OCR GCSE PE Revision Booklet PDF

PE DEPARTMENT GCSE PE REVISION BOOKLET CONTENTS PAGE Component 01: Physical factors affecting performance Unit 1.1.a - The Structure and Function of the Skeletal System Pages 3 - 13 Unit 1.1.b - The Structure and Function of the Muscular System Pages 14 - 18 Unit 1.1.c - Movement Analysis Pages 19 - 27 Unit 1.1.d - The Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems Cardiovascular System ages 28 - 35 P Respiratory System Pages 36 - 39 Anaerobic & Aerobic Exercise Pages 40 - 43 Unit 1.1.e - The Effects of Exercise on the Body Systems Pages 44 - 51 Unit 1.2.a - The Components of Fitness Pages 52 - 57 Unit 1.2.b - The Principles of Training ages 58 - 61 P Warm Up & Cool Down Pages 62 - 66 Methods of Training Pages 67 - 69 Unit 1.3.c - Preventing Injury in Physical Activity and Training Pages 70 - 73 1 Component 02: Socio-cultural issues and sports psychology Unit 2.1.a - Engagement Patterns of Different Social Groups in Pages 74 - 87 Physical Activity and Sport Unit 2.1.b - Commercialisation of Physical Activity and Sport Pages 88 - 94 Unit 2.1.c - Ethical and Socio-Cultural Issues in Physical Activity and Sport Pages 95 - 103 Unit 2.2 - Sports Psychology Pages 104 - 120 Unit 2.3 - Health, Fitness and Well-being Pages 121 - 138 Glossary of Terms Pages 139 - 146 2 Applied anatomy and physiology 1.1 Unit 1.1.a - The Structure and Function of the Skeletal System The skeleton is the central structure of the body and is made up of bones, joints and cartilage. The skeleton provides the framework for muscles and gives the body its defined human shape. Structure of the skeletal system The main bones of the skeleton and their location are shown here: 3 Functions of the skeletal system The skeleton has six main functions: 1. Support – the skeleton keeps the body upright and provides a framework for muscle and tissue attachment. 2. Posture – the skeleton gives the correct shape to our body. 3. Protection – the bones of the skeleton protect the internal organs and reduce the risk of injury on impact. For example, the cranium protects the brain, the ribs offer protection to the heart and lungs, the vertebrae protect the spinal cord and the pelvis offers protection to the sensitive reproductive organs. 4. Movement – the skeleton allows movement of the body as a whole and its individual parts. The bones form joints and act as levers, allowing muscles to pull on them to produce movement. The bones of the skeleton provide surfaces for the attachment of muscles. 5. Blood cell production – certain bones in the skeleton contain bone marrow which produces red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Examples of bones that contain marrow are the pelvis, sternum, humerus and femur. 6. Storage of minerals - the bones store minerals such as calcium, iron, potassium and phosphorous and release them into the blood when the body needs to use them. 4 Joints A joint is a place where two or more bones meet and is also called an articulation. Synovial joints (freely movable joints) allow us the free movement to perform skills and techniques during physical activity. Synovial joints have synovial fluid in the joint cavity that lubricates or 'oils' the joint so it moves smoothly. Synovial fluid is made by the synovial membrane. In synovial joints, the ends of the bones are covered with cartilage (called articular cartilage) which cushions the joint and prevents friction and wear and tear between the bone ends. Cartilage is a soft, spongy connective tissue. The bones in a synovial joint are connected by ligaments. Ligaments are a type of connective tissue and are tough, fibrous and slightly elastic. They connect bone to bone and help keep the joint together. 5 They stabilise the joints during movement and prevent dislocation by restricting actions outside the normal joint range. They can absorb shock because of their elasticity, which protects the joint. They help maintain correct posture and movement. The movement at a synovial joint is caused by the muscles attached across the joint. Muscles are attached to bone by tendons. Tendons are very strong, inelastic connective tissues that allow a muscle to pull on a bone to move it. Ligaments connect bone to bone; tendons connect muscle to bone. The main features of a synovial joint Four important synovial joints Four important synovial joints used in most sporting actions are the elbow and shoulder joints in the arm, and the knee and hip joints in the leg. The elbow and knee joints are both hinge joints. A hinge joint is a type of synovial joint that works like the hinge on a door, allowing bending and straightening only. The shoulder and hip joints are both ball and socket joints. A ball and socket joint is a type of synovial joint that allows movement in almost every direction. A ball and socket joint is made up of a round end of one bone that fits into a small cup-like area of another bone. 6 Elbow joint Hinge joint. Articulating bones are humerus, radius and ulna. Allows bending (flexion) and straightening (extension). Muscles which move the elbow are biceps and triceps. The different components of the elbow joint that allow a hinge action Knee joint Hinge joint. Articulating bones are femur and tibia (the patella is not classed as part of the joint, nor is the fibula). Allows bending (flexion) and straightening (extension). Muscles which move the knee are quadriceps and hamstrings. 7 The different components of the knee joint Hip joint Ball and socket joint Articulating bones are pelvis and femur (head of femur is 'ball' and cup in pelvis is 'socket') Allows a large range of movement in all directions Many muscles are used to move the hip joint, including the gluteals The different components of the hip joint 8 Shoulder joint Ball and socket joint. Articulating bones are humerus and scapula (the clavicle is not part of the shoulder joint). Allows a great range of movement in all directions. Many muscles are used to move the shoulder joint, including the deltoid, trapezius and latissimus dorsi. The different components of the shoulder joint 9 Types of joint movement Hinge joints allow flexion and extension only. Flexion – bending a joint. This occurs when the angle of a joint decreases. For example, the elbow flexes when performing a biceps curl. The knee flexes in preparation for kicking a ball. Extension – straightening a joint. This occurs when the angle of a joint increases, for example the elbow when throwing a shot put. The take-off knee extends when a high-jumper takes off (the other knee is flexed). Ball and socket joints also allow flexion and extension. Flexion of the shoulder joint occurs when the humerus (upper arm) moves forwards from the rest of the body, which happens at the end of an underarm throw or bowl in rounders. Flexion of the hip joint occurs when the femur (upper leg) moves forwards, which happens when long jumpers land or at the end of kick in football. 10 Extension of the shoulder occurs when the humerus moves backwards from the rest of the body, which happens at the end of the pull stroke in front crawl. Extension of the hip joint occurs when the femur moves backwards, which happens in the preparation for a kick in football, or in the back leg as a gymnast performs a split leap. Ball and socket joints also allow types of movement called abduction, adduction, rotation and circumduction. Abduction – movement away from the midline of the body. This occurs at the hip and shoulder joints during a jumping jack movement. Adduction – movement towards the midline of the body. This occurs at the hip and shoulder, returning the arms and legs back to their original position from a jumping jack movement or when swimming breaststroke. 11 Flexion and extension are a pair of opposites; abduction and adduction are a pair of opposites. Circumduction – this is where the limb moves in a circle. This occurs at the shoulder joint during an overarm tennis serve or cricket bowl. Rotation – this is where the limb turns round its long axis, like using a screw driver. This occurs in the hip joint in golf while performing a drive shot or the shoulder joint when playing a topspin forehand in tennis. To help remember the difference between rotation and circumduction, imagine there is a pen at the end of the body part. If the pen draws a dot, it's rotation. If the pen draws a circle, it's circumduction. 12 The table summarises the body locations and types of movements associated with each type of joint. Joint Type Bones Movement Comments Humerus, Biceps and triceps move this Elbow Hinge ulna, Flexion, extension joint radius Femur, Quadriceps and hamstrings Knee Hinge Flexion, extension tibia move this joint Flexion, extension, Not as great a range of Ball and Femur, Hip abduction, adduction, movement as the shoulder, but socket pelvis rotation, circumduction much more stable Flexion, extension, Ball and Humerus, Greater range of movement than Shoulder abduction, adduction, socket scapula hip, but not quite as stable rotation, circumduction 13 Applied anatomy and physiology 1.1 Unit 1.1.b - The Structure and Function of the Muscular System This system is mainly concerned with producing movement through muscle contraction. This section explores the different types of muscles in our body and their involvement in sporting activities. Voluntary or skeletal muscles There are three types of muscle in the body: 1. smooth muscle – found in the internal organs and blood vessels - this is involuntary 2. cardiac muscle – found only in the heart - this is involuntary 3. skeletal muscle – attached to the skeleton - this is voluntary Involuntary muscles are not under our conscious control which means we can't make them contract when we think about it. Voluntary muscles are under our conscious control so we can move these muscles when we want to. These are the muscles we use to make all the movements needed in physical activity and sport. The main skeletal muscles of the human body are shown here. 14 Function Example in sport Lifting the arm at the shoulder (the Lifting the arms to block in deltoid muscle has different parts which Deltoid volleyball; upward arm swing flex, extend and abduct the shoulder when trampolining joint) Preparation phase of an Shoulder horizontal extension (moving Trapezius overarm throw or badminton the arms backwards at shoulder level) smash Adduction of the shoulder (moving the arm towards the body); Shoulder Upwards phase of a press up; Pectorals horizontal flexion (moving the arms rugby player making a tackle forwards in front of the body) 15 Extension of the elbow (straightening the Shooting and chest passing in Triceps arm) netball (execution phase) Drawing a bow in archery; Biceps Flexion of the elbow (bending the arm) 'backscratch' position during tennis serve Performing a sit up or a forward Abdominals Flexion of the spine (sitting upwards) roll Hitting in hockey – left shoulder Adduction of the shoulder (moving the during preparation, right Latissimus dorsi arm down towards the mid-line of the shoulder during execution and body) recovery Hip extension (moving the femur Pulling leg back at the hip Gluteals backwards) before kicking a ball Extension of the knee (straightening the Kicking a ball (execution and Quadriceps leg) recovery phase) Performing a hamstring curl on a weights machine; preparation Hamstrings Flexion of the knee (bending the leg) phase of a rebound jump in basketball Standing on tiptoe to mark a Plantar flexion of the ankle (pointing the shot in netball or pointing the Gastrocnemius toes downwards) toes during a gymnastic or dance move Muscle pairs Muscles are attached to bones by tendons. Muscles contract to move our bones by pulling on them. However, muscles can only pull; they cannot push. This is why they usually work a joint in pairs. One muscle of the pair contracts to move the body part, the other muscle in the pair then contracts to return the body part back to the original position. Muscles that work like this are called antagonistic pairs. 16 In an antagonistic muscle pair as one muscle contracts the other muscle relaxes or lengthens. The muscle that is contracting is called the agonist and the muscle that is relaxing or lengthening is called the antagonist. One way to remember which muscle is the agonist – it's the one that's in 'agony' when you are doing the movement as it is the one that is doing all the work. For example, when you perform a bicep curl the biceps will be the agonist as it contracts to produce the movement, while the triceps will be the antagonist as it relaxes to allow the movement to occur. The biceps contracts and raises the forearm The triceps contracts and lowers the forearm as as the triceps relaxes. the biceps relaxes. 17 Antagonistic muscle pairs The following groups of muscles are antagonistic pairs: Movements Joint Antagonistic pair Sport example produced Elbow Biceps; triceps Flexion; extension Chest pass in netball; badminton smash Jumping to block in volleyball; tuck jump in Knee Hamstrings; quadriceps Flexion; extension trampolining Adduction; Shoulder Latissimus dorsi; deltoid Golf swing; breaststroke arms abduction To allow antagonistic pairs to work efficiently, other muscles called fixators assist by supporting and stabilising the joint and the rest of the body. The trapezius muscle can act as a fixator when the biceps is flexing the elbow joint. The abdominals can act as fixators to stabilise the body for hip and knee movements. Antagonistic muscle pairs in action Preparation and execution and recovery phase in football 18 In the preparation phase, when a footballer prepares to kick a football, their hamstrings contract to flex the knee while the quadriceps lengthens to allow the movement. The hamstrings are the agonist and the quadriceps are the antagonist. In the contact and recovery phase, the quadriceps contract to extend the knee while the hamstrings lengthen to allow the movement. The quadriceps are the agonist and the hamstrings are now the antagonist. The abdominals would be acting as fixators. 19 Applied anatomy and physiology 1.1 Unit 1.1.c - Movement Analysis To help people understand the different types of movement in sport, specific terminology is used so that it is clear exactly what types of movements have taken place in order to analyse that movement. Levers Levers in our body are formed from bones, joints and muscles. A lever consists of: a rigid structure (bone) a force acting upon it (muscle) to produce a turning movement (angular motion) a fulcrum which is a fixed point (joint) a load or resistance that is placed on the rigid structure (weight of body part being moved and anything that it is carrying) A typical lever 20 There are three types of lever. 1. First class lever – the fulcrum is in the middle of the effort and the load. First class lever This type of lever is found in the neck when raising your head to head a football. The neck muscles provide the effort, the neck is the fulcrum, and the weight of the head is the load. 2. Second class lever – the load is in the middle between the fulcrum and the effort. Second class lever 21 This type of lever is found in the ankle area. When standing on tiptoe, the ball of the foot acts as the fulcrum, the weight of the body acts as the load and the effort comes from the contraction of the gastrocnemius muscle. This second class lever is used when taking off for a jump or pushing against the blocks in a sprint start. 3. Third class lever – the effort is in the middle between the fulcrum and the load. Third class lever During a biceps curl, the fulcrum is the elbow joint, the effort comes from the biceps contracting and the resistance is the weight of the forearm and any weight that it may be holding. To recall the order of the levers use the term 'FLE' - this will help you to remember which part of the lever is in the middle. First class lever - Fulcrum is in the middle. Second class lever - Load is in the middle. Third class lever - Effort is in the middle. 22 Mechanical advantages of levers Levers are used to multiply force, In other words, using a lever gives you greater force or power than the effort you put in. In a lever, if the distance from the effort to the fulcrum is longer than the distance from the load to the fulcrum, this gives a greater mechanical advantage. Second class levers have the best mechanical advantage, so they can move a large load with a relatively small effort. At take-off, the high jumper applies large forces to the ground through their ankle. The ankle operates with mechanical advantage in order to resist these forces and enable the jumper to achieve flight. Planes and axes How does the body of a gymnast move when she is doing a somersault? All body movements occur in different planes and around different axes. A plane is an imaginary flat surface running through the body. An axis is an imaginary line at right angles to the plane, about which the body rotates or spins. 23 Planes and axes of movement Planes of movement There are three planes of movement: 1. Sagittal plane - a vertical plane that divides the body into left and right sides. Flexion and extension types of movement occur in this plane, eg kicking a football, chest pass in netball, walking, jumping, squatting. 2. Frontal plane - passes from side to side and divides the body into the front and back. Abduction and adduction movements occur in this plane, eg jumping jack exercises, raising and lowering arms and legs sideways, cartwheel. 3. Transverse plane - passes through the middle of the body and divides the body horizontally in an upper and lower half. Rotation types of movement occur in this plane, eg hip rotation in a golf swing, twisting in a discus throw, pivoting in netball, spinning in skating. Movements are parallel to the plane in which they take place. 24 Axes of movement There are three axes of movement around which the body or body parts rotate: 1. Transverse axis - this line runs from left to right through the centre of the body. For example, when a person performs a somersault they rotate around this axis. 2. Frontal axis - this line runs from front to back through the centre of the body. For example, when a person performs a cartwheel they are rotating about the frontal axis. 3. Longitudinal axis - this line runs from top to bottom through the centre of the body. For example, when a skater performs a spin they are rotating around the longitudinal axis. Transverse axis 25 Frontal axis 26 Longitudinal axis 27 What plane of movement and axis of rotation does a forward roll take place in? Answer: Plane – sagittal, as there is flexion and extension of the knees, elbows, neck and spine. Axis – transverse, as there is rotation around a line running from left to right through the centre of the body. The topic of movement analysis links closely with the topics on the skeletal system and the muscular system. 28 Applied anatomy and physiology 1.1 Unit 1.1.d - The Cardiovascular System The cardiovascular system is made up of three main parts - the heart, the blood vessels and the blood that flows through them. Structure of the cardiovascular system If you clench your hand into a fist, this is approximately the same size as your heart. It is located in the middle of the chest and slightly towards the left. The heart is a large muscular pump and is divided into two halves - the right-hand side and the left-hand side. The right-hand side of the heart is responsible for pumping deoxygenated blood to the lungs. The left-hand side pumps oxygenated blood around the body. Each side of the heart consists of an atrium and a ventricle which are two connected chambers. The atria (plural of atrium) are where the blood collects when it enters the heart. The ventricles pump the blood out of the heart to the lungs or around the body. The septum separates the right-hand and left-hand side of the heart. 29 The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium and right ventricle. It opens due to a build-up of pressure in the right atrium, and prevents back flow of blood from the right ventricle to the right atrium. The bicuspid valve separates the left atrium and left ventricle and prevents back flow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium. It likewise opens due to a build-up of pressure, this time in the left atrium. The semilunar valves stop the back flow of blood into the heart. There is a semilunar valve where the aorta leaves the left ventricle and another where the pulmonary artery leaves the right ventricle. Blood vessels leading into and out of the heart There are four main blood vessels that take blood into and out of the heart. The aorta is the largest artery in the body. It carries oxygenated blood away from the left ventricle to the body. The vena cava is the largest vein in the body. It carries deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart. The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle to the lungs. The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. 30 Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (except for the pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle to the lungs).The main artery is the aorta. The main vein is the vena cava. The double-circulatory system The heart works as a dual action pump – two pumps that work at the same time to pump blood in two different directions. The right-hand side of the heart collects deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs (to collect more oxygen). This is called pulmonary circulation. The left-hand side of the heart collects oxygenated blood from the heart and pumps it round the body. This is called systemic circulation. The pathway of blood through the heart Left-hand side 31 Oxygenated blood is carried to the heart from the lungs in the pulmonary vein. It goes into the left atrium, through the bicuspid valve and into the left ventricle. The ventricle pumps the blood through the semilunar valve, into the aorta and round the body. Right-hand side Deoxygenated blood from the body is carried to the heart in the vena cava. It goes into the right atrium, through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle. The ventricle pumps the blood through the semilunar valve, into the pulmonary artery and to the lungs. Structure of blood and blood vessels Blood is carried through three different types of blood vessels in the body: 32 1. arteries 2. capillaries 3. veins All blood vessels are specifically structured to perform their function. For example, a capillary is microscopically thin to allow gases to exchange, the arteries are tough and flexible to cope with high pressure blood flow and the veins contain valves to prevent the blood from travelling backwards when at low pressure. All vessels feature varying lumen size. The lumen is the hollow opening or the space inside the blood vessel. Artery Vein Capillary Carry blood towards the heart Carry blood away from the heart (usually Allows diffusion of gases and Function (usually oxygenated blood, deoxygenated nutrients from blood into the body except for the pulmonary artery) blood, except for cells the pulmonary vein) 33 Wall Thick, muscular Thinner Very thin, one cell thick Very small, only allows blood to Lumen Small Large pass through one cell at a time Thick muscular walls to withstand Walls are made of Contain valves to Other blood flowing at high pressure as semi-permeable membrane to prevent back features it leaves the heart; the largest allow transport of gases and flow of blood artery is the aorta nutrients into and out of the blood Blood The main function of blood is to transport nutrients and oxygen to the cells of the body. Blood is made up of four components: 1. red blood cells – these transport oxygen around the body 2. white blood cells - these fight infection 3. platelets - these clot to prevent blood loss during injury 4. plasma - this is the liquid part of blood Red blood cells are very important for sport and physical activity because they contain haemoglobin. Haemoglobin allows them to carry oxygen from the lungs to the working muscles. Red blood cells are disc-shaped cells with no nucleus. They are very small but their flattened shape gives a relatively large surface area which allows rapid diffusion of oxygen. 34 Functions of the cardiovascular system The cardiovascular system has four main functions: 1. transport and deliver oxygen, nutrients and hormones to the body 2. remove waste products such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid 3. protection against disease and infection 4. maintain body temperature Maintaining body temperature In the heat, blood vessels close to the surface of the skin enlarge. This process is called vasodilation. This allows more heat to be lost from the blood. When a person takes part in exercise their face can become pink due to vasodilation of the blood vessels close to the skin's surface. In the cold, blood vessels at the skin's surface close. This process is called vasoconstriction and takes blood away from the surface of the skin to help prevent it from losing heat. Blood pressure When the heart contracts it pushes blood into blood vessels which creates blood pressure. 35 A blood pressure reading consists of two values: systolic value – blood pressure while the heart is squeezing diastolic value – blood pressure while the heart is relaxing The average blood pressure for an adult is 120/80 mmHg. The first number is the systolic value and the second number is the diastolic value. Blood pressure is determined by Q (cardiac output) and the resistance to the blood flow (R). Resistance to blood flow is caused both by the diameter of the blood vessels and by the thickness of the blood. Furthermore, if a person has a condition called atherosclerosis (plaque in the arteries), their resistance to blood flow will increase and so will blood pressure. This can have serious health implications such as causing chronic high blood pressure, angina or even heart attack or stroke. The heart's performance as a pump The heart's function is to pump the blood and circulate it round the body. We assess the heart's performance by measuring how much blood it pumps out each minute. This is called cardiac output. To calculate cardiac output, we also need to know about heart rate and stroke volume. Heart rate Heart rate (HR) is the number of times the heart beats (or the ventricles pump blood out) in one minute. The average resting HR is approximately 70 beats per minute (bpm). Stroke volume Stroke volume (SV) is the amount of blood pumped out of the ventricles each time they contract. The average resting SV is approximately 70 ml. Cardiac values Cardiac output (Q) is the amount of blood pumped from the heart every minute and can be calculated by multiplying heart rate (HR) by stroke volume (SV). Q = HR × SV The average resting HR is 70 bpm and the average resting SV is 70 ml, so the average resting Q is 4,900 ml or approximately 5 litres per minute. During sport and physical activity, HR, SV and therefore Q, all increase to send more blood and oxygen to the working muscles. 36 Applied anatomy and physiology 1.1 Unit 1.1.d - The Respiratory System The respiratory system transports oxygen from the air we breathe, through a system of tubes, into our lungs and then diffuses it into the bloodstream, whilst carbon dioxide makes the opposite journey. Structure of the respiratory system Passage of air into the lungs 1. Air enters the body and is warmed as it travels through the mouth and nose. 2. It then enters the trachea. 3. The trachea divides into two bronchi. One bronchus enters each lung. 4. Each bronchus branches out into smaller tubes called bronchioles. Air travels through these bronchioles. 5. At the end of the bronchioles, the air enters one of the many millions of alveoli where gaseous exchange takes place. 37 Breathing Breathing is the term given to the process of taking air into and out of the lungs. The process of inhalation and exhalation Two important structures for breathing are the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that separates the chest (or thoracic) cavity from the rest of the body. 38 The intercostal muscles are found between the ribs and they control rib movement. Inspiration (breathing in) The diaphragm contracts and moves downwards. The intercostal muscles contract and move the ribs upwards and outwards. This increases the size of the chest and decreases the air pressure inside it which sucks air into the lungs. Expiration (breathing out) The diaphragm relaxes and moves back to its domed shape. The intercostal muscles relax so the ribs move inwards and downwards under their own weight. This decreases the size of the chest and increases the air pressure in the chest so air is forced out of the lungs. Gaseous (or gas) exchange Gas exchange occurs at the alveoli in the lungs and takes place by diffusion. The alveoli are surrounded by capillaries so oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries. Diffusion is the movement of gas from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. There is a high concentration of oxygen in the alveoli and a low concentration of oxygen in the blood, so oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood. There is a high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and a low concentration in the alveoli, so carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli. Both oxygen and carbon dioxide are capable of combining with an iron-rich protein in the blood called haemoglobin. Haemoglobin carries oxygen to be exchanged at the working muscle and carbon dioxide to be exchanged at the lung. 39 As the blood moves through the capillaries in the alveoli, oxygen diffuses into it and carbon dioxide diffuses out of it Capillaries surround the alveoli in the lungs. Both the capillaries and alveoli walls are very thin - just one cell thick. They are made of semi-permeable membranes which allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass through them. The efficiency of the respiratory system We assess the performance of the respiratory system by measuring how much air is inspired or expired each minute. This is called minute ventilation. To calculate minute ventilation, we also need to know about breathing rate and tidal volume. Breathing rate (or frequency, f) is the number of breaths taken in one minute. The average resting breathing rate is approximately 12-15 breaths in a minute. Tidal volume (TV) is the amount of air inspired or expired in a normal breath. The average resting tidal volume is approximately 500 ml. Minute ventilation (VE) is the amount or volume of air inspired or expired in one minute and can be calculated by multiplying tidal volume (TV) by breathing rate (f). The average resting TV is 500 ml and the average resting f is 15, so the average resting VE is 7500 ml/min or approximately 7.5 litres per minute. During sport and physical activity, TV, f and therefore VE, all increase to make more oxygen available for the working muscles. VE = TV × f 40 Applied anatomy and physiology 1.1 Unit 1.1.d - Anaerobic & Aerobic Exercise Depending upon whether the body uses oxygen or not in order to perform physical activities determines if the activity is aerobic (with oxygen) or anaerobic (without oxygen). Anaerobic respiratory system The anaerobic respiratory system supplies energy very quickly for sports such as vaulting in gymnastics or throwing a javelin where the activity only lasts a few seconds. Anaerobic exercise is performed in the absence of oxygen. It is high-intensity, short duration exercise. Anaerobic exercise can only be sustained for a short time, mainly because of the build-up of lactic acid. Examples of anaerobic activities include sprinting, long jump, making a tackle in football, shooting at goal in netball and serving in tennis. 41 Athletes showing signs of fatigue and pain towards the end of a 400 m race This system breaks down glucose into lactic acid. Glucose is derived from carbohydrates. It produces energy very quickly. Glucose → energy + lactic acid The lactic acid energy system produces the majority of the energy for moderate to high intensity activities such as running 400 metres. However, lactic acid is a fatiguing by-product of this energy pathway and causes pain and discomfort in the working muscles. It is for this reason that the winner of a 400 m race is typically the athlete who slows down the least. 42 Oxygen debt Christine Ohuruogu exhausted after completing the women's 400 m race It is the lack of oxygen and the build-up of lactic acid that causes fatigue. The anaerobic systems require oxygen to restore them which is called an oxygen debt. After taking part in exercise, a person continues to breathe more deeply and rapidly than when at rest to take in additional oxygen to repay this oxygen debt. The oxygen is then used to: break down lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water replenish the creatine phosphate stores 43 Aerobic respiratory system The aerobic respiratory system is responsible for producing the majority of our energy while our bodies are at rest or taking part in low-intensity exercise for long periods of time such as jogging or long-distance cycling. Aerobic exercise takes place in the presence of oxygen. It is lower intensity, longer duration exercise. Aerobic exercise can be sustained for a prolonged period of time because there is lots of glucose available and no great build-up of lactic acid. Examples of aerobic activities include marathon running, 5,000 metres, distance swimming, jogging back to reposition in football, dancing, canoeing and cross-country skiing. Glucose + oxygen → energy + water + carbon dioxide Glucose from carbohydrates and fats supply the energy for the aerobic energy system and can supply energy for long periods of time. Carbohydrate food sources include rice, bread, potatoes, bananas and energy drinks. Fat food sources include butter, oils, cheese, milk and nuts. 44 Applied anatomy and physiology 1.1 Unit 1.1.e - Effects of exercise on body systems Short term effects of exercise on the body systems When a person takes part in exercise the cardiovascular, respiratory, energy and muscular systems all work together to supply energy to the working muscles and remove waste products. When the muscles start to work, they need more oxygen so the respiratory system responds by getting more oxygen into the lungs. The blood carries greater amounts of oxygen and the heart responds to pump more oxygenated blood around the body. These effects are shown in the table: Short term effects of exercise Increase in stroke volume (SV); increase in heart rate (HR); Cardiovascular increase in cardiac output (Q); increase in blood pressure (BP); system redistribution of blood flow Increase in breathing rate (f); increase in tidal volume (TV); Respiratory system increase in minute ventilation (VE) Cardio-respiratory Increase in oxygen uptake and transport to the working muscles; system increase in carbon dioxide removal Energy system Increase in lactic acid (lactate) production Increase in temperature of muscles; increased pliability Muscular system (elasticity); muscle fatigue 45 After exercising, the muscles need to rest, adapt and recover. There is a risk of injury if the body is not rested for long enough after exercise. This concept can be better understood by studying the Principles of training. Redistribution of blood flow During exercise, the cardiovascular system redistributes the blood so that more of it goes to the working muscles and less of it goes to other body organs such as the digestive system. This redirection of blood flow is caused by a mechanism (or process) called the vascular shunt mechanism. It works a little bit like a railway terminal, where trains are directed on to some tracks and stopped from travelling on to others. The blood vessels allow lots of blood to travel to the working muscles but they don't allow much to travel to other organs. When the muscles stop working, the blood distribution returns to its normal route. Warm up and warm down Warming up before sport allows the body systems to make all these changes gradually, so they are fully prepared for the stresses placed upon them during the activity. Long term effects of exercise on the body systems Taking part in regular exercise or training around three times per week for six weeks will lead to adaptation of the body systems that are used or trained. This has the effect of increasing performance in that type of exercise or sport and is often beneficial to general health and everyday life. 46 Resistance training increases strength Aerobic training increases aerobic endurance Long term effects of exercise Type of training Cardiac hypertrophy; increased stroke volume Aerobic activities (SV) at rest and during exercise; decrease in Cardiovascular (lower intensity, longer resting heart rate (HR); increase in cardiac output system duration) produce (Q); capillarisation at the lungs and muscles; these effects most increase in number of red blood cells 47 Increased tidal volume (TV), minute ventilation Aerobic activities Respiratory (TE) and vital capacity; increased number of (lower intensity, longer system functioning alveoli; increased strength of the duration) produce respiratory muscles (intercostals and diaphragm) these effects most Aerobic Increased production of energy from the aerobic activities/training; Energy system energy system; increased tolerance to lactic acid; anaerobic training; faster recovery rate; increased aerobic capacity general effect Resistance/weight Muscle hypertrophy; increased strength of training; general effect; tendons and ligaments; increased muscular Muscular aerobic strength; increased muscular endurance; system activities/training; increased speed of contraction; increased anaerobic/speed resistance to fatigue training Resistance training; Increase in bone density and strength; increased weight bearing Skeletal system flexibility activities; flexibility training/stretching Cardiac hypertrophy Hypertrophy means an increase in size, so muscle hypertrophy means the muscles get bigger. If you weight train regularly doing biceps curls, your biceps will show muscle hypertrophy. Cardiac hypertrophy is where the ventricle wall gets larger or thickens as a result of exercise. 48 The muscle wall of the left ventricle increases in size, meaning it is able to pump out more blood during each contraction which increases the stroke volume. As stroke volume is increased, resting heart rate decreases but cardiac output (Q) remains the same as SV × HR = Q. Capillarisation Capillarisation is the process where new capillaries are formed. Capillarisation takes place at the alveoli in the lungs and at the skeletal muscle. This has the effect of increasing the amount of oxygen that can be transferred to the working muscles as well as increasing the amount of carbon dioxide that can be removed. 49 Effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system Changes to heart rate during exercise Heart rate is measured in beats per minute (bpm). During exercise the heart rate increases so that sufficient blood is taken to the working muscles to provide them with enough nutrients and oxygen. An increase in heart rate also allows for waste products to be removed. Maximal heart rate can be worked out by the following equation: Maximum HR = 220 - age Change to stroke volume during exercise Stroke volume increases which means more blood is pumped out of the heart each time it contracts. Changes to cardiac output during exercise At rest a person's cardiac output is approximately 5 litres per minute, while during exercise it can increase to as much as 30 litres per minute as both their heart rate and stroke volume increase. Work out the cardiac output of a person at rest with a heart rate of 70 bpm and a stroke volume of 80 ml. Compare that to their cardiac output when they are taking part in exercise and their heart rate increases to 200 bpm and stroke volume increases to 120 ml. Changes to blood pressure during exercise As exercise increases, cardiac output (Q) also increases. This has the effect of increasing blood pressure. A typical blood pressure reading for a person at the start of exercise would be around 160/85 mmHg. Effects of exercise on the cardio-respiratory system The cardio-respiratory system works together to get oxygen to the working muscles and remove carbon dioxide from the body. 50 During exercise the muscles need more oxygen in order to contract and they produce more carbon dioxide as a waste product. To meet this increased demand by the muscles, the following happens: Breathing depth (tidal volume) and rate increase – this gets more oxygen into the lungs and removes more carbon dioxide out of the lungs. The graph shows that as a person goes from rest to exercise, their tidal volume increases. Heart rate increases – this increases the rate that oxygen is transported from the blood to the working muscles and carbon dioxide is transported from the working muscles to the lungs. 51 This graph indicates the following: the person's resting heart rate is around 60 bpm at 8 minutes, just before taking part in exercise their heart rate increases – this is called the anticipatory increase in heart rate which occurs when a person starts to think about taking part in exercise at 10 minutes the person starts to take part in exercise and there is a steep increase in heart rate which reaches 145 bpm at 13 minutes the heart rate remains high during exercise when the person stops taking part in exercise the heart rate decreases 52 Physical Training 1.2 Unit 1.2.a - The Components of Fitness Health, fitness and exercise are essential to the sporting and life performance of humans. The relationship between the three is cyclical. Components of fitness Fitness can be broken down into different components or parts. Health-related components How fitness can be broken down into different health-related components 53 Skill-related components How fitness can be broken down into different skill-related components These sub-divisions make it easier to understand fitness and also to understand the different requirements of sporting activities and the different roles within the same activity. For example, if we look at the game of field hockey, the top three fitness requirements of the goalkeeper and the midfielder might look like this: Goalkeeper Midfield player 1. Agility 1. Cardiovascular fitness 2. Reaction time 2. Power 3. Flexibility 3. Muscular endurance It is obvious that the training for these two performers must be completely different and must focus on the specific requirements of the individual position. 54 Fitness testing is a central and essential feature of all fitness training and will be used before training begins, during the training programme and again at the end of the training programme. The importance of fitness testing The different types of fitness tests and their function before, during and after training See also the goal setting guide. The components of fitness – definitions, examples and tests Cardiovascular endurance/stamina Definition: The ability of the heart, lungs and blood to transport oxygen during sustained exercise. Our heart and lungs are able to cope with activity for relatively long periods of time without getting tired. Examples: Cardiovascular endurance is particularly important in distance running, triathlon, playing a whole football or netball match without tiring. Test 1: Multistage fitness test 20 m shuttles are run in time with the pre-set beeps. Each minute, the time between the beeps gets shorter, so running speed has to increase. When the runner can no longer keep up with the beeps, they stop and their final level is recorded and compared with the published tables. Test 2: Cooper 12 minute run 55 The total distance run or walk round a marked area in 12 minutes is recorded and compared with the published tables. Muscular endurance Definition: The ability to use voluntary (skeletal) muscles repeatedly without tiring. Examples: A rower repeatedly pulling their oar against the water to propel the boat towards the line; a cyclist's leg muscles turning the pedals; in the gym, completing 40 sit-ups. Test 1: National Coaching Foundation abdominal curl test This test measures the muscular endurance of the abdominal muscles. As many correct abdominal curls (sit-ups) as possible are performed in 30 seconds. The score is recorded and compared with the published tables. Test 2: Press-up test This test measures the muscular endurance of the chest and shoulder muscles. As many press-ups as possible are performed in 30 seconds or one minute. The score is recorded and compared with previous scores or other scores on the internet. Speed Definition: The ability to move all or part of the body as quickly as possible. Examples: Speed is important in sprinting, speed skating, sprint cycling and sports such as tennis when a player has to move forward quickly from the baseline to reach a drop shot close to the net. Test: 30 m sprint test Run as fast as possible for 30 m from a standing or rolling start. Time is recorded and compared with previous times or other times on the internet. Strength Definition: The ability of a muscle to apply force and overcome resistance or the amount of force a muscle can exert. Examples: A weightlifter performing a clean and jerk; putting the shot; a boxer punching a right hook; a rugby player in a scrum, pushing against the opposition pack. Test 1: Handgrip dynamometer 56 The handle is squeezed as hard as possible with one hand. This gives a reading for the strength of hand grip. Test 2: 1 Rep max (repetition maximum) This is the heaviest weight that can be lifted once. It can be attempted using free weights or multi-gym equipment and should be worked up to gradually, with rests between lifts. Flexibility Definition: The range of movement (ROM) at a joint. It is the ability to move the joints through their full range of motion. Examples: Flexibility is important in sports such as dance and gymnastics as it allows participants to perform complex moves efficiently and improves the aesthetic quality of the performance. Flexibility is needed by football and hockey goalkeepers to allow them to stretch further to make saves. Shoulder flexibility is needed in racquet sports to enable a greater range of shot and hip flexibility is required in hurdles. Good flexibility also helps to prevent injury. Test: Sit and reach test This test assesses the flexibility of the hamstrings and lower back. Sitting down with straight legs and feet flat against the box, the participant slowly reaches forward as far as possible and holds the furthest position for 3 seconds. The position reached by the fingertips is measured – before the toes will give a minus score; past the toes will give a plus score. The score is then compared with the published tables. Agility 57 The Illinois agility test comprises a weaving running course, marked by cones, which has to be completed in the shortest possible time. Definition: The ability to change the direction or position of the body at speed. Examples: Most sports, except static ones, require agility. Basketball players, gymnasts, skiers, table tennis players and hockey players all need agility. Rugby players need agility to side-step when they are running with the ball; netballers need agility to dodge into space for a pass or stick with the player they are marking. Test: Illinois agility run The course is completed in the shortest possible time; the starting position is lying face down. The time is recorded and compared with the published tables. Use of test data All the fitness tests provide data which can be compared to normative scores. These normative scores are indicators of how the participant has performed in comparison to the general population. Fitness tests are only relevant when the scores are compared to normative data. However, highly trained athletes may find that normative comparisons are no longer relevant to their own progress. An athlete such as Katarina Johnson-Thompson will only be interested in how her fitness data compares to other athletes and specifically to her own previous fitness test performances. As a result, Katarina's ongoing fitness can be tracked and action can be taken exactly when and where it is needed most. 58 Physical Training 1.2 Unit 1.2.b - The Principles of Training Training means exercising regularly to improve skills and fitness. The training that an athlete does must be appropriate for that person and their sport in order to get the most out of their training. Definitions and descriptions of the principles of training The principles of training should be thought of as the 'golden rules' of making fitness training work for the individual participant. Following these golden rules will help to guarantee success and will carry athletes towards their training and performance goals. All training is aimed at creating long-term physical changes in the body systems. These changes are referred to as adaptations. Specificity - training must be relevant to the i ndividual and their sport. This can be achieved by tailoring training specifically for the sport or even the position that the individual plays, the muscle groups that they use the most or the dominant energy system of the athlete. For example, a 100 m sprinter is likely to train very differently to a 10 km racer despite them both being track athletes. The sprinter will focus on speed and power while the distance runner will train for cardiovascular fitness and the ability to work at high intensity aerobically. Distance runner Mo Farah and sprinter Usain Bolt performing each other's signature move at the London Olympic Games in 2012 59 Overload - training needs to work the body harder than normal so there is some stress and discomfort. This makes the body systems respond by adapting to the stress placed on them. Applying the overload principle to training means that performance will improve - no overload, no improvement. Overload can be achieved by using FITT (see below). Progression - training should progressively become more difficult. Once the body has adapted, the performer should make further demands on the systems. However, increases must be gradual so that the athlete avoids a plateau in performance or, worse, injury. Reversibility - if training stops, then the fitness gained will be largely lost. The body systems reverse or de-adapt and performance deteriorates if training is significantly reduced, decreases in intensity or injury prevents training from taking place for any length of time. It is essential to avoid breaks in training and to maintain the motivation of the athlete. Rest and recovery - physical adaptations occur during the recovery and non-active period of the training cycle. Therefore athletes and trainers must achieve the right amount of rest between sessions, good sleep patterns and the right nutrition, including the use of protein, to help repair the damage caused by intense training. Optimising training Overload and progression can be applied to training using the FITT principle. F = Frequency I = Intensity T = Time T = Type Frequency is how often you train, for example, three times a week. Frequency is increased by training a greater number of times each week. Intensity is how hard you train, for example faster, heavier, less recovery. Intensity is increased by lifting a greater resistance, such as with weight training, or by training at a higher percentage of maximum heart rate (maxHR). This can be done either as continuous or interval training. Time is how long you train for, for example a 30 minute session. Time can be manipulated by training for longer or by completing a greater number of sets or repetitions (also known as reps). Type of training is what kind of training you do, for example interval, fartlek or continuous. Type is manipulated by offering a variety of training types and experiences to the athlete by combining training methods. 60 Training frequency, intensity, time or type must be increased over the training period to ensure that the body is pushed beyond its normal workload. Case studies Athlete 1 A 25-year-old elite level long jumper training to improve athletic performance, with a specific goal of being selected by TeamGB for the next athletics World Championships. Specificity - training would be focused on explosive strength of the legs by using weights and plyometrictraining. As long jumpers need to be highly flexible, a significant amount of time would be given to increasing flexibility through stretching. Progressive overload and FITT - training frequency would be approximately six times per week. Training intensity would be increased gradually by increasing the weight lifted and then increasing the target heart rate range in interval sessions. Time can be progressively overloaded by decreasing recovery times in weight training and increasing the numbers of repetitions during plyometric training. Training type can be varied by combining weight, plyometric, interval and flexibility training. Rest and recovery - the long jumper only has one full rest day each week so training units (sessions) need to be structured to allow for muscle groups to rest and recover. An example of this would be to use a flexibility session the day after a heavy weights and plyometrics day. Likewise the training could be structured so that the athlete works the upper body the day after training the lower body, thus allowing the legs to rest. Reversibility - the long jumper is training six times per week. Injury and burn-out are avoided by allowing for recovery and providing varied types of training. This should prevent de-adaptation. Injury must be avoided at all costs. 61 Athlete 2 A 19-year-old road cyclist training to achieve their first professional contract in a European team. The rider is a specialist hill climber. Specificity - training would be focused on cardiovascular fitness through a process of continuous training with other anaerobic methods used to improve the hill climbing. Training would take place for long periods to prepare the athlete for the full day cycling required by elite road cyclists. Progressive overload and FITT - training frequency would be approximately six times per week. Training intensity would be increased gradually by increasing the target heart rate range in continuous sessions. Time can be progressively overloaded by increasing the length of sessions and the proportion of the session spent climbing. Training type can be varied by combining continuous, interval and flexibility training. Rest and recovery - the cyclist only has one full rest day each week so training units (sessions) need to vary in terms of length and intensity. Successive high intensity hill sessions should be avoided. Recovery must be optimised through the use of effective cool downs as well as excellent nutrition between sessions. Reversibility - the cyclist is training six times per week during in-season training. Attention must be given to ensuring that over-use injuries do not occur by recovering properly from training and by using good nutrition. 62 Physical Training 1.2 Unit 1.2.b - Effects of a Warm Up & Cool Down There are a number of different ways of training that can improve health and fitness necessary for a range of activities. Warming up and cooling down are essential parts of a training session. Effects of warm up and cool down Training should be considered to be a very deliberate and controlled process, following precise guidelines. One of those guidelines is that every session starts with a warm up and ends with a cool down. Specific training methods are used to bring about specific outcomes and even the timing and order of when to use each training method can be planned to the finest detail. Warm up Each training session and competitive performance should begin with a warm up, to ensure the performer is physically and mentally prepared for action. A warm up can take from ten minutes up to an hour. 1. Warm up starts with pulse raising activities such as easy jogging or cycling, or anything that gently raises the heart rate. 2. Next come mobility exercises for the joints, such as arm circling for shoulders, skipping for ankles and knees and pelvis swivels for the hips. 63 3. Stretching comes next and stretches should be dynamic (moving, not held) for a warm up, such as high knees to stretch hamstrings, heel flicks to stretch quadriceps and side-steps to stretch groins. This leads into larger dynamic movements such as lunges, agility ladder exercises, step/foot patterns and fast feet, gradually increasing in intensity and speed. Physical warm up usually finishes with skill rehearsal, which means practising the techniques used in the game. Netballers would perform passing drills and shooting or rebounding drills while tennis players hit specific shots and serve repeatedly. The illustration shows the three primary components of an effective warm up. 64 Physical benefits of a warm up A warm up prepares the body for physical activity in the following ways: Cool down Each training session and competitive performance should end with a cool down, to allow the body to recover more efficiently and minimise subsequent discomfort for the performer. 1. Cool down starts with low intensity exercise such as light jogging, medium pace walking or easy cycling, anything that allows the heart rate to maintain an increased rate then gradually decrease. 2. This is followed by stretching, which is usually more static (held) in a cool down. The major muscle groups used in the activity should be stretched. 65 The illustration shows the three primary components of an effective cool down. Ice baths and massages are techniques that are also used to speed up the recovery process. Heptathlete Jessica Ennis-Hill cools down in an ice bath 66 Physical benefits of a cool down A cool down helps the body’s transition back to its resting state in the following ways: 67 Physical Training 1.2 Unit 1.2.b - Methods of training Specific training methods are used to bring about specific outcomes and even the timing and order of when to use each training method can be planned to the finest detail. All methods of training need to be specific to the individual performer, component of fitness and the activity. Continuous training develops cardiovascular fitness A minimum of 20 minutes sub-maximal work (steady rate, lower intensity). Target heart rate range between 60% - 80% maximum heart rate (max HR). Swimming, running, cycling, walking or a combination of these disciplines. A distance runner or triathlete would use continuous training. Fartlek training develops a range of components and is used by games players. Fartlek means 'speed play'. A form of continuous training. Changes in speed, incline and terrain are used to provide changes in exercise intensity. Aerobic and anaerobic work can be done in the quantities that suit the performer and it is more varied than continuous training. Footballers, tennis and hockey players would use fartlek training. Interval training can develop strength, speed, muscular endurance and cardiovascular endurance Periods of work interspersed with periods of rest. A wide variety of fitness types can be developed. Structured by planning the duration of the work and rest intervals, the intensity of the work intervals and the number of work-rest intervals. An example of a sprint session might be 6 × 100m at 12 seconds with 2 minutes rest in between. Interval training can be used for almost any sport providing it is planned for the type of fitness required. Circuit training can develop strength, speed, agility, muscular endurance or cardiovascular stamina 68 A form of interval training. A series of exercises or activities arranged in a special order called a circuit. A circuit usually involves 6-10 exercises performed at stations. The exercises work different muscle groups and circuits usually avoid working the same muscle group at two consecutive stations. Examples of circuit exercises are sit-ups, press-ups, squats, lunges and step-ups. Sports skills can also be included such as dribbling, shooting and passing for basketball players. Circuit training can be used for almost any sport providing it is planned for the type of fitness required. Weight training develops strength and muscular endurance A form of interval training. Intensity is measured in a percentage of the most weight a person can lift one time and is known as % 1 REP MAX (% of maximum lift). Time is structured in reps and sets with specific timings for recovery between sets. Strength training involves high weights and low reps; muscular endurance training involves low weights and high reps. Huge range of possible lifts combining machines, free weights and body weight exercises. Most sports performers and athletes use weight training to improve strength and muscular endurance, for example cyclists, rugby players and athletic throwers. Plyometric training develops power High intensity exercise involving explosive movements. The muscle is lengthened and then rapidly shortened to develop the explosive capability of the muscle, like an elastic band which recoils after being stretched. Suitable for well-trained athletes; can easily cause injury if not used properly or not enough recovery allowed. Very effective for developing power. Involves bounding, hopping and jumping. Any sports requiring sprinting, throwing or jumping would use plyometrics, for example netballers and volleyballers. HIIT (High Intensity Interval Training) develops cardiovascular endurance/stamina and anaerobic fitness Short bursts of intense exercise with short recovery breaks in between. 69 Gives the same effects as long duration endurance training but in a shorter period of time. The work interval intensity should be between 80 – 95% max HR; recovery intensity should be 40-50% max HR. Example sessions on an exercise bike might be three minutes of high intensity pedaling followed by 3 minutes of recovery pedaling, repeated three to five times or 30 seconds of all-out effort followed by recovery pedaling for 4 minutes, repeated three to five times. HIIT would be beneficial to many sports and is also recommended for health reasons. 70 Physical Training 1.3 c Unit 1.3.c - Preventing Injury in Physical Activity and Training Physical activity comes with a risk of injury, but this risk can be minimised by good practice and knowledge of potential hazards. Health screening PAR-Q Questionnaire Prevention of injury Risk of injury can be reduced by: following the rules of the game using personal protective equipment wearing the correct clothing and footwear warming up and cooling down using the appropriate level of competition lifting and carrying equipment safely Rules of the game A cricketer must follow all rules to ensure that injury is avoided. For example, a bowler must ensure that the ball bounces on the pitch and must bowl from behind the crease so that the batsperson has enough time to respond to the ball. Only a limited number of bowls each over may be delivered over shoulder height. These rules help to keep the batsperson safe. Personal protective equipment In cricket, a batsperson typically wears a helmet, pads and gloves in case a fast-moving ball strikes them. Likewise, some fielders such as the wicket keeper wear a helmet and pads for the 71 legs. Many sports have rules to make sure protective equipment is worn. Other examples of personal protective equipment are shin pads, gum shields or mouth guards, buoyancy aids, chest pads and knee pads. England batsman Stuart Broad receives treatment after being hit by a cricket ball and sustaining an injury to his nose Correct clothing and footwear Incorrect clothing and footwear can cause injury to the performer or an opponent. Clothing should always be appropriate for the activity, jewellery removed, hair tied back and laces tied. Footwear is very important and many sports require specialist shoes or boots. Football boots have studs for grip; astro trainers have soles which stick for turning safely; runners have spikes for grip and performance, but the length of the spikes are monitored as they can cause injury to others; triple jump shoes have extra protection for landing in the hop and step phases; basketball boots have extra ankle protection; road running shoes have soles to absorb repeated footstrike impact. Use of warm up and cool down Warming up the muscles and joints helps to prevent injury during training and competition, as they are better prepared for sudden movements. Cooling down effectively helps disperse lactic acid and restores muscles to their pre-exercise length, helping to reduce injury risk in the next session. 72 Appropriate level of competition If competitors are not evenly matched or fairly balanced there is a greater risk of injury. Competitions are made safe and fair by the use of weight, age and gender categories or handicap systems. Sports such as boxing and wrestling match opponents according to their weight, for example super heavyweight, flyweight, featherweight, welterweight. Children's competitions are normally in age groups, as it wouldn’t be safe or fair to have a 15-year-old playing against a nine-year-old, especially in contact or team sports. Some adult sports also have veteran and senior categories for safety reasons. In most sports, particularly contact sports, men play against men and women play against women - primarily for safety reasons. Handicap systems are another way to make competition fairer, but are only occasionally used for safety reasons. 'Handicapping; makes the game harder for the better players and easier for novices. In golf, a better player would have to play a hole in fewer shots, whereas the novice would be allowed more shots without being penalised. Lifting and carrying of equipment To prevent injuries such as back strains and broken limbs, all large and dangerous equipment should be moved safely and correctly. Correct posture should be maintained throughout (bend knees, back flat and straight, keep weight/object close to body, extend legs to lift), and care taken when placing the equipment down to prevent foot injuries. Things like trampolines, vaulting boxes and moveable goalposts require training to set them up and put them away safely. Potential hazards Most sports facilities present their own set of hazards and safety risks. There are a number of things to consider for each type of facility. Sports hall Floor well maintained and cleaned of slip hazards. Equipment stored safely, moved carefully and secured when being used. Equipment in good condition, not broken or damaged. Trip hazards minimised (such as dividing nets/curtains pulled back fully). Fitness centre Appropriate level of supervision. Equipment/weights/machines well maintained and checked daily. 73 Users given adequate training and safety advice, particularly with weight equipment. Correct hydration encouraged. Hygiene standards adhered to, such as wiping down equipment (affects grip). Slip hazards minimised, particularly in changing/shower rooms (wet floors/strewn belongings). Playing field Well maintained pitches - even surface, no holes/ruts/mounds, short grass. Checked for debris – stones, bottles, litter. Equipment well maintained and secured (goalposts, nets pegged properly, corner flags). Artificial outdoor areas Astroturf surface is smooth and wrinkle free, no joints/stitching visible, no bald patches. Adequate sand/water applied. Checked for debris – bottles, litter. Equipment well maintained and secured. Dividing nets in good condition & fully extended/pulled back to prevent trip hazard. Adequate run-out space (from stored equipment or boundary fence). Swimming pool Lifeguards. Depth signs. Behaviour rules displayed and adhered to (running/shouting/bombing). Pool well maintained. Poolside well maintained and cleaned (no cracked tiles or trip or slip hazards). Equipment stored safely Changing rooms and showers well maintained and cleaned. 74 Component 02: Socio-cultural issues and sports psychology Unit 2.1.a - Engagement Patterns of Different Social Groups in Physical Activity and Sport Socio-cultural influences Participation in physical activity is influenced by social factors such as social groupings, family and friends as well as personal factors such as age, gender, disability and ethnicity. Participation in sport People have different preferences and reasons for choosing to participate in sport and their choice is influenced by a number of factors including: age gender ethnicity religion and culture family education time and work commitments cost and disposable income disability opportunity and access discrimination environment and climate media coverage role models Age, gender, ethnicity, religion and culture and sport 75 Age Age affects participation in physical activity in a number of ways: Young children need to develop gross motor skills from an early age to become confident movers. Those that do so tend to participate to a greater degree. Adolescents experience a growth spurt that changes their physical development. This affects how they acquire skills and how they feel, ie confidence, self-esteem and body image; it also influences the type of activity they may participate in, as intensive strength training is not recommended while bodies are still growing as it can damage the growth plate on the bone ends. Young people's participation is usually high during curriculum time as physical education (PE) is compulsory. It is lower for extracurricular sport, and it drops dramatically beyond school – out of school hours and when young people leave school. Overall, young people’s participation decreases from age 13. Young people also want to take part in a greater variety of sports and physical activities than in the past. This includes more fitness activities, individual activities and non-traditional games. According to Sport England, nearly 55% of 16-to-25-year-olds take part in at least one sport session a week, compared to only 32% of older adults (26 plus), so participation in sports tends to decrease with age. Older people may experience decreasing flexibility, strength and general fitness and find it harder to recover from injury. This affects their choice of activity and gentler, lower impact sports such as golf, bowls and cycling are popular with the older age group. 76 Gender In the UK, 1.9 million fewer women than men take part in sport each week. There is a significant drop in girls' participation from age 11. By age 14, boys are twice as active as girls. There are many reasons why some women rarely participate in sport and physical activity: discrimination - others/males/media devalue female sport and activity low self-esteem - awareness of image, lack of confidence, embarrassment lack of role models - few female role models for this age group lack of encouragement - from family, schools, peers friends/peer inactivity - others do not participate, devalue activity lack of opportunity - few activities for women/women only activities school PE negative influences - poor experiences, narrow opportunities in schools other interests - competing with other activities, pressures from other interests lack of media coverage of female sport/activities childcare issues/family commitments - looking after young children religion/culture Participation in sport was once considered unsuitable and inappropriate for women, but these traditional arguments are now disregarded and women play most sports. Women are considered to be better than men at some ultra-endurance events and the gap between men's and women's achievements is closing fast. Ethnicity Over half of people in black and minority ethnic (BME) communities do no sport or physical activity. On average, all BME groups have lower participation rates than the national average. One of the main reasons why BME communities have lower rates of participation is the lack of BME role models involved in leading and organising sport. For example: only 5% of coaches are from BME communities only 7% of sports professionals (other than performers) are from BME communities people from BME communities are 50% less likely to be sports volunteers than the general population Other reasons include racism and discrimination, stereotyping and lack of disposable income. In some communities, the factors of ethnicity and gender combine to have an even greater effect on participation. For example, 92% of South Asian women do not meet the recommended levels of physical activity compared to 55% of all women. 77 Religion and culture Some religions and cultures have laws or expectations which make it more difficult to participate in sport. These restrictions particularly affect women and are often to do with clothing. For example, a teenage girl might not be allowed to go swimming with her friends as wearing a bathing costume in public is not allowed in her culture or religion. Some performers wear head covering or full body covering when they participate, to stay within the laws of their religion. Time of day may also affect participation, as many religions have specific times for rituals and worship. Family, education, time and cost in sport Family Children frequently take part in the same physical activities as their parents. They also often follow the same sports, support the same teams or indulge in friendly family rivalry. When the family has a habit or routine of being active, and a positive attitude towards sport, the children are more likely to stay active themselves. If the family has a negative attitude towards physical activity, the children are less likely to become involved with sports. Many children rely on their family for equipment and travel so this affects their participation and choice of activity. As a contrast, many parents become involved in coaching or organising sports activities, or spectating, because their children participate. Education Schools have a great influence on participation: physical development of motor skills and specific techniques guidance on health and fitness introduction to and experience of a wide range of activities experience of good leadership develop positive attitude provision of role models regular participation through curriculum PE opportunities for qualifications - academic (GCSE), vocational (NVQ), leadership (YST sports leaders) and coaching certificates. 78 opportunities through extracurricular activities (including links with local sports clubs and recommending students for higher representation or national player pathways) Greater availability of further education and higher education also improves opportunities for continuing sports participation. Time and work commitments Long working hours and a lack of free time affect participation in sport. Parents looking after children might not have much free time to take part; people whose working day is made longer by commuting may not find time to be active; shift workers might not be free at the appropriate time. Some activities are easier to fit into a tight schedule than others. For example, a 20 minute workout in the gym might be more suitable than a scheduled 60 minute badminton coaching session. Cost and disposable income Disposable income is money remaining after taxes and other compulsory charges have been deducted. It is the money left over to be spent on whatever the person needs or wants. Some social groups have more disposable income which allows them to participate in sports and activities that are more expensive. Equestrian sports need horses, costly equipment and specialised transport. Skiing is often done abroad and so requires travel and accommodation costs. Many golf clubs charge a large membership fee. Golf – a sport for the more wealthy? 79 Some social groups have less disposable income so sports and activities which don’t cost so much might be more favourable to them. Running, swimming, football, netball, basketball and rounders can be inexpensive to take part in. Sports providers need to be aware of the costs when trying to engage people with lower incomes. Disability There are around 11 million disabled people in the UK. This includes people with physical, visual and hearing impairments and people with learning difficulties. The participation of disabled people in sport is significantly lower than that of non-disabled people, for all age groups. This is due to: physical barriers – many sports/activities need to be adapted in some way to allow disabled participation access – special doors and ramps often needed transport – may be difficult; specialised transport and carers often needed communication – needs to be appropriate from coaches/other participants, for example, sign language or digital amplification equipment psychological – lack of confidence, unsure of ability discrimination/negative attitudes – facilities, clubs or organisers not planning or providing for disabled participants opportunity – appropriate sports or sessions need to be local and available awareness – disabled people may not be aware of organisations/facilities catering for their needs 80 lack of media coverage and role models – this is improving with the inclusion of disabled sports in the Olympic and Paralympic Games Many sports and physical activities do ensure inclusion of disabled people. Inclusion requires staff and volunteers to have a positive attitude, communicate effectively and be able to adapt activities. Adapting sports and activities for disabled participation Disabled people take part in sport in a range of ways – with non-disabled participants and/or with other disabled people. Sports and physical activities can be adapted by changing: where it is done – for example, a shorter distance, lower net, court with zones how it is done – for example, two bounces before you hit the ball, roll instead of throw what is used – for example, a bell-ball, a flag instead of a whistle who does what – for example, uneven teams – 6v4, a guide runner Two role models for disability sport 81 Ellie Simmonds OBE – swimmer Ellie is a four-time Paralympic champion. She made her debut at Beijing in 2008 and won two gold medals and broke two world records at the London 2012 Games. She was awarded an OBE in 2013. Ellie has achondroplasia dwarfism. Ellie is one of the most recognised Paralympians and uses her success to campaign for more and better sports opportunities for young disabled people. David Weir CBE – wheelchair athlete London 2012 was David's fourth Paralympic Games and he won four gold medals to add to his collection. He competes regularly in the London Marathon, which he won for a record-equalling sixth time in 2012. David is a T54 athlete. This is the specific classification for disability athletes. The classification varies according to factors such as muscle strength, range of movements and amputations. David is passionate about raising the profile of Paralympic sport so established the Weir Archer Academy to coach up-and-coming wheelchair racers. 82 Other factors affecting participation in sport Opportunity and access For people to participate in sport and physical activity, facilities, sessions and resources need to be available in the area. If there is no hockey pitch or club, no-one has the opportunity to play hockey. If there is a dry ski slope in the town, this provides the opportunity to ski. Transport to facilities is a consideration – can they be reached on foot or by bike? Is public transport available (buses or trains)? Is there easy parking for cars? Disabled participants need specialised access, changing arrangements and equipment. Discrimination Discrimination is the unfair treatment of different categories of people on the grounds of race, gender, age or disability. An example of race discrimination would be the case of Mark McCammon in 2012 who claimed that he and other black players at Gillingham FC were treated less favourably than white players regarding punishments for missing training, medical treatment and pay cuts following relegation. An example of gender discrimination would be a woman not being allowed to join a golf club because it is a male-only club. An example of age discrimination would be a club

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