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Articles of Confederation Articles of Confederation Adopted: 1777 by the Continental Congress Approved: 1781 by the states Purpose: Outlined the framework for the new US government following the American Revolution. Established a weak national government with limi...

Articles of Confederation Articles of Confederation Adopted: 1777 by the Continental Congress Approved: 1781 by the states Purpose: Outlined the framework for the new US government following the American Revolution. Established a weak national government with limited powers. Features of the Articles of Confederation Government Structure No Chief Executive: No president or central leader, leaving leadership fragmented. One Vote per State: Each state had one vote in Congress, regardless of its population or size. No National Court System: There was no national judiciary to resolve disputes or enforce laws. Legislation and Amendments Laws: Required approval from 9 of 13 states to pass legislation. Amendments: Changes to the Articles required unanimous consent from all 13 states. Powers of Congress Congress could: ○ Request tax money from states (but could not directly tax citizens). ○ Request military support from states (but could not draft soldiers into a national army). ○ Negotiate treaties and maintain a national army for defense. Congress could not: ○ Collect state debts owed by states to the federal government. ○ Settle disputes between states. ○ Regulate interstate commerce between states (trade ) Strengths of the Articles of Confederation Unity Among States Provided a basic framework for states to cooperate post-American Revolution. Equal representation: Each state had one vote in Congress, ensuring a sense of balance. Foreign Policy and Defense Allowed Congress to negotiate treaties and maintain a national army for defense. Approved as the form of government to govern 13 states. Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation Lack of Central Authority No central leadership (no chief executive) to guide the country and provide leadership Congress had no enforcement power for tax collection or military drafts, making it difficult to ensure compliance with laws or military drafts. No national court system to resolve legal disputes, leading to confusion over legal disputes. Legislative Challenges Difficulty passing laws: Required the approval of 9 out of 13 states, a high threshold for action, making them difficult to enact. Amendments required unanimous approval needed to change the articles, making changes nearly impossible. State Representation: Every state had one vote, regardless of its size or population, which some states found unfair. Financial Problems No power to tax directly: Congress could only request money from states, leaving the national government underfunded since they couldn’t tax directly Inability to collect state debts: States often ignored requests for payments refusing to provide requested funds, leading to economic instability. Inability to raise funds: Without taxation powers, the government struggled to pay off war debts or fund national operations. State Disputes and Economic Issues No authority over interstate disputes: Congress lacked authority to mediate or resolve conflicts between states. Inability to regulate commerce: States conducted trade independently, creating internal economic challenges and trade issues, such as trade imbalances and tariffs between states. Military Weakness  Congress couldn’t form and had no standing national army and had to rely on states to provide troops voluntarily. This led to a fragmented and often weak military defense. General Structure of the Articles of Confederation (A.O.C.) No national court system: No central judiciary. One vote per state: Regardless of the state's population size. Limited central power: The national government had very restricted authority and limited power, while states retained most of the power/authority. Laws required approval of 9/13 states, Unanimous(All 13 states had to agree to amend the constitution) for amendments: A high threshold for legislative action and changes. No chief executive: No president or central leader to enforce laws or lead the government. Problems Arising from the Articles of Confederation Lack of leadership due to the absence of a chief executive. Difficulty in passing laws and making necessary changes. Financial instability due to the inability to tax or collect debts. Weak national defense due to reliance on states for military support. Confusion over which courts should resolve disputes. Overall inefficiency in helping states work together cohesively. Constitutional Convention Overview: ○ A meeting in 1787 to address weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation and create the U.S. Constitution. ○ Key realization: The Articles needed to be completely replaced. Delegates at the Constitutional Convention: ○ Key Figures: James Madison: Advocated for national trade laws to boost the economy. Benjamin Franklin: Oldest delegate at 81 years. ○ Demographics: 55 attendees met in Independence Hall. Primarily white, educated, land-owning males with political experience.  Professions included planters, merchants, doctors, farmers, and lawyers. Three-fourths had served in the Continental Army. More than half had attended college. Average age: 41 (youngest 26, average listed elsewhere as 34). Many were born in America and wealthy. Plans for Government Virginia Plan: ○ Two houses of Congress with representation based on population. ○ Supported by larger states. ○ Legislature split into three. New Jersey Plan: ○ One house of Congress with equal representation for each state. ○ Supported by smaller states. ○ Legislature consisted of one house. Great Compromise: ○ Combined elements of both plans to satisfy large and small states: 1. Senate: Equal number of votes for each state. 2. House of Representatives: Representation based on population. ○ Created a two-house legislative branch: 1. House of Representatives (population-based). 2. Senate (equal votes per state). 3/5 Compromise Resolved disputes between Northern and Southern states about counting enslaved people for representation and taxation. Enslaved people counted as 3/5 of a person (e.g., for every 100 slaves, 60 were counted). Counted for both population and direct taxes. Most delegates believed slavery would eventually fade away. Goals of the Constitution  Form a more perfect union. Establish justice. Ensure domestic tranquility. Provide for the common defense. Promote the general welfare. Secure the blessings of liberty for current and future generations. Made for ○ Fair rule ○ Peace and absence of social disorder ○ Pay back soldiers for their service, provide for them ○ Protect the health, safety, and peace of its citizens ○ Ensure freedom for its citizens ○ Make sure that future generations have the same rights Constitution Approved as form of government Governed 13 states Protected against treasury Has president 2 house legislature HOR based on population Senate is equal National court system Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists Federalists: ○ Beliefs: Supported the Constitution. Advocated for a stronger national government. ○ Federalist Papers: Series of essays defending the Constitution and urging ratification. Authors: James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay. Published in newspapers to gain support. Anti-Federalists: ○ Beliefs: Opposed the Constitution, fearing a strong central government. Advocated for states' rights and individual freedoms. Feared: Senate becoming a ruling aristocracy. Strong president becoming a king. Loss of freedoms won in the Revolutionary War. Demanded a Bill of Rights.  Support Base: ○ Strong in Massachusetts, North Carolina, Rhode Island, New York, and Virginia. Common Ground: ○ Both supported dividing government into branches. ○ Both used emotional and reasoned appeals in debates. ○ Agreed to add a Bill of Rights to the Constitution. Battle for Ratification Timeline: ○ By June 1788, nine states ratified the Constitution, making it official. ○ Virginia and New York delayed ratification due to strong Anti-Federalist opposition. Importance of Virginia and New York: ○ Without New York: The nation risked geographic separation. ○ Without Virginia: The government would lack broad support. Resolution: ○ James Madison, from Virginia, proposed following Massachusetts' lead by adding a Bill of Rights to secure ratification. ○ Anti-Federalists initially outnumbered Federalists, but with Virginia and New York's support, Federalists gained the majority. Key Figures in the Debate James Madison: ○ Played a key role in proposing the Bill of Rights to address Anti-Federalist concerns. George Mason: ○ Delegate from Virginia who opposed ratification and refused to sign the Constitution. Legislative Branch Overview: Includes Congress, which is the lawmaking body. Consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate. Powers: ○ Can propose laws. ○ Can declare war. ○ Can override the president’s veto with a 2/3 vote. ○ Can propose amendments to the Constitution with a 2/3 vote.  House of Representatives (435 Members) Requirements: ○ Be 25+ years old. ○ Be a U.S. citizen for 7 years. ○ Live in the state represented. Term: ○ 2 years. ○ Chosen every second year by the people. Representation: ○ Based on population (not exceeding one representative for every 30,000 people). Powers: ○ Proposes tax laws (revenue-raising laws). ○ Has the sole power to impeach (formally accusing officials of wrongdoing). ○ Can choose the Speaker of the House and other officers. ○ Can create bills. ○ Maintains the navy and declares war. Senate (100 Members) Requirements: ○ Be 30+ years old. ○ Be a U.S. citizen for 9 years. ○ Live in the chosen state. Term: ○ 6 years. ○ Two senators from each state. Powers: ○ Approves presidential appointments (e.g., ambassadors, judges, cabinet members). ○ Ratifies treaties with foreign governments (requires 2/3 approval). ○ Tries impeachment trials of the president. ○ Can make changes to bills. ○ Can maintain the navy and declare war. ○ Has sole power to bring impeachment trials. ○ Votes to break ties. Executive Branch Overview:  Includes the President, Vice President, and Cabinet. Enforces laws. President Requirements: ○ Be 35+ years old. ○ Be a native-born U.S. citizen. ○ Be a U.S. resident for 14 years. Term: ○ 4 years. Powers: ○ Approve or veto laws. ○ Make treaties with foreign governments (requires 2/3 Senate approval). ○ Nominate judges to the Supreme Court with senate approval ○ Nominate and approve officers, ambassadors, public ministers, and cabinet members (requires Senate approval). ○ Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. military. ○ Chief executive officer of the military. ○ Can call houses of Congress to meet. Judicial Branch Overview: Consists of the Supreme Court, Federal Courts, and Inferior Courts. Interprets laws. Supreme Court Justices: ○ Serve for life if maintaining good behavior. Powers: ○ Can review all laws and treaties of the U.S. ○ Can declare laws unconstitutional. ○ Can settle disputes involving the U.S. ○ Can settle disputes between states. ○ Presides over impeachment trials of the president (Chief Justice). ○ Has the authority to interpret the law and settle disputes on Congress. Checks and Balances Overview:  Government is based on checks and balances, dividing powers among three branches: Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. Each branch has specific powers and responsibilities to ensure no one branch becomes too powerful. Treaties Executive: Makes treaties. Legislative: Approves treaties with a 2/3 Senate vote. Judicial: Reviews treaties and declares them constitutional or unconstitutional. Lawmaking Legislative: Creates laws. Executive: Approves or vetoes laws. ○ Legislature can override a presidential veto. Judicial: Declares laws unconstitutional or interprets them. Military Powers Executive: Commands the military (Commander-in-Chief). Legislative: Declares war. Judicial: Declares congressional actions related to the military unconstitutional. Nominations Executive: Nominates federal judges, ambassadors, and cabinet members. Legislative: Approves or rejects nominations. Judicial: Federal judges serve for life. Amendments Legislative: Proposes amendments to the Constitution with a 2/3 vote. Judicial: Declares amendments constitutional or unconstitutional. Executive: Approves or vetoes bills but cannot change individual amendments. ○ Note: Executive and Judicial branches have no formal role in the amendment process itself. Impeachment Legislative: ○ House of Representatives has the sole power to impeach (formally accuse of wrongdoing). ○ Senate conducts impeachment trials.  Judicial: Chief Justice presides over impeachment trials of the president. Executive: No role or power in impeachment. Additional Powers Supreme Court: ○ Has the final say on rulings. ○ Supreme Court rulings become precedents. ○ Judicial branch can declare actions by the other branches unconstitutional. Executive: ○ Can call Congress into session at any time; no checks exist for this power. Legislative: ○ Can amend the Constitution to overturn Supreme Court decisions. Key Concept: Checks and Balances: Separate branches are empowered to prevent actions by other branches, ensuring a balance of power across the government. President's Cabinet Last Department Department of Homeland Security – 2002 Departments: Department of State – 1789 Deals with foreign affairs. Department of Defense – 1947 Provides military forces and protects the U.S. Department of Treasury – 1789 The financial agent of the government prints money. Department of Education – 1979 Helps students with payments and educational issues. Department of Transportation – 1966 Responsible for federal highways, other transportation systems (planes, cars, etc.). Department of Health and Human Services – 1953 Protects health of people, provides medical services, deals with diseases. Department of Homeland Security – 2003 Created in response to the 9/11 attacks, prevents terrorist attacks and works against natural disasters.  Department of Housing and Urban Development – 1965 Focuses on sheltering people and creating sanitary and safe homes for everyone. Department of Justice – 1870 Enforces federal laws, controls crime. Department of Interior – 1849 Oversees wildlife and nature. Department of Energy – 1977 Develops energy systems and is responsible for nuclear weapons and technology. Department of Agriculture – 1862 Ensures a safe, affordable food supply and cares for farmers and food. Department of Veterans Affairs – 1988 Ensures veterans receive benefits. Department of Labor – 1913 Focuses on worker benefits and equality. Department of Commerce – 1903 Promotes economic opportunity, responsible for ownership of businesses, contracts, patents, etc. Bill of Rights Ratified in 1791. The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, guaranteeing individual rights and freedoms. First 10 Amendments (Bill of Rights) 1. 1st Amendment: Freedom of Religion, Speech, Press, Assembly, and Petition ○ Guarantees the freedom of: Press: Media, newspapers, TV, and online media; cannot be controlled or censored by the government. Speech: Citizens are free to express their views. Religion: No government promotion of religion in public spaces. Assembly: Right to gather peacefully. Petition: Citizens have the right to ask the government for changes or needs. 2. 2nd Amendment: Right to Bear Arms ○ Guarantees citizens' right to own weapons. ○ Controversial: Ongoing debate over what weapons can be used. Approximately 1 in 3 Americans own a gun for safety/protection. 3. 3rd Amendment: Limits on Quartering of Soldiers ○ Soldiers cannot be stationed in private homes during peacetime without the homeowner's consent.  4. 4th Amendment: Protection Against Unreasonable Searches and Seizures ○ Guarantees citizens' right to privacy. ○ Government must have a search warrant to enter private property. ○ Warrants must list the specific items or evidence to be searched or seized. 5. 5th Amendment: Rights of the Accused (Due Process) ○ Protects individuals from double jeopardy (being tried for the same crime twice). ○ Right not to self-incriminate: "I plead the 5th" (not having to testify against oneself). ○ Guarantees due process of law (fair treatment in the judicial system). ○ Right to remain silent during questioning. 6. 6th Amendment: Right to a Speedy and Public Trial ○ Guarantees the accused the right to: A speedy and public trial. Be represented by a lawyer. Be informed of the charges against them. 7. 7th Amendment: Right to a Jury Trial in Civil Cases ○ Guarantees the right to a jury trial in civil cases involving liability and suits. 8. 8th Amendment: Protection Against Excessive Bail, Fines, and Cruel and Unusual Punishment ○ No excessive bail or fines. ○ Cruel and unusual punishment is prohibited. Punishments must be proportionate to the crime. 9. 9th Amendment: Rights Not Listed in the Constitution ○ Guarantees that just because certain rights are not explicitly listed in the Constitution doesn't mean they are not valid. 10. 10th Amendment: Powers Reserved for the States or People Powers not given to the federal government by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. Additional Details on Key Amendments Freedom of Press and Speech: ○ Citizens have the right to express opinions freely, but dangerous or false information cannot be spread (e.g., creating panic, promoting religion in public spaces). Search and Seizure: ○ Search warrants: Government must specify what they are looking for. ○ Seizure: Government can take property if it is involved in illegal activity. Due Process Rights: ○ Protects individuals from being tried twice for the same crime (double jeopardy).  ○ Protects individuals from being forced to testify against themselves in court (self-incrimination). Citizens' Privacy: ○ No unreasonable searches and seizures, which protects citizens from government overreach. Right to Bear Arms: ○ The ongoing debate is about the types of weapons allowed and the necessity for self-defense. Veto: a constitutional right to reject a decision or proposal made by law-making body Battle of Fallen Timbers and Northwest Territory Notes Northwest Territory Overview: Location: North of the Ohio River, between Pennsylvania's western boundary and the Mississippi River. Conflict: ○ Land was contested by the U.S., Spain, Britain, and Native American groups. ○ Americans' Interest: Fertile soil and valuable minerals (copper, iron, silver). ○ Native Americans' Claim: Region inhabited for thousands of years; they resisted settlers' encroachment. Key Events: 1. Treaty of Paris (1783): Established U.S. boundaries and tried to settle land claims but failed to resolve disputes. 2. Conflicts with Native Americans: ○ Miami Tribe of Ohio, led by Chief Little Turtle, defeated two U.S. military expeditions sent by Washington. 3. Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794): ○ Federal Troops: Defeated the Miami and other Native American groups. ○ British Inaction: Traditionally supported the Miami but refused aid, weary from ongoing conflicts. ○ Outcome: Native Americans, including the Miami, signed the Treaty of Greenville (1795). They ceded lands in present-day Ohio and Indiana to the U.S. Significance: Marked a turning point in U.S. expansion into the Northwest Territory. Highlighted the weakening of British influence in the region. Resulted in Native Americans losing significant territorial claims. Alexander Hamilton's Economic Plan Goals: 1. Improve America’s credit and establish financial trustworthiness. 2. Strengthen the federal government and centralize financial control. 3. Stabilize the nation’s finances and promote economic growth. 4. Have an industrial economy Key Proposals: 1. Assumption of State Debts: ○ Federal government would take over the war debts of individual states ($25 million). ○ Strategy aimed to strengthen federal authority over financial matters. ○ Southern states opposed this because they had already paid their debts. 2. Funding Debt Through Revenue: ○ Sale of federal lands in the West to repay European loans. ○ Tariffs: Taxes on imports and exports. Increased tariffs to: Raise revenue. Encourage purchase of American goods. Protect American industries from foreign competition. ○ New Bonds: Issued as investments, promising interest returns to investors. Designed to attract wealthy individuals and stabilize finances. 3. National Bank: ○ Purpose: Collect taxes. Hold government funds. Promote business and industry by issuing loans. Establish a common currency. ○ Supported by Federalists but opposed by Jefferson and Antifederalists. ○ Hamilton argued the Constitution allowed for implied powers (loose interpretation). ○ Congress approved; the National Bank was created in 1791 for a 20-year term. Philosophy: Hamilton supported a strong central government and a loose interpretation of the Constitution.  ○ Constitution should meet needs of people Believed flexibility was necessary to address the country's complex needs. Argued the Constitution set guidelines but allowed the federal government leeway to act in the public good. Opposition: 1. Thomas Jefferson and Antifederalists: ○ Favored an agricultural nation over Hamilton’s vision of an industrial one. ○ Feared the National Bank would: Favor Northern business interests over the agrarian South. Expand federal power beyond constitutional limits. ○ Believed Hamilton’s plan threatened states' rights and the Constitution’s intent. ○ Was Secretary of State ○ Believed in limited power for central government ○ If constitution is not followed strictly powers of federal government would expand 2. Southern States: ○ Resented the assumption of debts as they had already paid their own. ○ Supported the plan only after Hamilton promised to relocate the nation’s capital to the South (future Washington, D.C.). Outcome: Congress passed Hamilton’s plan in 1791. The National Bank was established, tariffs were implemented, and bonds were issued. The plan set the foundation for America’s financial system and economic expansion. The rivalry between Hamilton and Jefferson highlighted early divisions in U.S. politics. Whiskey Rebellion: Notes Background: Occurred in western Pennsylvania during the 1790s. Farmers protested a whiskey tax they deemed unfair. Actions by protesters included: ○ Tarring and feathering tax collectors. ○ Threatening armed attacks until Washington sent troops Washington's Response: President George Washington personally intervened. ○ Sent nearly 13,000 soldiers to the region. ○ Washington’s presence was enough to end the rebellion.  ○ Showed strength of government Outcome: Rebels stood down without engaging in further conflict. The event demonstrated: ○ Respect for Washington's leadership. ○ The power of the central government under the Constitution. Significance: Marked a turning point in federal authority: ○ Showed the ability of the government to enforce laws. ○ Highlighted the effectiveness of the new Constitution compared to the Articles of Confederation. Shays's Rebellion: Notes Background: Took place in fall 1786 in Massachusetts. Led by Daniel Shays, a veteran of the American Revolution. Farmers protested debt hearings by marching into courthouses armed with rifles. Government Response: Massachusetts government requested help from Congress. ○ Congress asked states for money and soldiers, but the states refused. ○ Highlighted the ineffectiveness of Congress under the Articles of Confederation. Riot Act passed by Massachusetts prohibited armed groups from gathering in public. State troops were sent to suppress the rebellion, defeating Shays and his followers. Consequences for Rebels: Shays and his supporters faced: ○ Risk of losing voting rights. ○ Threat of imprisonment. Significance: Inspired others to stand up to government policies. Led to a dramatic increase in voter participation in the next election. ○ Citizens wanted a voice in resolving issues like debt repayment. Washington's Cabinet: Notes Formation of the Cabinet: Created in summer of 1789 as part of the executive branch. Consisted of department heads (secretaries) appointed by President Washington. Cabinet members met regularly with the president to advise him. Departments and Appointments: 1. Secretary of State: ○ Thomas Jefferson: Oversaw relations with other countries. 2. Secretary of War: ○ Henry Knox: Managed national defense. 3. Secretary of the Treasury: ○ Alexander Hamilton: Managed government finances. 4. Attorney General: ○ Edmund Randolph: Represented the U.S. before the Supreme Court. ○ Did not head an executive department but was part of the Cabinet. Role of the Vice President: John Adams, the vice president, was not invited to Cabinet meetings. Adams expressed frustration, calling the vice presidency "the most insignificant office." Significance: The Cabinet was the primary advisory body to the president. Established a precedent for executive leadership and governance. Washington's Farewell Address: Notes Unity of Government: Unity is essential for independence, peace, safety, prosperity, and liberty. Government should act as a main pillar, with supporting branches ensuring stability. National unity will face attacks, so Americans must remain loyal and protect it. Americans should take pride in their national identity to avoid divisions or discrimination. ○ Shared identity promotes unity and a sense of pride in freedoms and shared achievements. Dangers of Political Parties:  Washington feared political parties could divide the country and undermine national unity. Rival parties may create geographical divisions, with groups prioritizing local interests over the national good. Political factions could allow "designing men" to exploit differences for personal or political gain. Foreign Policy: Neutrality: Warned against permanent alliances with other nations, as they could lead to foreign influence and unnecessary wars. Advocated for neutrality in overseas affairs to preserve independence. Encouraged cultivating friendly relations with all nations, avoiding extreme favoritism or animosity. Publication: The letter was published on September 19, 1796, in the American Daily Advertiser and later in other newspapers. Written as a personal farewell to “Friends & Fellow-Citizens.” Drafted with input from John Jay and Alexander Hamilton; took four months to finalize. Significance: Urged Americans to value unity and neutrality to ensure long-term stability and success. Remains an important historical document offering guidance on governance and foreign policy. Post-Presidency: Washington retired to his home at Mount Vernon in Virginia. Lived there until his death in 1799. Elastic Clause: Located in the U.S. Constitution, grants Congress the power to make laws that are "necessary and proper" to carry out its enumerated powers. Allows for a broader, more flexible interpretation of the Constitution. Used by Alexander Hamilton to justify the creation of a national bank, arguing it was necessary to fulfill government duties, even though the Constitution does not explicitly mention a bank. Hamilton's argument: When Congress is granted a power, the "necessary and proper" clause grants the means to execute that power.  Supports a loose or broad interpretation of the Constitution. Political Parties Formation and Development: Washington's Warning: Washington warned against the formation of political parties, fearing their "baneful effects" on the nation. Despite this, deep divisions arose over the direction of the country, particularly between Hamilton and Jefferson. By the 1790s, two main political parties emerged: the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party. The Federalists were led by Hamilton, advocating for a strong central government, while the Democratic-Republicans were led by Jefferson and Madison, advocating for limited federal power. Key Issues of Debate: ○ Interpretation of the Constitution: Federalists favored a loose interpretation (broad powers for the federal government), while Democratic-Republicans favored a strict interpretation (limiting powers to what is explicitly stated). ○ Economic policy: Federalists supported an economy based on manufacturing and commerce; Democratic-Republicans preferred an agrarian economy based on farming. Differences Between the Democratic-Republicans and Federalists: Federalists Democratic-Republicans Strong national government Limited national government Fear of mob rule Fear of rule by one person or a powerful few Loose construction of the Constitution Strict construction of the Constitution Favored a national bank Opposed a national bank Economy based on manufacturing and Economy based on farming trade Supporters: lawyers, merchants, clergy Supporters: farmers, tradespeople Power base: New England and the Middle Power base: South and West Atlantic states Believed in federal support for Opposed too much federal support for infrastructure, commerce, and high tariffs commerce, rejected efforts to abolish slavery Supported western expansion but less Favored westward expansion, but more sympathetic to Native American rights sympathetic to Native American rights Two-Party System: The U.S. continues to have a two-party system, with the /Democratic Party and the Republican Party being the major political parties today. The two-party system is unique to the U.S. compared to countries with one-party or multi-party systems. Over time, the parties have shifted, and today's parties do not align directly with the Federalists or Democratic-Republicans, but share regional characteristics similar to the past (Republicans in the South and West, Democrats in the Northeast and coasts). Thomas Jefferson's Presidency (1801) 1. Initial Focus on Domestic Affairs: ○ Jefferson aimed to concentrate on domestic issues during his presidency. ○ He believed the U.S. was “separated by nature and a wide ocean” from the wars and conflicts in Europe and other parts of the world. 2. Foreign Policy Philosophy: ○ Jefferson advocated for the U.S. to seek friendship with all nations.  ○He warned against entering into “entangling alliances” with foreign powers, reflecting his desire for American independence in foreign policy. 3. Expansion and Growing Global Contact: ○ The Louisiana Purchase and the Lewis and Clark expedition were about to open the western territories for expansion. ○ Westward expansion would bring the U.S. into contact with foreign nations and settlers who already had a presence in the West (such as European colonial powers). 4. Challenges to Neutrality: ○ The U.S. had little control over the actions of foreign nations, demonstrated by the interference of North African nations with American shipping. ○ The ongoing conflict between France and England would make it difficult for the U.S. to remain neutral. ○ American merchants were involved in global trade, which made it increasingly difficult to avoid international entanglements. Summary: Jefferson initially sought to keep the U.S. isolated from foreign conflicts but faced challenges due to expanding trade, westward expansion, and the actions of foreign nations. The notion of avoiding alliances and conflicts was hard to maintain given these realities. Notes on the XYZ Affair Background: 1797: Relations between France and the U.S. were tense. Britain and France were at war; French began seizing U.S. ships to stop trade with Britain. Over 300 U.S. ships looted by French forces within a year. Adams’ Response: Some Federalists wanted war with France, but President John Adams preferred diplomacy. Sent Charles Pinckney, Elbridge Gerry, and John Marshall to Paris to negotiate. Events in Paris: French foreign minister ignored U.S. diplomats for weeks. Three French agents (X, Y, and Z) approached the Americans. ○ Demanded a $10 million loan to France and a $250,000 bribe for the minister to begin talks.  ○ Americans refused; Pinckney responded: “No, no, not a sixpence.” Public Reaction: Adams reported the incident to Congress, and details became public. Outrage spread across the U.S.; Pinckney’s words became the slogan: “Millions for defense, not one cent for tribute!” Consequences: 1. Congress’ Actions: ○ Cancelled treaties with France. ○ Allowed U.S. ships to seize French vessels. ○ Expanded the navy and the army. ○ Authorized attacks on French ships threatening American merchant vessels. ○ Stopped all trade with France. ○ Ended the U.S.-France alliance. 2. Impact on Relations and Politics: ○ Further worsened U.S.-France relations. ○ Hurt Democratic-Republicans’ reputation, as they had supported the French Revolution. ○ War fever swept the country, though full-scale war (Quasi-War) was avoided. Election of 1800 Political Context: Contesting parties: ○ Federalists: Led by President John Adams. ○ Democratic-Republicans: Represented by Vice President Thomas Jefferson. Each party accused the other of endangering the Constitution and the American republic. ○ Federalists: Believed the Democratic-Republicans were radicals inspired by the violence of the French Revolution. ○ Democratic-Republicans: Criticized the Alien and Sedition Acts as violations of the Bill of Rights. Key Issues: Adams had built a strong central government but was unpopular due to the Alien and Sedition Acts. Jefferson opposed Adams, arguing he favored Northern businessmen and promised limited government and lower taxes. Election Process:  Jefferson ran with Aaron Burr as his vice-presidential candidate. At the time, candidates for president and vice president ran individually. Jefferson and Burr received an equal number of votes, creating a tie. The decision went to the Federalist-dominated House of Representatives. Outcome: House of Representatives voted 36 times over six days. Alexander Hamilton, despite his rivalry with Jefferson, rallied support for Jefferson over Burr. On February 17, 1801, Jefferson was elected the 3rd U.S. president; Burr became vice president. Significance: Marked the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in U.S. history. Inauguration: Jefferson’s inauguration was the first held in Washington, D.C., in March 1801. Jefferson sought to unify the country, addressing fears of radicalism: ○ Stated, “We are all Republicans; we are all Federalists.” Impact of the Alien and Sedition Acts: These acts undermined Adams’ popularity and helped Democratic-Republicans gain political momentum. Burr vs. Hamilton Duel (1804): Rivalry culminated in a duel after years of personal and political conflict. Burr fatally shot Hamilton, ending Hamilton’s life and Burr’s political career. Marbury v. Madison (1803) Background: Judiciary Act of 1801: ○ Passed by Federalists before Jefferson’s presidency. ○ Reduced Supreme Court justices from six to five to prevent Jefferson from making appointments. ○ Allowed outgoing President John Adams to appoint numerous Federalist judges (“midnight judges”). John Marshall:  ○ Appointed as Chief Justice by Adams. ○ Strengthened federal authority and shaped the role of the Supreme Court. Case Overview: William Marbury: ○ A midnight judge appointed as justice of the peace for the District of Columbia. ○ Adams signed his commission, but it was not delivered before Jefferson took office. James Madison: ○ Jefferson’s Secretary of State, ordered to block Marbury’s commission. ○ Marbury sued Madison, invoking the Judiciary Act of 1789, which authorized the Supreme Court to issue writs to enforce commissions. Supreme Court Decision: Three questions were addressed: 1. Was Marbury entitled to his commission? Yes. The Court ruled that Marbury had a legal right to the commission. 2. Could the courts issue a writ commanding delivery of the commission? Yes. The Court agreed such writs were lawful. 3. Did the Supreme Court have the authority to issue this writ? No. Marshall declared the relevant section of the Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional, as it gave the Court powers not granted by the Constitution. Significance: Judicial Review: ○ The decision established the principle of judicial review, empowering the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional. ○ Strengthened the judiciary’s role in checks and balances. ○ Ensured the Constitution was the supreme law of the land. Impact on Government: ○ Balanced the power of the three branches of government. ○ Demonstrated the judiciary’s independence. Political Reactions: Jefferson and Madison opposed the decision but accepted it as the Court ruled in their favor. Marshall’s decision solidified the judiciary’s authority and set a precedent for future cases. Legacy of John Marshall: Served as Chief Justice for over 30 years, deciding more than 1,000 cases and writing 519 opinions. His rulings, including Marbury v. Madison, contributed to the lasting strength of the U.S. Constitution. Judiciary Act of 1801 Context and Purpose: Passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress before Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans took office. Aimed to limit Jefferson’s influence on the judiciary and maintain Federalist power. Key Provisions: 1. Reduction of Supreme Court Justices: ○ Decreased the number of justices from six to five. ○ Prevented Jefferson from appointing new justices when a vacancy occurred. ○ Supreme Court justices hold lifetime appointments, making this change impactful. 2. Creation of New Lower-Court Judgeships: ○ Allowed President John Adams to appoint numerous Federalist judges to lower courts. ○ These last-minute appointments became known as "midnight judges." Judicial Appointments: Adams worked until the final hours of his presidency to sign commissions for these Federalist judges. Adams also appointed John Marshall, a Federalist, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Impact: Ensured Federalist control over the judiciary even after losing the 1800 presidential and congressional elections. Frustrated Jefferson, as the judiciary remained firmly Federalist despite the Democratic-Republican victory. Judges’ lifetime appointments limited Jefferson's ability to counter Federalist influence in the courts. Significance:  The act laid the groundwork for significant early judicial conflicts, including the Marbury v. Madison case. Highlighted the Federalists' strategy to secure lasting influence in one branch of government after electoral defeat.