for meaning Qualitative research methods are more exploratory in nature than quantitative methods and they focus on gaining an understanding of a specific behaviour by examining the meaning behind participants’ actions. Qualitative research methods include case studies, interviews and observations. Case studies A case study can be defined as an in-depth study of one person or What does it mean? group of people. A case study can be considered a technique rather Method triangulation: the process than a research method as a case study may contain a variety of of using multiple research methods research methods, such as an interview, observations and even a to increase the quality of the research laboratory experiment. This is known as method triangulation. Credibility: the extent to which All of these individual components can be combined to provide a research can be trusted detailed understanding of an individual or group behaviour. The following are key characteristics of case studies. A case study is longitudinal and requires the researcher to study the participant or group of participants for an extended period of time, sometimes months or years. 24  1 Concepts in psychological research A case study focuses on one person or group of people and therefore there is no concern over sampling methods or even generalizing to a wider population. The researcher is only interested in that person or group of people. Strengths of a case study Limitations of a case study It allows researchers to employ a range of research The imposition effect: researcher bias can influence the methods in combination in order to increase choice of research question, the data collected and the credibility of the findings. This is called method interpretation of this data. This is because people will triangulation. respond to the mere presence of another person in the group and act differently. The researcher may also act in a way that influences the study. It provides the researcher the opportunity to see events It is not always possible to generalize the findings of that may not be observable in a laboratory setting. a case study as it is an isolated case. Table 1.6 Case studies—strengths and limitations Concept Three Thigpen and Cleckley (1954) conducted a case study on a woman called Eve who had been suffering from severe headaches and blackouts. During the course of the consultations with her doctors Eve began to display strange behaviour that indicated that the doctor may in fact be talking to another person. The researchers conducted interviews, observations, intelligence tests and even the famous Rorschach inkblot test to investigate her behaviour. During the course of their research, Thigpen and Cleckley attributed the strange behaviour to the existence of multiple personalities. This combination of research methods or method triangulation allowed them to be thorough in their investigation and establish as much credibility as they could in their research. Multiple personality disorder was a much debated topic in psychology and it was important for the researchers to gain as much information as possible to support their claims. To learn more, work through the Key study box below. KS Key Study: Thigpen and Cleckley (1954) Case study: multiple personality disorder Read the account in the link below for more details of this famous case study. www.holah.karoo.net/thigpenstudy.htm Search terms “holah Thigpen study” What was the original aim of the study? What research methods did the researchers use in this case study? Do you think the findings of this study can be generalized? What makes you say that? Do you think the results of this study are credible? What makes you say that? Figure 1.3 The Three Faces of Eve 25  Semi-structured interviews Various types of interview can be used in psychological research. The semi-structured interview is the most common type of interview that is used. Interviews allow researchers to collect in-depth and personal information from interviewees, which is often not achievable through other methods. This is because interviews rely on human relationships. An interviewer must develop trust and rapport with a participant if the interview is to be successful. Participants may not be willing to talk about sensitive issues such as bullying or parental divorce to a person they did not trust. The goal of any interview is to collect as much information as possible from the interviewee and find meaning in the person’s responses. As interviewees only give their perspective on the subject, their responses cannot be generalized to a wider population but they allow researchers to attach meaning to the experiences and create new theories for research. Concept Three Interviews vary in their structure. In contrast to semi-structured What does it mean? interviews, some interviews are very structured and consist Rapport: a bond or close of a set list of questions that must be followed. These are relationship between two people appropriately called structured interviews. Other interviews, Structured interview: an interview carried out using a standardized called narrative interviews, are more free-flowing and allow procedure where the interviewer participants to tell their stories in their own words. You are has a prepared list of questions probably most familiar with semi-structured interviews as you Narrative interview: an will have seen many of these on television. This type of interview unstructured interview that places involves the researcher creating a list of questions and a script, the interviewee at the heart of the but unlike a structured interview the researcher can follow the process and lets the interviewee tell his or her story natural flow of the conversation and ask questions that are not Semi-structured interview: an on the original list. It is much more like a structured conversation interview that follows the topic than an interview. The following are key characteristics of a semi- of the conversation and allows structured interview. the interviewer to deviate from prepared questions if necessary The researcher has an interview guide or list of questions and themes to explore during the