Optical Fiber Communications Principles and Practice (3rd Edition) PDF

Optical Fiber Communications Communications Principles and Practice...

Optical Fiber Communications Communications Principles and Practice Optical Fiber Third Edition JOHN M. SENIOR This highly successful book, now in its third edition, has been extensively updated to include both new developments and improvements to technology and their utilization within the optical fiber global communications network. The third edition, which contains an additional chapter and many new sections, is now structured into 15 chapters to facilitate a logical progression of the material, to enable both straightforward access to topics and provide an appropriate background and theoretical support. Key features An entirely new chapter on optical networks, incorporating wavelength routing and optical switching networks A restructured chapter providing new material on optical amplifier technology, wavelength conversion and regeneration, and another focusing entirely on integrated optics and photonics Many areas have been updated, including: low water peak and high performance single-mode fibers, photonic crystal fibers, coherent and particularly phase-modulated systems, and optical networking techniques Optical Fiber Inclusion of relevant up-to-date standardization developments Third Mathematical fundamentals where appropriate Increased number of worked examples, problems and new references Edition This new edition remains an extremely comprehensive introductory text with a practical Communications orientation for undergraduate and postgraduate engineers and scientists. It provides excellent JOHN M. SENIOR coverage of all aspects of the technology and encompasses the new developments in the field. Hence it continues to be of substantial benefit and assistance for practising engineers, technologists and scientists who need access to a wide-ranging and up-to-date reference to this continually expanding field. Professor John Senior is Pro Vice-Chancellor for Research and Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences at the University of Hertfordshire, UK. This third edition Principles and Practice of the book draws on his extensive experience of both teaching and research in this area. Third Edition Cover image © INMAGINE www.pearson-books.com JOHN M. SENIOR CVR_SENI6812_03_SE_CVR.indd 1 5/11/08 15:40:38 OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page i Optical Fiber Communications OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page ii We work with leading authors to develop the strongest educational materials in engineering, bringing cutting-edge thinking and best learning practice to a global market. Under a range of well-known imprints, including Prentice Hall, we craft high quality print and electronic publications which help readers to understand and apply their content, whether studying or at work. To find out more about the complete range of our publishing, please visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page iii Optical Fiber Communications Principles and Practice Third edition John M. Senior assisted by M. Yousif Jamro OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page iv Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk First published 1985 Second edition 1992 Third edition published 2009 © Prentice Hall Europe 1985, 1992 © Pearson Education Limited 2009 The right of John M. Senior to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. ISBN: 978-0-13-032681-2 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Senior, John M., 1951– Optical fiber communications : principles and practice / John M. Senior, assisted by M. Yousif Jamro. — 3rd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-032681-2 (alk. paper) 1. Optical communications. 2. Fiber optics. I. Jamro, M. Yousif. II. Title. TK5103.59.S46 2008 621.382′75—dc22 2008018133 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 12 11 10 09 08 Typeset in 10/12 Times by 35 Printed and bound by Ashford Colour Press Ltd, Gosport The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page v To Judy and my mother Joan, and in memory of my father Ken OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page vi OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page vii Contents Preface xix Acknowledgements xxiii List of symbols and abbreviations xxxii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Historical development 1 1.2 The general system 5 1.3 Advantages of optical fiber communication 7 References 10 Chapter 2: Optical fiber waveguides 12 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 Ray theory transmission 14 2.2.1 Total internal reflection 14 2.2.2 Acceptance angle 16 2.2.3 Numerical aperture 17 2.2.4 Skew rays 20 2.3 Electromagnetic mode theory for optical propagation 24 2.3.1 Electromagnetic waves 24 2.3.2 Modes in a planar guide 26 2.3.3 Phase and group velocity 28 2.3.4 Phase shift with total internal reflection and the evanescent field 30 2.3.5 Goos–Haenchen shift 35 2.4 Cylindrical fiber 35 2.4.1 Modes 35 2.4.2 Mode coupling 42 2.4.3 Step index fibers 43 2.4.4 Graded index fibers 46 2.5 Single-mode fibers 54 2.5.1 Cutoff wavelength 59 2.5.2 Mode-field diameter and spot size 60 2.5.3 Effective refractive index 61 OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page viii viii Contents 2.5.4 Group delay and mode delay factor 64 2.5.5 The Gaussian approximation 65 2.5.6 Equivalent step index methods 71 2.6 Photonic crystal fibers 75 2.6.1 Index-guided microstructures 75 2.6.2 Photonic bandgap fibers 77 Problems 78 References 82 Chapter 3: Transmission characteristics of optical fibers 86 3.1 Introduction 87 3.2 Attenuation 88 3.3 Material absorption losses in silica glass fibers 90 3.3.1 Intrinsic absorption 90 3.3.2 Extrinsic absorption 91 3.4 Linear scattering losses 95 3.4.1 Rayleigh scattering 95 3.4.2 Mie scattering 97 3.5 Nonlinear scattering losses 98 3.5.1 Stimulated Brillouin scattering 98 3.5.2 Stimulated Raman scattering 99 3.6 Fiber bend loss 100 3.7 Mid-infrared and far-infrared transmission 102 3.8 Dispersion 105 3.9 Chromatic dispersion 109 3.9.1 Material dispersion 110 3.9.2 Waveguide dispersion 113 3.10 Intermodal dispersion 113 3.10.1 Multimode step index fiber 114 3.10.2 Multimode graded index fiber 119 3.10.3 Modal noise 122 3.11 Overall fiber dispersion 124 3.11.1 Multimode fibers 124 3.11.2 Single-mode fibers 125 3.12 Dispersion-modified single-mode fibers 132 3.12.1 Dispersion-shifted fibers 133 3.12.2 Dispersion-flattened fibers 137 3.12.3 Nonzero-dispersion-shifted fibers 137 OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page ix Contents ix 3.13 Polarization 140 3.13.1 Fiber birefringence 141 3.13.2 Polarization mode dispersion 144 3.13.3 Polarization-maintaining fibers 147 3.14 Nonlinear effects 151 3.14.1 Scattering effects 151 3.14.2 Kerr effects 154 3.15 Soliton propagation 155 Problems 158 References 163 Chapter 4: Optical fibers and cables 169 4.1 Introduction 169 4.2 Preparation of optical fibers 170 4.3 Liquid-phase (melting) techniques 171 4.3.1 Fiber drawing 172 4.4 Vapor-phase deposition techniques 175 4.4.1 Outside vapor-phase oxidation process 176 4.4.2 Vapor axial deposition (VAD) 178 4.4.3 Modified chemical vapor deposition 180 4.4.4 Plasma-activated chemical vapor deposition (PCVD) 181 4.4.5 Summary of vapor-phase deposition techniques 182 4.5 Optical fibers 183 4.5.1 Multimode step index fibers 184 4.5.2 Multimode graded index fibers 185 4.5.3 Single-mode fibers 187 4.5.4 Plastic-clad fibers 190 4.5.5 Plastic optical fibers 191 4.6 Optical fiber cables 194 4.6.1 Fiber strength and durability 195 4.7 Stability of the fiber transmission characteristics 199 4.7.1 Microbending 199 4.7.2 Hydrogen absorption 200 4.7.3 Nuclear radiation exposure 201 4.8 Cable design 203 4.8.1 Fiber buffering 203 4.8.2 Cable structural and strength members 204 OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page x x Contents 4.8.3 Cable sheath, water barrier and cable core 206 4.8.4 Examples of fiber cables 207 Problems 212 References 213 Chapter 5: Optical fiber connections: joints, couplers and isolators 217 5.1 Introduction 217 5.2 Fiber alignment and joint loss 219 5.2.1 Multimode fiber joints 222 5.2.2 Single-mode fiber joints 230 5.3 Fiber splices 233 5.3.1 Fusion splices 234 5.3.2 Mechanical splices 236 5.3.3 Multiple splices 241 5.4 Fiber connectors 243 5.4.1 Cylindrical ferrule connectors 244 5.4.2 Duplex and multiple-fiber connectors 247 5.4.3 Fiber connector-type summary 249 5.5 Expanded beam connectors 251 5.5.1 GRIN-rod lenses 254 5.6 Fiber couplers 256 5.6.1 Three- and four-port couplers 259 5.6.2 Star couplers 264 5.6.3 Wavelength division multiplexing couplers 269 5.7 Optical isolators and circulators 280 Problems 283 References 287 Chapter 6: Optical sources 1: the laser 294 6.1 Introduction 294 6.2 Basic concepts 297 6.2.1 Absorption and emission of radiation 297 6.2.2 The Einstein relations 299 6.2.3 Population inversion 302 6.2.4 Optical feedback and laser oscillation 303 6.2.5 Threshold condition for laser oscillation 307 OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xi Contents xi 6.3 Optical emission from semiconductors 309 6.3.1 The p–n junction 309 6.3.2 Spontaneous emission 311 6.3.3 Carrier recombination 313 6.3.4 Stimulated emission and lasing 317 6.3.5 Heterojunctions 323 6.3.6 Semiconductor materials 325 6.4 The semiconductor injection laser 327 6.4.1 Efficiency 328 6.4.2 Stripe geometry 330 6.4.3 Laser modes 332 6.4.4 Single-mode operation 333 6.5 Some injection laser structures 334 6.5.1 Gain-guided lasers 334 6.5.2 Index-guided lasers 336 6.5.3 Quantum-well lasers 339 6.5.4 Quantum-dot lasers 339 6.6 Single-frequency injection lasers 342 6.6.1 Short- and couple-cavity lasers 342 6.6.2 Distributed feedback lasers 344 6.6.3 Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers 347 6.7 Injection laser characteristics 350 6.7.1 Threshold current temperature dependence 350 6.7.2 Dynamic response 354 6.7.3 Frequency chirp 355 6.7.4 Noise 356 6.7.5 Mode hopping 360 6.7.6 Reliability 361 6.8 Injection laser to fiber coupling 362 6.9 Nonsemiconductor lasers 364 6.9.1 The Nd:YAG laser 364 6.9.2 Glass fiber lasers 366 6.10 Narrow-linewidth and wavelength-tunable lasers 369 6.10.1 Long external cavity lasers 371 6.10.2 Integrated external cavity lasers 372 6.10.3 Fiber lasers 376 6.11 Mid-infrared and far-infrared lasers 378 6.11.1 Quantum cascade lasers 381 Problems 383 References 386 OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xii xii Contents Chapter 7: Optical sources 2: the light-emitting diode 396 7.1 Introduction 396 7.2 LED power and efficiency 398 7.2.1 The double-heterojunction LED 405 7.3 LED structures 406 7.3.1 Planar LED 407 7.3.2 Dome LED 407 7.3.3 Surface emitter LEDs 407 7.3.4 Edge emitter LEDs 411 7.3.5 Superluminescent LEDs 414 7.3.6 Resonant cavity and quantum-dot LEDs 416 7.3.7 Lens coupling to fiber 419 7.4 LED characteristics 422 7.4.1 Optical output power 422 7.4.2 Output spectrum 425 7.4.3 Modulation bandwidth 428 7.4.4 Reliability 433 7.5 Modulation 435 Problems 436 References 439 Chapter 8: Optical detectors 444 8.1 Introduction 444 8.2 Device types 446 8.3 Optical detection principles 447 8.4 Absorption 448 8.4.1 Absorption coefficient 448 8.4.2 Direct and indirect absorption: silicon and germanium 449 8.4.3 III–V alloys 450 8.5 Quantum efficiency 451 8.6 Responsivity 451 8.7 Long-wavelength cutoff 455 8.8 Semiconductor photodiodes without internal gain 456 8.8.1 The p–n photodiode 456 8.8.2 The p–i–n photodiode 457 8.8.3 Speed of response and traveling-wave photodiodes 462 8.8.4 Noise 468 OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xiii Contents xiii 8.9 Semiconductor photodiodes with internal gain 470 8.9.1 Avalanche photodiodes 470 8.9.2 Silicon reach through avalanche photodiodes 472 8.9.3 Germanium avalanche photodiodes 473 8.9.4 III–V alloy avalanche photodiodes 474 8.9.5 Benefits and drawbacks with the avalanche photodiode 480 8.9.6 Multiplication factor 482 8.10 Mid-infrared and far-infrared photodiodes 482 8.10.1 Quantum-dot photodetectors 484 8.11 Phototransistors 485 8.12 Metal–semiconductor–metal photodetectors 489 Problems 493 References 496 Chapter 9: Direct detection receiver performance considerations 502 9.1 Introduction 502 9.2 Noise 503 9.2.1 Thermal noise 503 9.2.2 Dark current noise 504 9.2.3 Quantum noise 504 9.2.4 Digital signaling quantum noise 505 9.2.5 Analog transmission quantum noise 508 9.3 Receiver noise 510 9.3.1 The p–n and p–i–n photodiode receiver 511 9.3.2 Receiver capacitance and bandwidth 515 9.3.3 Avalanche photodiode (APD) receiver 516 9.3.4 Excess avalanche noise factor 522 9.3.5 Gain–bandwidth product 523 9.4 Receiver structures 524 9.4.1 Low-impedance front-end 525 9.4.2 High-impedance (integrating) front-end 526 9.4.3 The transimpedance front-end 526 9.5 FET preamplifiers 530 9.5.1 Gallium arsenide MESFETs 531 9.5.2 PIN–FET hybrid receivers 532 9.6 High-performance receivers 534 Problems 542 References 545 OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xiv xiv Contents Chapter 10: Optical amplification, wavelength conversion and regeneration 549 10.1 Introduction 549 10.2 Optical amplifiers 550 10.3 Semiconductor optical amplifiers 552 10.3.1 Theory 554 10.3.2 Performance characteristics 559 10.3.3 Gain clamping 563 10.3.4 Quantum dots 565 10.4 Fiber and waveguide amplifiers 567 10.4.1 Rare-earth-doped fiber amplifiers 568 10.4.2 Raman and Brillouin fiber amplifiers 571 10.4.3 Waveguide amplifiers and fiber amplets 575 10.4.4 Optical parametric amplifiers 578 10.4.5 Wideband fiber amplifiers 581 10.5 Wavelength conversion 583 10.5.1 Cross-gain modulation wavelength converter 584 10.5.2 Cross-phase modulation wavelength converter 586 10.5.3 Cross-absorption modulation wavelength converters 592 10.5.4 Coherent wavelength converters 593 10.6 Optical regeneration 595 Problems 598 References 600 Chapter 11: Integrated optics and photonics 606 11.1 Introduction 606 11.2 Integrated optics and photonics technologies 607 11.3 Planar waveguides 610 11.4 Some integrated optical devices 615 11.4.1 Beam splitters, directional couplers and switches 616 11.4.2 Modulators 623 11.4.3 Periodic structures for filters and injection lasers 627 11.4.4 Polarization transformers and wavelength converters 634 11.5 Optoelectronic integration 636 11.6 Photonic integrated circuits 643 11.7 Optical bistability and digital optics 648 11.8 Optical computation 656 Problems 663 References 665 OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xv Contents xv Chapter 12: Optical fiber systems 1: intensity modulation/direct detection 673 12.1 Introduction 673 12.2 The optical transmitter circuit 675 12.2.1 Source limitations 676 12.2.2 LED drive circuits 679 12.2.3 Laser drive circuits 686 12.3 The optical receiver circuit 690 12.3.1 The preamplifier 691 12.3.2 Automatic gain control 694 12.3.3 Equalization 697 12.4 System design considerations 700 12.4.1 Component choice 701 12.4.2 Multiplexing 702 12.5 Digital systems 703 12.6 Digital system planning considerations 708 12.6.1 The optoelectronic regenerative repeater 708 12.6.2 The optical transmitter and modulation formats 711 12.6.3 The optical receiver 715 12.6.4 Channel losses 725 12.6.5 Temporal response 726 12.6.6 Optical power budgeting 731 12.6.7 Line coding and forward error correction 734 12.7 Analog systems 739 12.7.1 Direct intensity modulation (D–IM) 742 12.7.2 System planning 748 12.7.3 Subcarrier intensity modulation 750 12.7.4 Subcarrier double-sideband modulation (DSB–IM) 752 12.7.5 Subcarrier frequency modulation (FM–IM) 754 12.7.6 Subcarrier phase modulation (PM–IM) 756 12.7.7 Pulse analog techniques 758 12.8 Distribution systems 760 12.9 Multiplexing strategies 765 12.9.1 Optical time division multiplexing 765 12.9.2 Subcarrier multiplexing 766 12.9.3 Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing 768 12.9.4 Wavelength division multiplexing 771 12.9.5 Optical code division multiplexing 777 12.9.6 Hybrid multiplexing 778 OPTF_A01.qxd 8/18/09 11:36 AM Page xvi xvi Contents 12.10 Application of optical amplifiers 778 12.11 Dispersion management 786 12.12 Soliton systems 792 Problems 802 References 811 Chapter 13: Optical fiber systems 2: coherent and phase modulated 823 13.1 Introduction 823 13.2 Basic coherent system 827 13.3 Coherent detection principles 830 13.4 Practical constraints of coherent transmission 835 13.4.1 Injection laser linewidth 835 13.4.2 State of polarization 836 13.4.3 Local oscillator power 840 13.4.4 Transmission medium limitations 843 13.5 Modulation formats 845 13.5.1 Amplitude shift keying 845 13.5.2 Frequency shift keying 846 13.5.3 Phase shift keying 847 13.5.4 Polarization shift keying 850 13.6 Demodulation schemes 851 13.6.1 Heterodyne synchronous detection 853 13.6.2 Heterodyne asynchronous detection 855 13.6.3 Homodyne detection 856 13.6.4 Intradyne detection 859 13.6.5 Phase diversity reception 860 13.6.6 Polarization diversity reception and polarization scrambling 863 13.7 Differential phase shift keying 864 13.8 Receiver sensitivities 868 13.8.1 ASK heterodyne detection 868 13.8.2 FSK heterodyne detection 871 13.8.3 PSK heterodyne detection 873 13.8.4 ASK and PSK homodyne detection 874 13.8.5 Dual-filter direct detection FSK 875 13.8.6 Interferometric direct detection DPSK 876 13.8.7 Comparison of sensitivities 877 OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xvii Contents xvii 13.9 Multicarrier systems 886 13.9.1 Polarization multiplexing 889 13.9.2 High-capacity transmission 890 Problems 894 References 897 Chapter 14: Optical fiber measurements 905 14.1 Introduction 905 14.2 Fiber attenuation measurements 909 14.2.1 Total fiber attenuation 910 14.2.2 Fiber absorption loss measurement 914 14.2.3 Fiber scattering loss measurement 917 14.3 Fiber dispersion measurements 919 14.3.1 Time domain measurement 920 14.3.2 Frequency domain measurement 923 14.4 Fiber refractive index profile measurements 926 14.4.1 Interferometric methods 927 14.4.2 Near-field scanning method 930 14.4.3 Refracted near-field method 932 14.5 Fiber cutoff wavelength measurements 934 14.6 Fiber numerical aperture measurements 938 14.7 Fiber diameter measurements 941 14.7.1 Outer diameter 941 14.7.2 Core diameter 943 14.8 Mode-field diameter for single-mode fiber 943 14.9 Reflectance and optical return loss 946 14.10 Field measurements 948 14.10.1 Optical time domain reflectometry 952 Problems 958 References 962 Chapter 15: Optical networks 967 15.1 Introduction 967 15.2 Optical network concepts 969 15.2.1 Optical networking terminology 970 15.2.2 Optical network node and switching elements 974 15.2.3 Wavelength division multiplexed networks 976 15.2.4 Public telecommunications network overview 978 OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xviii xviii Contents 15.3 Optical network transmission modes, layers and protocols 979 15.3.1 Synchronous networks 980 15.3.2 Asynchronous transfer mode 985 15.3.3 Open Systems Interconnection reference model 985 15.3.4 Optical transport network 987 15.3.5 Internet Protocol 989 15.4 Wavelength routing networks 992 15.4.1 Wavelength routing and assignment 996 15.5 Optical switching networks 998 15.5.1 Optical circuit-switched networks 998 15.5.2 Optical packet-switched networks 1000 15.5.3 Multiprotocol Label Switching 1002 15.5.4 Optical burst switching networks 1004 15.6 Optical network deployment 1007 15.6.1 Long-haul networks 1008 15.6.2 Metropolitan area networks 1011 15.6.3 Access networks 1013 15.6.4 Local area networks 1023 15.7 Optical Ethernet 1028 15.8 Network protection, restoration and survivability 1034 Problems 1038 References 1041 Appendix A The field relations in a planar guide 1051 Appendix B Gaussian pulse response 1052 Appendix C Variance of a random variable 1053 Appendix D Variance of the sum of independent random variables 1055 Appendix E Closed loop transfer function for the transimpedance amplifier 1056 Index 1057 Supporting resources Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/senior-optical to find valuable online resources For instructors An Instructor’s Manual that provides full solutions to all the numerical problems, which are provided at the end of each chapter in the book. For more information please contact your local Pearson Education sales representative or visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/senior-optical OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xix Preface The preface to the second edition drew attention to the relentless onslaught in the develop- ment of optical fiber communications technology identified in the first edition in the context of the 1980s. Indeed, although optical fiber communications could now, nearly two decades after that period finished, be defined as mature, this statement fails to signal the continuing rapid and extensive developments that have subsequently taken place. Furthermore the pace of innovation and deployment fuelled, in particular, by the Internet is set to continue with developments in the next decade likely to match or even exceed those which have occurred in the last decade. Hence this third edition seeks to record and explain the improvements in both the technology and its utilization within what is largely an optical fiber global communications network. Major advances which have occurred while the second edition has been in print include: those associated with low-water-peak and high-performance single-mode fibers; the development of photonic crystal fibers; a new generation of multimode graded index plastic optical fibers; quantum-dot fabrication for optical sources and detectors; improvements in optical amplifier technology and, in particular, all-optical regeneration; the realization of photonic integrated circuits to provide ultrafast optical signal processing together with silicon photonics; developments in digital signal processing to mitigate fiber transmission impairments and the application of forward error correction strategies. In addition, there have been substantial enhancements in transmission and multiplexing techniques such as the use of duobinary-encoded transmission, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing and coarse/dense wavelength division multiplexing, while, more recently, there has been a resurgence of activity concerned with coherent and, especially, phase-modulated transmis- sion. Finally, optical networking techniques and optical networks have become established employing both specific reference models for the optical transport network together with developments originating from local area networks based on Ethernet to provide for the future optical Internet (i.e. 100 Gigabit Ethernet for carrier-class transport networks). Moreover, driven by similar broadband considerations, activity has significantly increased in relation to optical fiber solutions for the telecommunication access network. Although a long period has elapsed since the publication of the second edition in 1992, it has continued to be used extensively in both academia and industry. Furthermore, as delays associated with my ability to devote the necessary time to writing the updates for this edition became apparent, it has been most gratifying that interest from the extensive user community of the second edition has encouraged me to find ways to pursue the neces- sary revision and enhancement of the book. A major strategy to enable this process has been the support provided by my former student and now colleague, Dr M. Yousif Jamro, working with me, undertaking primary literature searches and producing update drafts for many chapters which formed the first stage of the development for the new edition. An extensive series of iterations, modifications and further additions then ensued to craft the final text. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xx xx Preface to the third edition In common with the other editions, this edition relies upon source material from the numerous research and other publications in the field including, most recently, the Proceedings of the 33rd European Conference on Optical Communications (ECOC’07) which took place in Berlin, Germany, in September 2007. Furthermore, it also draws upon the research activities of the research group focused on optical systems and networks that I established at the University of Hertfordshire when I took up the post as Dean of Faculty in 1998, having moved from Manchester Metropolitan University. Although the book remains a comprehensive introductory text for use by both undergraduate and post- graduate engineers and scientists to provide them with a firm grounding in all significant aspects of the technology, it now also encompasses a substantial chapter devoted to optical networks and networking concepts as this area, in totality, constitutes the most important and extensive range of developments in the field to have taken place since the publication of the second edition. In keeping with a substantial revision and updating of the content, then, the practical nature of the coverage combined with the inclusion of the relevant up-to-date standardiza- tion developments has been retained to ensure that this third edition can continue to be widely employed as a reference text for practicing engineers and scientists. Following very positive feedback from reviewers in relation to its primary intended use as a teaching/ learning text, the number of worked examples interspersed throughout the book has been increased to over 120, while a total of 372 problems are now provided at the end of relev- ant chapters to enable testing of the reader’s understanding and to assist tutorial work. Furthermore, in a number of cases they are designed to extend the learning experience facilitated by the book. Answers to the numerical problems are provided at the end of the relevant sections in the book and the full solutions can be accessed on the publisher’s web- site using an appropriate password. Although the third edition has grown into a larger book, its status as an introductory text ensures that the fundamentals are included where necessary, while there has been no attempt to cover the entire field in full mathematical rigor. Selected proofs are developed, however, in important areas throughout the text. It is assumed that the reader is conversant with differential and integral calculus and differential equations. In addition, the reader will find it useful to have a grounding in optics as well as a reasonable familiarity with the fundamentals of solid-state physics. This third edition is structured into 15 chapters to facilitate a logical progression of material and to enable straightforward access to topics by providing the appropriate back- ground and theoretical support. Chapter 1 gives a short introduction to optical fiber com- munications by considering the historical development, the general system and the major advantages provided by this technology. In Chapter 2 the concept of the optical fiber as a transmission medium is introduced using the simple ray theory approach. This is followed by discussion of electromagnetic wave theory applied to optical fibers prior to considera- tion of lightwave transmission within the various fiber types. In particular, single-mode fiber, together with a more recent class of microstructured optical fiber, referred to as photonic crystal fiber, are covered in further detail. The major transmission characteristics of optical fibers are then dealt with in Chapter 3. Again there is a specific focus on the properties and characteristics of single-mode fibers including, in this third edition, enhanced discussion of single-mode fiber types, polarization mode dispersion, nonlinear effects and, in particular, soliton propagation. OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxi Preface to the third edition xxi Chapters 4 and 5 deal with the more practical aspects of optical fiber communications and therefore could be omitted from an initial teaching program. A number of these areas, however, are of crucial importance and thus should not be lightly overlooked. Chapter 4 deals with the manufacturing and cabling of the various fiber types, while in Chapter 5 the different techniques to provide optical fiber connection are described. In this latter chapter both fiber-to-fiber joints (i.e. connectors and splices) are discussed as well as fiber branch- ing devices, or couplers, which provide versatility within the configuration of optical fiber systems and networks. Furthermore, a new section incorporating coverage of optical isola- tors and circulators which are utilized for the manipulation of signals within optical net- works has been included. Chapters 6 and 7 describe the light sources employed in optical fiber communications. In Chapter 6 the fundamental physical principles of photoemission and laser action are discussed prior to consideration of the various types of semiconductor and nonsemi- conductor laser currently in use, or under investigation, for optical fiber communications. The other important semiconductor optical source, namely the light-emitting diode, is dealt with in Chapter 7. The next two chapters are devoted to the detection of the optical signal and the ampli- fication of the electrical signal obtained. Chapter 8 discusses the basic principles of optical detection in semiconductors; this is followed by a description of the various types of photodetector currently employed. The optical fiber direct detection receiver is then con- sidered in Chapter 9, with particular emphasis on its performance characteristics. Enhanced coverage of optical amplifiers and amplification is provided in Chapter 10, which also incorporates major new sections concerned with wavelength conversion pro- cesses and optical regeneration. Both of these areas are of key importance for current and future global optical networks. Chapter 11 then focuses on the fundamentals and ongoing developments in integrated optics and photonics providing descriptions of device techno- logy, optoelectronic integration and photonic integrated circuits. In addition, the chapter includes a discussion of optical bistability and digital optics which leads into an overview of optical computation. Chapter 12 draws together the preceding material in a detailed discussion of the major current implementations of optical fiber communication systems (i.e. those using intensity modulation and the direct detection process) in order to give an insight into the design criteria and practices for all the main aspects of both digital and analog fiber systems. Two new sections have been incorporated into this third edition dealing with the crucial topic of dispersion management and describing the research activities into the performance attributes and realization of optical soliton systems. Over the initial period since the publication of the second edition, research interest and activities concerned with coherent optical fiber communications ceased as a result of the improved performance which could be achieved using optical amplification with conven- tional intensity modulation–direct detection optical fiber systems. Hence no significant progress in this area was made for around a decade until a renewed focus on coherent optical systems was initiated in 2002 following experimental demonstrations using phase- modulated transmission. Coherent and phase-modulated optical systems are therefore dealt with in some detail in Chapter 13 which covers both the fundamentals and the initial period of research and development associated with coherent transmission prior to 1992, together with the important recent experimental system and field trial demonstrations OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxii xxii Preface to the third edition primarily focused on phase-modulated transmission that have taken place since 2002. In particular a major new section describing differential phase shift keying systems together with new sections on polarization multiplexing and high-capacity transmission have been incorporated into this third edition. Chapter 14 provides a general treatment of the major measurements which may be undertaken on optical fibers in both the laboratory and the field. The chapter is incorpor- ated at this stage in the book to enable the reader to obtain a more complete understanding of optical fiber subsystems and systems prior to consideration of these issues. It continues to include the measurements required to be taken on single-mode fibers and it addresses the measurement techniques which have been adopted as national and international standards. Finally, Chapter 15 on optical networks comprises an almost entirely new chapter for the third edition which provides both a detailed overview of this expanding field and a dis- cussion of all the major aspects and technological solutions currently being explored. In particular, important implementations of wavelength routing and optical switching net- works are described prior to consideration of the various optical network deployments that have occurred or are under active investigation. The chapter finishes with a section which addresses optical network protection and survivability. The book is also referenced throughout to extensive end-of-chapter references which provide a guide for further reading and also indicate a source for those equations that have been quoted without derivation. A complete list of symbols, together with a list of com- mon abbreviations in the text, is also provided. SI units are used throughout the book. I must extend my gratitude for the many useful comments and suggestions provided by the diligent reviewers that have both encouraged and stimulated improvements to the text. Many thanks are also given to the authors of the multitude of journal and conference papers, articles and books that have been consulted and referenced in the preparation of this third edition and especially to those authors, publishers and companies who have kindly granted permission for the reproduction of diagrams and photographs. I would also like to thank the many readers of the second edition for their constructive and courteous feedback which has enabled me to make the substantial improvements that now comprise this third edition. Furthermore, I remain extremely grateful to my family and friends who have continued to be supportive and express interest over the long period of the revision for this edition of the book. In particular, my very special thanks go to Judy for her con- tinued patience and unwavering support which enabled me to finally complete the task, albeit at the expense of evenings and weekends which could have been spent more fre- quently together. John M. Senior OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxiii Acknowledgements We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material: Figures 2.17 and 2.18 from Weakly guiding fibers in Applied Optics, 10, p. 2552, OSA (Gloge, D. 1971), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 2.30 from Fiber manufacture at AT&T with the MCVD process in Journal of Lightwave Technology, LT-4(8), pp. 1016–1019, OSA (Jablonowski, D. P. 1986), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 2.35 from Gaussian approximation of the fundamental modes of graded-index fibers in Journal of the Optical Society of America, 68, p. 103, OSA (Marcuse, D. 1978), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 2.36 from Applied Optics, 19, p. 3151, OSA (Matsumura, H. and Suganuma, T. 1980), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figures 3.1 and 3.3 from Ultimate low-loss single-mode fibre at 1.55 mum in Electronic Letters, 15(4), pp. 106–108, Institution of Engineering and Technology (T Miya, T., Teramuna, Y., Hosaka, Y. and Miyashita, T. 1979), with permission from IET; Figure 3.2 from Applied Physics Letters, 22, 307, Copyright 1973, American Institute of Physics (Keck, D. B., Maurer, R. D. and Schultz, P. C. 1973), reproduced with permission; Figure 3.10 from Electronic Letters, 11, p. 176, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Payne, D. N. and Gambling, W. A. 1975), with permission from IET; Figures 3.15 and 3.17 from The Radio and Electronic Engineer, 51, p. 313, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Gambling, W. A., Hartog, A. H. and Ragdale, C. M. 1981), with permission from IET; Figure 3.18 from High-speed optical pulse transmission at 1.29 mum wavelength using low-loss single- mode fibers in IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, QE-14, p. 791, IEEE (Yamada, J. I., Saruwatari, M., Asatani, K., Tsuchiya, H., Kawana, A., Sugiyama, K. and Kumara, T. 1978), © IEEE 1978, reproduced with permission; Figure 3.30 from Polarization-maintaining fibers and their applications in Journal of Lightwave Technology, LT-4(8), pp. 1071–1089, OSA (Noda, J., Okamoto, K. and Susaki, Y. 1986), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 3.34 from Nonlinear phenomena in optical fibers in IEEE Communications Magazine, 26, p. 36, IEEE (Tomlinson, W. J. and Stolen, R. H. 1988), © IEEE 1988, reproduced with permission; Figures 4.1 and 4.4 from Preparation of sodium borosilicate glass fibers for optical communication in Proceedings of IEE, 123, pp. 591– 595, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Beales, K. J., Day, C. R., Duncan, W. J., Midwinter, J. E. and Newns, G. R. 1976), with permission from IET; Figure 4.5 from A review of glass fibers for optical communications in Phys. Chem. Glasses, 21(1), p. 5, Society of Glass Technology (Beales, K. J. and Day, C. R. 1980), reproduced with per- mission; Figure 4.7 Reprinted from Optics Communication, 25, pp. 43–48, D. B. Keck and R. Bouilile, Measurements on high-bandwidth optical waveguides, copyright 1978, with permission from Elsevier; Figure 4.8 from Low-OH-content optical fiber fabricated by vapor-phase axial-deposition method in Electronic Letters, 14(17), pp. 534–535, OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxiv xxiv Acknowledgements Institution of Engineering and Technology (Sudo, S., Kawachi, M., Edahiro, M., Izawa, T., Shoida, T. and Gotoh, H. 1978), with permission from IET; Figure 4.20 from Optical fibre cables in Radio and Electronic Engineer (IERE J.), 51(7/8), p. 327, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Reeve, M. H. 1981), with permission from IET; Figure 4.21 from Power loss, modal noise and distortion due to microbending of optical fibres in Applied Optics, 24, pp. 2323, OSA ( Das, S., Englefield, C. G. and Goud, P. A. 1985), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 4.22 from Hydrogen induced loss in MCVD fibers, Optical Fiber Communication Conference, OFC 1985, USA, TUII, February 1985, OFC/NFOEC (Lemaire, P. J. and Tomita, A. 1985), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figures 5.2 (a) and 5.16 (a) from Connectors for optical fibre systems in Radio and Electronic Engineer (J. IERE), 51(7/8), p. 333, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Mossman, P. 1981), with permission from IET; Figure 5.5 (b) from Jointing loss in single-loss fibres in Electronic Letters, 14(3), pp. 54–55, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Gambling, W. A., Matsumura, H. and Cowley, A. G. 1978), with permission from IET; Figure 5.7 (a) from Figure 1, page 1, Optical Fiber Arc Fusion Splicer FSM-45F, No.: B- 06F0013Cm, 13 February 2007, http:// www.fujikura.co.jp/00/splicer/front-page/pdf/e_fsm-45f.pdf; with permission from Fujikura Limited; Figure 5.7 (b) from Figure 4, page 1, Arc Fusion Splicer, SpliceMate, SpliceMate Brochure, http://www.fujikura.co.jp/00/splicer/front-page/pdf/splicemate_ brochure.pdf, with permission from Fujikura Limited; Figure 5.8 (a) from Optical commun- ications research and technology in Proceedings of the IEEE, 66(7), pp. 744–780, IEEE (Giallorenzi, T. G. 1978), © IEEE 1978, reproduced with permission; Figure 5.13 from Simple high-performance mechanical splice for single mode fibers in Proceedings of the Optical Fiber Communication Conference, OFC 1985, USA, paper M12, OFC/NFOEC (Miller, C. M., DeVeau, G. F. and Smith, M. Y. 1985), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 5.15 from Rapid ribbon splice for multimode fiber splicing in Proceedings of the Optical Fiber Communication Conference, OFC1985, USA, paper TUQ27, OFC/NFOEC (Hardwick, N. E. and Davies, S. T. 1985), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 5.21 (a) from Demountable multiple connector with precise V-grooved silicon in Electronic Letters, 15(14), pp. 424–425, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Fujii, Y., Minowa, J. and Suzuki, N. 1979), with permission from IET; Figure 5.21 (b) from Very small single-mode ten-fiber connector in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 6(2), pp. 269–272, OSA (Sakake, T., Kashima, N. and Oki, M. 1988), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 5.20 from High- coupling-efficiency optical interconnection using a 90-degree bent fiber array connector in optical printed circuit boards in IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 17(3), pp. 690– 692, IEEE (Cho, M. H., Hwang, S. H., Cho, H. S. and Park, H. H. 2005), © IEEE 2005, reproduced with permission; Figure 5.22 (a) from Practical low-loss lens connector for optical fibers in Electronic Letters, 14(16), pp. 511–512, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Nicia, A. 1978), with permission from IET; Figure 5.23 from Assembly technology for multi-fiber optical connectivity solutions in Proceedings of IEEE/LEOS Workshop on Fibres and Optical Passive Components, 22–24 June 2005, Mondello, Italy, IEEE (Bauknecht, R. Kunde, J., Krahenbuhl, R., Grossman, S. and Bosshard, C. 2005), © IEEE 2005, reproduced with permission; Figure 5.31 from Polarization-independent optical circulator consisting of two fiber-optic polarizing beamsplitters and two YIG spherical lenses in Electronic Letters, 22, pp. 370–372, Institution of Engineering and OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxv Acknowledgements xxv Technology (Yokohama, I., Okamoto, K. and Noda, J. 1985), with permission from IET; Figures 5.36 and 5.38 (a) from Optical demultiplexer using a silicon echette grating in IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, QE-16, pp. 165–169, IEEE (Fujii, Y., Aoyama, K. and Minowa, J. 1980), © IEEE 1980, reproduced with permission; Figure 5.44 from Filterless ‘add’ multiplexer based on novel complex gratings assisted coupler in IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 17(7), pp. 1450–1452, IEEE (Greenberg, M. and Orenstein, M. 2005), © IEEE 2005, reproduced with permission; Figure 6.33 from Low threshold operation of 1.5 μm DFB laser diodes in Journal of Lightwave Technology, LT-5, p. 822, IEEE (Tsuji, S., Ohishi, A., Nakamura, H., Hirao, M., Chinone, N. and Matsumura, H. 1987), © IEEE 1987, reproduced with permission; Figure 6.37 adapted from Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers: Design, Fabrication, Characterization, and Applications, Cambridge University Press (Wilmsen, C. W., Temkin, H. and Coldren, L. A. 2001), reproduced with permission; Figure 6.38 from Semiconductor laser sources for optical communication in Radio and Electronic Engineer, 51, p. 362, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Kirby, P. A. 1981), with permission from IET; Figure 6.47 from Optical amplification in an erbium-doped fluorozirconate fibre between 1480 nm and 1600 nm in IEE Conference Publication 292, Pt 1, p. 66, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Millar, C. A., Brierley, M. C. and France, P. W. 1988), with permission from IET; Figure 6.48 (a) from High efficiency Nd-doped fibre lasers using direct-coated dielectric mirrors in Electronic Letters, 23, p. 768, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Shimtzu, M., Suda, H. and Horiguchi, M. 1987), with permission from IET; Figure 6.48 (b) from Rare-earth-doped fibre lasers and amplifiers in IEE Conference Publication, 292. Pt 1, p. 49, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Payne, D. N. and Reekie, L. 1988), with permission from IET; Figure 6.53 from Wavelength-tunable and single-frequency semiconductor lasers for photonic communications networks in IEEE Communications Magazine, October, p. 42, IEEE (Lee, T. P. and Zah, C. E. 1989), © IEEE 1989, reproduced with permission; Figure 6.55 from Single longitudinal-mode operation on an Nd3+-doped fibre laser in Electronic Letters, 24, pp. 24–26, IEEE (Jauncey, I. M., Reekie, L., Townsend, K. E. and Payne, D. N. 1988), © IEEE 1988, reproduced with permission; Figure 6.56 from Tunable single-mode fiber lasers in Journal of Lightwave Technology, LT-4, p. 956, IEEE (Reekie, L., Mears, R. J., Poole, S. B. and Payne, D. N. 1986), © IEEE 1986, reproduced with permission; Figure 6.58 reprinted from Semiconductors and Semimetals: Lightwave communication technology, 22C, Y. Horikoshi, ‘Semiconductor lasers with wavelengths exceeding 2 μm’, pp. 93–151, 1985, edited by W. T. Tsang (volume editor), copyright 1985, with permission from Elsevier; Figure 6.59 from PbEuTe lasers with 4–6 μm wavelength mode with hot-well epitaxy in IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 25(6), pp. 1381–1384, IEEE (Ebe, H., Nishijima, Y. and Shinohara, K. 1989), © IEEE 1989, reproduced with permission; Figure 7.5 reprinted from Optical Communications, 4, C. A. Burrus and B. I. Miller, Small-area double heterostructure aluminum-gallium arsenide electroluminsecent diode sources for optical fiber transmission lines, pp. 307–369, 1971, copyright 1971, with permission from Elsevier; Figure 7.6 from High-power single-mode optical-fiber coupling to InGaAsP 1.3 μm mesa-structure surface-emitting LEDs in Electronic Letters, 21(10), pp. 418–419, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Uji, T. and Hayashi, J. 1985), with permission from IET; Figure 7.8 from Sources and detectors for optical fiber communications appli- cations: the first 20 years in IEE Proceedings on Optoelectronics, 133(3), pp. 213–228, OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxvi xxvi Acknowledgements Institution of Engineering and Technology (Newman, D. H. and Ritchie, S. 1986), with permission from IET; Figure 7.9 (a) from 2 Gbit/s and 600 Mbit/s single-mode fibre- transmission experiments using a high-speed Zn-doped 1.3 μm edge-emitting LED in Electronic Letters, 13(12), pp. 636–637, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Fujita, S., Hayashi, J., Isoda, Y., Uji, T. and Shikada, M. 1987), with permission from IET; Figure 7.9 (b) from Gigabit single-mode fiber transmission using 1.3 μm edge- emitting LEDs for broadband subscriber loops in Journal of Lightwave Technology, LT-5(10) pp. 1534–1541, OSA (Ohtsuka, T., Fujimoto, N., Yamaguchi, K., Taniguchi, A., Naitou, N. and Nabeshima, Y. 1987), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 7.10 (a) from A stripe-geometry double-heterostructure amplified- spontaneous-emission (superluminescent) diode in IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics QE-9, p. 820 (Lee, T. P., Burrus, C. A. and Miller, B. I. 1973), with permission from IET; Figure 7.10 (b) from High output power GaInAsP/InP superluminescent diode at 1.3 μm in Electronic Letters, 24(24) pp. 1507–1508, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Kashima, Y., Kobayashi, M. and Takano, T. 1988), with permission from IET; Figure 7.14 from Highly efficient long lived GaAlAs LEDs for fiber-optical communications in IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, ED-24(7) pp. 990–994, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Abe, M., Umebu, I., Hasegawa, O., Yamakoshi, S., Yamaoka, T., Kotani, T., Okada, H., and Takamashi, H. 1977), with permission from IET; Figure 7.15 from CaInAsP/InP fast, high radiance, 1.05–1.3 μm wavelength LEDs with efficient lens coupling to small numerical aperture silica optical fibers in IEEE Trans Electron. Devices, ED-26(8), pp. 1215–1220, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Goodfellow, R. C., Carter, A. C., Griffith, I. and Bradley, R. R. 1979), with permission from IET; Figures 7.19 and 7.23 were published in Optical Fiber Telecommunications II, T. P. Lee, C. A. Burrus Jr and R. H. Saul, Light-emitting diodes for telecommunications, pp. 467–507, edited by S. E. Miller and I. P. Kaminow, 1988, Copyright Elsevier 1988; Figure 7.20 from Lateral confinement InGaAsP superluminescent diode at 1.3 μm in IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, QE19, p. 79, IEEE (Kaminow, I. P., Eisenstein, G., Stulz, L. W. and Dentai, A. G. 1983), © IEEE 1983, reproduced with permission; Figure 7.21 adapted from Figure 6, page 121 of AlGaInN resonant-cavity LED devices studied by electromodulated reflectance and carrier lifetime techniques in IEE Proceedings on Optoelectronics, vol. 152, no. 2, pp. 118–124, 8 April 2005, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Blume, G., Hosea, T. J. C., Sweeney, S. J., de Mierry, P., Lancefield, D. 2005), with per- mission from IET; Figure 7.22 (b) from Light-emitting diodes for optical fibre systems in Radio and Electronic Engineer (J. IERE), 51(7/8), p. 41, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Carter, A. C. 1981), with permission from IET; Figure 8.3 from Optical Communications Essentials (Telecommunications), McGraw-Hill Companies (Keiser, G. 2003), with permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies; Figure 8.19 (a) from Improved germanium avalanche photodiodes in IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, QE-16(9), pp. 1002–1007 (Mikami, O., Ando, H., Kanbe, H., Mikawa, T., Kaneda, T. and Toyama, Y. 1980), © IEEE 1980, reproduced with permission; Figure 8.19 (b) from High-sensitivity Hi-Lo germanium avalanche photodiode for 1.5 μm wavelength optical communication in Electronic Letters, 20(13), pp. 552–553, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Niwa, M., Tashiro, Y., Minemura, K. and Iwasaki, H. 1984), with permission from IET; Figure 8.24 from Impact ionisation in multi-layer heterojunction structures in Electronic Letters, 16(12), pp. 467–468, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Chin, R., OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxvii Acknowledgements xxvii Holonyak, N., Stillman, G. E., Tang, J. Y. and Hess, K. 1980), with permission from IET; Figure 8.25 Reused with permission from Federico Capasso, Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, 1, 457 (1983). Copyright 1983, AVS The Science & Technology Society; Figure 8.29 Reused with permission from P. D. Wright, R. J. Nelson, and T. Cella, Applied Physics Letters, 37, 192 (1980). Copyright 1980, American Institute of Physics; Figure 8.32 from MSM-based integrated CMOS wavelength-tunable optical receiver in IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 17(6) pp. 1271–1273 (Chen, R., Chin, H., Miller, D. A. B., Ma, K. and Harris Jr., J. S. 2005); © IEEE 2005, reproduced with per- mission; Figure 9.5 from Receivers for optical fibre communications in Electronic and Radio Engineer, 51(7/8), p. 349, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Garrett, I. 1981), with permission from IET; Figure 9.7 from Photoreceiver architectures beyond 40 Gbit/s, IEEE Symposium on Compound Semiconductor Integrated circuits, Monterey, California, USA, pp. 85–88, October ( Ito, H. 2004), © IEEE 2004, reproduced with per- mission; Figure 9.14 from GaAs FET tranimpedance front-end design for a wideband optical receiver in Electronic Letters, 15(20), pp. 650–652, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Ogawa, K. and Chinnock, E. L. 1979), with permission from IET; Figure 9.15 published in Optical Fiber Telecommunications II, B. L. Kaspar, Receiver design, p. 689, edited by S. E. Miller and I. P. Kaminow, 1988, Copyright Elsevier 1988; Figure 9.17 from An APD/FET optical receiver operating at 8 Gbit/s in Journal of Lightwave Technology, LT-5(3) pp. 344–347, OSA (Kaspar, B. L., Campbell, J. C., Talman, J. R., Gnauck, A. H., Bowers, J. E. and Holden, W. S. 1987), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 9.23 Reprinted from Optical Fiber Telecommunications IV A: Components, B. L. Kaspar, O. Mizuhara and Y. K. Chen, High bit-rates receivers, trans- miters and electronics, pp. 784–852, Figure 1.13, page 807, edited by I. P. Kaminow and T. Li, Copyright 2002, with permission from Elsevier; Figure 10.3 from Semiconductor laser optical amplifiers for use in future fiber systems in Journal of Lightwave Technology 6(4), p. 53, OSA (O’Mahony, M. J. 1988), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 10.8 from Noise performance of semiconductor optical amplifiers, International Conference on Trends in Communication, EUROCON, 2001, Bratislava, Slovakia, 1, pp. 161–163, July (Udvary, E. 2001), © IEEE 2001, reproduced with permis- sion; Figure 10.17 from Properties of fiber Raman amplifiers and their applicability to digital optical communication systems in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 6(7), p. 1225, IEEE (Aoki, Y. 1988), © IEEE 1988, reproduced with permission; Figure 10.18 (a) from Semiconductor Raman amplifier for terahertz bandwidth optical communication in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 20(4), pp. 705–711, IEEE (Suto, K., Saito, T., Kimura, T., Nishizawa, J. I. and Tanube, T. 2002), © IEEE 2002, reproduced with permission; Figure 11.2 from Scaling rules for thin-film optical waveguides, Applied Optics, 13(8), p. 1857, OSA (Kogelnik, H. and Ramaswamy, V. 1974), with permission from the Optical Society of America; Figure 11.7 Reused with permission from M. Papuchon, Y. Combemale, X. Mathieu, D. B. Ostrowsky, L. Reiber, A. M. Roy, B. Sejourne, and M. Werner, Applied Physics Letters, 27, 289 (1975). Copyright 1975, American Institute of Physics; Figure 11.13 from Beam-steering micromirrors for large optical cross-connects in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 21(3), pp. 634–642, OSA (Aksyuk, V. A. et al. 2003), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 11.23 from 5 Git/s modulation characteristics of optical intensity modulator monolithically integrated with DFB laser in Electronic Letters, 25(5), pp. 1285–1287, Institution of Engineering and OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxviii xxviii Acknowledgements Technology (Soda, H., Furutsa, M., Sato, K., Matsuda, M. and Ishikawa, H. 1989), with permission from IET; Figure 11.24 from Widely tunable EAM-integrated SGDBR laser transmitter for analog applications in IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 15(9), pp. 1285–1297, IEEE (Johansson, L. A., Alkulova, Y. A., Fish, G. A. and Coldren, L. A. 2003), © IEEE 2003, reproduced with permission; Figure 11.25 from 80-Gb/s InP-based waveguide-integrated photoreceiver in IEEE Journal of Sel. Top. Quantum Electronics, 11(2), pp. 356–360, IEEE (Mekonne, G. G., Bach, H. G., Beling, A., Kunkel, R., Schmidt, D. and Schlaak, W. 2005), © IEEE 2005, reproduced with permission; Figure 11.27 from Wafer-scale replication of optical components on VCSEL wafers in Proceedings of Optical Fiber Communication, OFC 2004, Los Angeles, USA, vol. 1, 23–27 February, © IEEE 2004, reproduced with permission; Figure 11.28 from Terabus: terabit/second- class card-level optical interconnect technologies in IEEE Journal of Sel. Top. Quantum Electronics, 12(5), pp. 1032–1044, IEEE (Schares, L., Kash, J. A., Doany, F. E., Schow, C. L., Schuster, C., Kuchta, D. M., Pepeljugoski, P. K., Trewhella, J. M., Baks, C. W. and John, R. A. 2006), © IEEE 2006, reproduced with permission; Figure 11.29 from Figure 2, http://www.fujitsu.com/global/news/pr/archives/month/2007/20070119-01.html, courtesy of Fujitsu Limited; Figure 11.33 (b) from Large-scale InP photonic integrated circuits: enabling efficient scaling of optical transport networks, IEEE Journal of Se. Top. Quantum Electronics, 13(1) pp. 22–31, IEEE (Welch, D. F. et al. 2007), © IEEE 2007, reproduced with permission; Figure 11.33 (c) from Monolithically integrated 100-channel WDM channel selector employing low-crosstalk AWG in IEEE Photonics Techno- logy Letters, 16(11), pp. 2481–2483, IEEE (Kikuchi, N., Shibata, Y., Okamoto, H., Kawaguchi, Y., Oku, S., Kondo, Y. and Tohmori, Y. 2004), © IEEE 2004, reproduced with permission; Figure 11.35 Reused with permission from P. W. Smith, I. P. Kaminow, P. J. Maloney, and L. W. Stulz, Applied Physics Letters, 33, 24 (1978). Copyright 1978, American Institute of Physics; Figure 11.38 from All-optical flip-flop multimode interfer- ence bistable laser diode in IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 17(5), pp. 968–970, IEEE (Takenaka, M., Raburn, M. and Nakano, Y. 2005), © IEEE 2005, reproduced with permis- sion; Figure 11.42 from Optical bistability, phonomic logic and optical computation in Applied Optics, 25, pp. 1550–1564, OSA (Smith, S. D. 1986), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 12.4 from Non-linear phase distortion and its compensation in LED direct modulation in Electronic Letters, 13(6), pp. 162–163, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Asatani, K. and Kimura, T. 1977), with permission from IET; Figures 12.6 and 12.7 from Springer-Verlag, Topics in Applied Physics, vol. 39, 1982, pp. 161–200, Lightwave transmitters, P. W. Schumate Jr. and M. DiDomenico Jr., in H. Kressel, ed., Semiconductor Devices for Optical Communications, with kind permission from Springer Science and Business Media; Figure 12.12 from Electronic circuits for high bit rate digital fiber optic communication systems in IEEE Trans. Communications, COM-26(7), pp. 1088–1098, IEEE (Gruber, J., Marten, P., Petschacher, R. and Russer, P. 1978), © IEEE 1978, reproduced with permission; Figure 12.13 from Design and stability analysis of a CMOS feedback laser driver in IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., 53(1), pp. 102–108, IEEE (Zivojinovic, P., Lescure, M. and Tap-Beteille, H. 2004), © IEEE 2004, reproduced with permission; Figure 12.14 from Laser automatic level control for optical communications systems in Third European Conference on Optical Communications, Munich, Germany, 14–16 September (S. R. Salter, S. R., Smith, D. R., White, B. R. and Webb, R. P. 1977), with permission from VDE-Verlag GMBH; OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxix Acknowledgements xxix Figure 12.15 from Electronic circuits for high bit rate digital fiber optic communication systems in IEEE Trans. Communications, COM-26(7), pp. 1088–1098, IEEE (Gruber, J., Marten, P., Petschacher, R. and Russer, P. 1978), © IEEE 1978, reproduced with permis- sion; Figure 12.35 from NRZ versus RZ in 10–14-Gb/s dispersion-managed WDM transmission systems in IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 11(8), pp. 991–993, IEEE (Hayee, M. I., Willner, A. E., Syst, T. S. and Eacontown, N. J. 1999), © IEEE 1999, reproduced with permission; Figure 12.36 from Dispersion-tolerant optical transmission system using duobinary transmitter and binary receiver in Journal of Lightwave Techno- logy, 15(8), pp. 1530–1537, OSA (Yonenaga, K. and Kuwano, S. 1997), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 12.44 Copyright BAE systems Plc. Reproduced with permission from Fibre optic systems for analogue transmission, Marconi Review, XLIV(221), pp. 78–100 (Windus, G. G. 1981); Figure 12.53 from Performance of optical OFDM in ultralong-haul WDM lightwave systems in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 25(1), pp. 131–138, OSA (Lowery, A. J., Du, L. B. and Armstrong, J. 2007), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 12.58 from 110 channels × 2.35 Gb/s from a single femtosecond laser in IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 11(4), pp. 466–468, IEEE (Boivin, L., Wegmueller, M., Nuss, M. C. and Knox, W. H. 1999), © IEEE 1999, reproduced with permission; Figure 12.64 from 10 000-hop cascaded in-line all-optical 3R regeneration to achieve 1 250 000-km 10-Gb/s transmission in IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 18(5), pp. 718–720, IEEE (Zuqing, Z., Funabashi, M., Zhong, P., Paraschis, L. and Yoo, S. J. B. 2006), © IEEE 2006, reproduced with permis- sion; Figure 12.65 from An experimental analysis of performance fluctuations in high- capacity repeaterless WDM systems in Proceedings of OFC/Fiber Optics Engineering Conference (NFOEC) 2006, Anaheim, CA, USA, p. 3, 5–10 March, OSA (Bakhshi, B., Richardson, L., Golovchenko, E. A., Mohs, G. and Manna, M. 2006), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 12.73 from Springer-Verlag, Massive WDM and TDM Soliton Transmission Systems 2002, A. Hasegawa, © 2002 Springer, with kind permission from Springer Science and Business Media; Figure 13.7 from Techniques for multigigabit coherent optical transmission in Journal of Lightwave Technology, LT-5, p. 1466, IEEE (Smith, D. W. 1987), © IEEE 1987, reproduced with permission; Figure 13.15 from Costas loop experiments for a 10.6 μm communications receiver in IEEE Tras. Communications, COM-31(8), pp. 1000–1002, IEEE (Phillip, H. K., Scholtz, A. L., Bonekand, E. and Leeb, W. 1983), © IEEE 1983, reproduced with permission; Figure 13.18 from Semiconductor laser homodyne optical phase lock loop in Electronic Letters, 22, pp. 421–422, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Malyon, D. J., Smith, D. W. and Wyatt, R. 1986), with permission from IET; Figure 13.32 from A consideration of factors affecting future coherent lightwave communication systems in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 6, p. 686, OSA (Nosu, K. and Iwashita, K. 1988), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 13.34 from RZ-DPSK field trail over 13 100 km of installed non-slope matched submarine fibers in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 23(1) pp. 95–103, OSA (Cai, J. X. et al. 2005), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 13.35 from Polarization-multiplexed 2.8 Gbit/s syn- chronous QPSK transmission with real-time polarization tracking in Proceedings of the 33rd European Conference on Optical Communications, Berlin, Germany, pp. 263–264, 3 September (Pfau, T. et al. 2007), with permission from VDE Verlag GMBH; Figure 13.36 from Hybrid 107-Gb/s polarization-multiplexed DQPSK and 42.7-Gb/s DQPSK transmission OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxx xxx Acknowledgements at 1.4 bits/s/Hz spectral efficiency over 1280 km of SSMF and 4 bandwidth-managed ROADMs in Proceedings of the 33rd European Conference on Optical Communications, Berlin, Germany, PD1.9, September, with permission from VDE Verlag GMBH; Figure 13.37 from Coherent optical orthogonal frequency division multiplexing in Electronic Letters, 42(10), pp. 587–588, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Shieh, W. and Athaudage, C. 2006), with permission from IET; Figure 14.1 (a) from Mode scrambler for optical fibres in Applied Optics, 16(4), pp. 1045–1049, OSA (Ikeda, M., Murakami, Y. and Kitayama, C. 1977), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 14.1 (b) from Measurement of baseband frequency reponse of multimode fibre by using a new type of mode scrambler in Electronic Letters, 13(5), pp. 146–147, Institution of Engineering and Technology (Seikai, S., Tokuda, M., Yoshida, K. and Uchida, N. 1977), with permission from IET; Figure 14.6 from An improved technique for the measurement of low optical absorption losses in bulk glass in Opto-electronics, 5, p. 323, Institution of Engineering and Technology (White, K. I. and Midwinter, J. E. 1973); with permission from IET; Figure 14.8 from Self pulsing GaAs laser for fiber dispersion measurement in IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, QE-8, pp. 844–846, IEEE (Gloge, D., Chinnock, E. L. and Lee, T. P. 1972), © IEEE 1972, reproduced with permission; Figure 14.12, image of 86038B Optical Dispersion Analyzer, © Agilent Technologies, Inc. 2005, Reproduced with Permission, Courtesy of Agilent Technologies, Inc.; Figure 14.13 (a) from Refractive index profile measurements of diffused optical waveguides in Applied Optics, 13(9), pp. 2112–2116, OSA (Martin, W. E. 1974), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figures 14.13 (b) and 14.14 Reused with permission from L. G. Cohen, P. Kaiser, J. B. Mac Chesney, P. B. O’Connor, and H. M. Presby, Applied Physics Letters, 26, 472 (1975). Copyright 1975, American Institute of Physics; Figures 14.17 and 14.18 (a) Reused with permission from F. M. E. Sladen, D. N. Payne, and M. J. Adams, Applied Physics Letters, 28, 255 (1976). Copyright 1976, American Institute of Physics; Figure 14.19 from An Introduction to Optical Fibers, McGraw-Hill Companies (Cherin, A. H. 1983), with permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies; Figure 14.26 Reused with permission from L. G. Cohen and P. Glynn, Review of Scientific Instruments, 44, 1749 (1973). Copyright 1973, American Institute of Physics; Figure 14.31 (a) from EXFO http://documents.exfo.com/appnotes/anote044-ang.pdf, accessed 21 September 2007, with permission from EXFO; Figure 14.31 (b) from http://www.afltelecommunications.com, Afltelecommunications Inc., accessed 21 September 2007, with permission from Fujikura Limited; Figure 14.35 from EXFO, OTDR FTB-7000B http://documents.exfo.com/ appnotes/anote087-ang.pdf, accessed 21 September 2007, with permission from EXFO; Figure 14.36 from EXFO P-OTDR, accessed 21 September 2007, with permission from EXFO; Figure 15.1 from Future optical networks in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 24(12), pp. 4684–4696 (O’Mahony, M. J., Politi, C., Klonidis, D., Nejabati, R. and Simeonidou, D. 2006), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figures 15.14 (a) and (b) from ITU-T Recommendation G.709/Y.1331(03/03) Interfaces for the Optical Transport Network (TON), 2003, reproduced with kind permission from ITU; Figures 15.25 and 15.26 from Enabling technologies for next-generation optical packet- switching networks in Proceedings of IEEE 94(5), pp. 892–910 (Gee-Kung, C., Jianjun, Y., Yong-Kee, Y., Chowdhury, A. and Zhensheng, J. 2006), © IEEE 2006, reproduced with permission; Figures 15.30, 15.31 and 15.32 from www.telegeography.com, accessed 17 October 2007, reproduced with permission; Figure 15.34 from Transparent optical OPTF_A01.qxd 11/6/08 10:52 Page xxxi Acknowledgements xxxi protection ring architectures and applications in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 23(10), pp. 3388–3403 (Ming-Jun, L., Soulliere, M. J., Tebben, D. J., Nderlof, L., Vaughn, M. D. and R. E. Wagner, R. E. 2005), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 15.46 from Hybrid DWDM-TDM long-reach PON for next-generation optical access in Journal of Lightwave Technology, 24(7), pp. 2827–2834 (Talli, G. and Townsend, P. D. 2006), with permission from The Optical Society of America; Figure 15.52 from IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD (ETHERNET), accessed 17 October 2007, reproduced with permission; Figure 15.53 (a) from ITU-T Recommendation G.985 (03/2003) 100 Mbit/s point-to-pint Ethernet based optical access system, accessed 22 October 2007, reproduced with kind permission from ITU; Figure 15.53 (b) from ITU-T Recommendation Q.838.1 (10/2004) Requirements and analysis for the management interface of Ethernet passive optical networks (EPON), accessed 19 October 2007, repro- duced with kind permission from ITU; Table 15.4 from Deployment of submarine optical fiber bacle and communication systems since 2001, www.atlantic-cable.com/Cables/ CableTimeLine/index2001.htm, reproduced with permission. In some instances we have been unable to tra