Understanding Roman Inscriptions PDF

The introduction of Understanding Roman Inscriptions by Lawrence Keppie lays the groundwork for why Roman inscriptions are essential to the study of ancient history and archaeology. Keppie begins by emphasizing the vast number of Roman inscriptions available—over 300,000—and their value as primary h...

The introduction of Understanding Roman Inscriptions by Lawrence Keppie lays the groundwork for why Roman inscriptions are essential to the study of ancient history and archaeology. Keppie begins by emphasizing the vast number of Roman inscriptions available—over 300,000—and their value as primary historical sources. Inscriptions offer insights that often go beyond the reach of traditional literary sources. They can provide a wealth of information about events not recorded elsewhere and detail the lives of individuals otherwise unknown to history. This makes them invaluable for prosopography, the study of historical figures and relationships. Keppie explains that epigraphy, the study of inscriptions, is fundamental to understanding the Roman world. The term “Roman inscriptions” encompasses texts on various materials, including stone, bronze, and clay. Latin was the primary language used in Italy and the western provinces, while Greek predominated in the eastern provinces. Occasionally, inscriptions appear in multiple languages, such as bilingual or trilingual texts. Roman inscriptions were typically inscribed on stone and other durable materials, making them excellent sources of historical evidence, as they were unlikely to be altered or corrupted over time. This reliability and durability distinguish them from other forms of ancient writing, such as papyri or coins, which are more susceptible to deterioration. Inscriptions serve as contemporary documents that provide direct insights into the organization of the Roman Empire and the everyday lives of its people. The introduction also outlines different materials used for inscriptions. While stone and bronze were common, inscriptions could also be written on wood, clay, pottery, glass, and mosaic tiles. Keppie mentions that while inscriptions on papyri are scarce outside Egypt, wooden writing tablets found at sites like Vindolanda reveal much about Roman life. Keppie’s introduction also highlights the chronological and geographical scope of Roman inscriptions, which reflect the evolution of Latin and the Roman Empire's expansion. The inscriptions span approximately a thousand years, from the early Republic through the height of the Empire and into the later periods. By examining inscriptions, historians can trace linguistic changes in Latin, such as vocabulary and grammatical structures, across different eras. The chapter concludes with Keppie’s intention for the book: to familiarize readers with inscriptions and guide them in understanding and reading Latin texts. He aims to show inscriptions as valuable historical resources that open a window into the Roman past. By explaining the importance of inscriptions and offering insights into how they were created, Keppie sets the stage for a detailed exploration of their types, uses, and the historical context they reveal. Chapter 2, "The Stonecutter and His Craft," in Understanding Roman Inscriptions, provides an in-depth exploration of the tools, techniques, and challenges faced by Roman stonecutters (lapicidae or faber lapidarii). Keppie describes the step-by-step process of stonecutting, from the preparation of the stone surface to the techniques used for inscribing letters. The process began with the stonemason smoothing the stone and marking it with guidelines for the text layout. Sometimes, faint lines were chiseled across the stone to mark the top and bottom of each row, while individual letter shapes were often drawn in chalk or charcoal. This preparatory stage, called ordinatio, ensured that inscriptions were well-planned, though mistakes were not uncommon. The quality of the layout varied significantly, especially in the provinces, where less skilled craftsmen often crowded text or resorted to abbreviations when they ran out of space​. Roman inscriptions typically used capital letters that evolved over time. Initially, chiseling was done head-on, creating flat-bottomed grooves. By the mid-first century BCE, stonecutters adopted oblique chiseling techniques, producing V-shaped grooves and more stylized letter forms. After carving, letters were often painted red using cinnabar (minium), a practice noted by Pliny the Elder, who mentioned its visibility-enhancing properties. Stonecutters had limited resources for correcting mistakes, which could stem from their own errors or from inaccuracies in the dictated text. While some corrections were made, many errors remained visible. The inscriptions reflect variations in spelling and grammar, which provide clues to linguistic changes in Latin over time. Lastly, Keppie notes that decorative motifs sometimes adorned Roman inscriptions, especially those on tombstones and monuments. Tools like chisels and hammers were occasionally depicted, symbolizing the stonemason's craft. The chapter captures the precision and artistry required in Roman stonecutting, illustrating both the technical and cultural importance of these ancient inscriptions​. Chapter 3, "Reading Roman Inscriptions," in Understanding Roman Inscriptions, guides readers through the process of deciphering Latin texts on Roman stones. Keppie starts by addressing the challenge of reading inscriptions written in Latin, a language that is no longer widely spoken. Despite this, he assures readers that they do not need to be fluent in Latin to grasp the general meaning of many inscriptions. With the help of common abbreviations, readers can determine the inscription's category and its primary message​. In this chapter, Keppie walks readers through the process of understanding and interpreting Roman inscriptions, even for those with little or no Latin background. He begins by addressing the intimidating nature of Latin inscriptions and encourages readers by explaining that with some basic tools, like a list of common abbreviations and terms, anyone can start to decipher these ancient texts. The Structure and Grammar of Inscriptions Keppie emphasizes that Roman inscriptions are usually written in straightforward, formulaic Latin. Inscriptions often follow a predictable structure, which includes the name of the person or deity to whom the inscription is dedicated, along with details like titles, roles, and family connections. The most common grammatical cases used are the nominative, dative, and accusative, depending on the nature of the inscription. For instance, many inscriptions begin with the person’s name, followed by their father’s name or a reference to their social standing, such as libertus (freedman). These names often provide clues about the person's family lineage and status within Roman society. Keppie notes that an understanding of Latin case endings (nominative for subjects, dative for recipients, and accusative for objects) can be quite helpful, as the arrangement of words follows a logical sequence within each inscription. The Roman Alphabet and Lettering Styles Keppie provides an overview of the Roman alphabet, which consisted of 21 letters. He discusses the use of Roman capitals (scriptura monumentalis), a style of lettering that is highly recognizable for its bold, square forms. This style reached its peak during the reigns of Augustus and Trajan and became the standard for monumental inscriptions. Over time, variations developed in lettering due to regional influences and changes in stonecutting techniques. For instance, some inscriptions show a shift towards narrower, more upright letter forms, or the inclusion of cursive writing styles when space was limited. Abbreviations and Their Usage A key feature of Roman inscriptions is their frequent use of abbreviations. Keppie explains that abbreviations allowed stonecutters to save space and maintain legibility on the stone surface. Some common abbreviations include IMP for imperator, COS for consul, and D.M. (Dis Manibus) on tombstones, which translates to "to the spirits of the dead." These abbreviations are often followed by numbers or additional letters to signify how many times a position was held or to indicate specific dates. For those unfamiliar with Latin, Keppie suggests familiarizing oneself with the most common abbreviations, as these appear frequently across various categories of inscriptions. He even provides a list of abbreviations and their meanings as an appendix to the book. Names, Titles, and Status Indicators Roman names themselves are often abbreviated on inscriptions to indicate a person’s praenomen (first name), nomen (family name), and cognomen (nickname or additional name). Keppie outlines the naming conventions for men, women, and slaves. For instance, a male Roman citizen’s full name typically included a praenomen and a nomen, and often a cognomen. Women, however, usually had only a feminine form of their father’s nomen, and sometimes an additional designation tied to their husband. Freedmen commonly adopted the nomen of their former owner as a sign of their social standing and relationship to their former master. Keppie also mentions how Roman citizens and officials might add titles or descriptors related to military or public service, religious roles, or honors bestowed by the emperor. These details help historians reconstruct aspects of Roman social and political structures. Ligatures, Punctuation, and Word Divisions To conserve space, Roman stonecutters often joined letters together, a technique called ligaturing. This practice is found across various inscriptions, with some even combining three to four letters to form a monogram. Keppie explains that these ligatures could enhance the aesthetic quality of the text but occasionally make it more challenging to read. Furthermore, punctuation marks such as dots or ivy leaf motifs were used as word dividers, which help distinguish words within an inscription. However, full stops and commas, as we use them today, were not a part of Roman epigraphy. Rather, the reader had to rely on contextual clues and spacing. Numerical Notation and Dates Keppie provides an overview of the numerals commonly used on Roman inscriptions: I, V, X, L, C, D, and M. He explains that these symbols allowed stonecutters to express quantities concisely, whether they were referring to ages, years of service, or dates. Romans calculated dates according to the reigning consuls or emperors rather than by years, and certain abbreviations are used for monetary values, distances, and ranks. Roman inscriptions rarely included precise calendar dates, but when they did, they followed the lunar cycle or denoted years based on the reigning consuls or the emperor’s regnal years. For example, phrases such as consul tertium would indicate that someone held the consulship for the third time, which allows historians to date the inscription based on known historical records. Fragmentary Inscriptions and Epigraphic Challenges Keppie concludes by discussing how inscriptions were often damaged over the centuries. Many have broken sections, faded letters, or missing parts. This can make interpretation challenging, but epigraphists attempt to reconstruct missing sections using their knowledge of Latin grammar, syntax, and common phrasing patterns. Additionally, some inscriptions were deliberately defaced in antiquity, often to erase the memory of disgraced individuals or unpopular emperors. This practice, known as damnatio memoriae, was common in cases of political disgrace, where a name would be chiseled away, effectively erasing the individual from history. Through this chapter, Keppie provides tools and techniques that readers can use to approach Roman inscriptions with confidence, showing that they are not just stone relics but valuable, readable historical documents that tell us much about the daily life, social hierarchies, and political structures of the Roman world. Chapter 4 of Understanding Roman Inscriptions focuses on methods for dating Roman inscriptions. It discusses the challenges of pinpointing precise dates since most inscriptions lack exact information like day, month, or year, even on tombstones, where one might expect such details. Instead, dating is approached through indirect clues, such as references to political figures, emperors, or events. The Roman calendar, which initially began in March, later started in January. It featured months we recognize today, though some, like July (formerly Quinctilis) and August (Sextilis), were renamed in honor of Julius Caesar and Augustus. The Romans marked days relative to the Kalends (first day of the month), Nones (fifth or seventh day), and Ides (thirteenth or fifteenth day), a system that lacks our modern weekly cycle. In the Roman Empire, years were typically identified by the names of two consuls or occasionally calculated "from the foundation of the city" (ab urbe condita). Emperors' reigns also provided reference points for dating; for example, the emperor’s annual tribunician power, renewed on 10 December, often marks inscriptions. Additionally, the number of imperial salutations or references to victories can sometimes offer more specific dates. The text further explores how changes in lettering styles over time, such as the “long I” or unclosed P, help narrow down the period an inscription belongs to. Emperor Claudius’ addition of three letters to the Latin alphabet provides another dating marker, although these were rarely used beyond his reign. Finally, it is noted that inscriptions' architectural or sculptural context, such as monuments or temples, can aid in dating. For instance, the Pantheon bears an inscription attributing it to Agrippa, but the building itself was reconstructed under Hadrian, illustrating how architectural changes can complicate dating through inscriptions alone​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Chapter 5 of Understanding Roman Inscriptions, titled "The Survival of Roman Inscriptions," explores the survival rates, transformations, and reuses of inscriptions from ancient Rome. The chapter highlights that only a fraction of inscriptions have survived to modern times, as these are often chance finds. Sites like Pompeii and Herculaneum offer rare contexts where inscriptions can be studied more fully in relation to the towns they served. Many Roman inscriptions were repurposed across centuries, commonly as building materials in walls, roads, or fortifications. For example, inscribed stones from cemeteries were sometimes incorporated into city defenses during turbulent times in the third century AD. This repurposing is evident in structures from Chester to Apamea, where tombstones and grave slabs served as materials for walls built to counter invasion. Chapter also describes intentional preservation in some cases, where inscriptions were valued for their historical or aesthetic significance, often displayed in churches or collected by antiquarians. In Venice, a funerary inscription was preserved and later displayed after the collapse and rebuilding of St. Mark’s bell tower in the early 20th century【8:2†sour​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…)ionally, the chapter considers the ways epigraphists work with damaged or fragmentary inscriptions. Knowledge of grammar and context is essential to reconstruct missing portions, allowing scholars to preserve more of the original messages despite their partial loss over time【8:12†sou​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…) Chapter 6, "Recording and Publication," in Understanding Roman Inscriptions, explains the process of documenting and disseminating Roman inscriptions. This includes the importance of accurate recording, which ideally involves viewing the inscription directly, a practice known as "autopsy." The chapter highlights that inscriptions are often found through excavations or other construction activities. Once identified, inscriptions may be recorded in detail, noting the material, dimensions, location, and style of the letters. Publication practices typically involve a precise description and analysis of the text on the stone, often with a translation and some context. Some publications incorporate photographs or line drawings to enhance readability, though line drawings are noted to carry subjective interpretations by the artist. Lighting and angle are also crucial in photographs to make inscriptions more legible. For historical publications, Theodor Mommsen's Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL) is a major example, providing a standardized approach to collecting Latin inscriptions and categorizing them by geographic location The title "imperator," which initially denoted a general celebrated by troops after a military victory, was adopted as part of Julius Caesar’s permanent titulature, marking his authority. Emperors, such as Augustus, continued to use this title to signify military supremacy, placing it prominently before their names. "Caesar," originally the surname of the Julian family, became a title after Augustus, who inherited it through adoption. Over time, the term "Caesar" came to represent imperial authority and was passed to successors, symbolizing their legitimacy. Similarly, the title "Augustus," first granted to Octavian in 27 BC, became a marker of imperial continuity, linking each emperor to the founding figure of the Roman Empire. The chapter also covers titulature elements that varied depending on individual circumstances. For instance, younger heirs in the Julio-Claudian family were given the title "Caesar," establishing a clear line of succession. The personal names of emperors, like Titus Flavius Vespasianus, were followed by "Augustus" to denote imperial status, a tradition that reinforced familial connections to the founder Augustus, regardless of lineage. Inscriptions also detailed the political and military honors attributed to emperors, such as tribunician power or salutations, which were renewed annually or after specific events. These inscriptions provided a timeline of an emperor's rule and accomplishments, making them valuable for historical dating. Emperors’ accomplishments were often commemorated with grand monuments or public buildings, with inscriptions highlighting victories, divine associations, or titles. Inscriptions were tailored to portray the emperor’s image as a benevolent ruler and supreme leader, often aligning him with Roman gods. Such titles and accolades not only reinforced the emperor’s divine right but also communicated stability and continuity across the empire. This chapter demonstrates how inscriptions served as political tools, memorializing the emperor's role as Rome’s supreme authority Chapter 8 of Understanding Roman Inscriptions, titled "Local Government and Society," discusses the organization and influence of local governments in the Roman Empire, especially through the evidence provided by inscriptions. Roman towns with official status, like colonies or municipia, operated under constitutions known as lex coloniae or lex municipii, which regulated the powers and duties of local magistrates, public meetings, and citizen assemblies. These laws were often inscribed on bronze plaques placed in town forums for public access, some of which survive, offering insights into local governance. Municipal governments were typically led by elected magistrates. In colonies, two duoviri served as the chief magistrates, while in municipia, the equivalent positions were filled by two quattuorviri iur e dicundo. Their duties included maintaining public order, overseeing religious sites, roads, and other civic infrastructure. They were assisted by aediles, responsible for public buildings, markets, and water supply, and by quaestores, who managed finances. A town council, the ordo decurionum, often included influential local citizens with substantial property and was responsible for long-term local governance. Prominent citizens frequently gained local prestige through acts of public generosity, including financing buildings, games, or other public works. Benefactors, including freedmen who could not hold magistracies, occasionally contributed resources to enhance their towns. Such contributions were publicly acknowledged with inscriptions, sometimes detailing the contributions and emphasizing civic pride and competition among families and towns. At Pompeii, political candidates even posted campaign slogans, urging votes from citizens and listing endorsements, some of which survive as election graffiti. The chapter also examines commemorative practices, like erecting statues or plaques to honor magistrates, benefactors, or local patrons. This practice fostered local loyalty to the emperor and reinforced Rome’s political structures. In remote provinces, these inscriptions become especially valuable in understanding local history, as they can reveal alliances, conflicts, and responses to Roman influence. In Britain, for instance, inscriptions are limited but reveal aspects of Romanization and local infrastructure. Outside the urban centers, rural inscriptions often marked property boundaries or land distributions, reflecting concerns over land ownership and security. These records, some marking disputes or allocations, provide a glimpse into the rural extension of Roman administration. The inscriptions highlight the close interaction between civic centers and their surrounding territories, reinforcing the town’s role as an administrative, economic, and social hub in the Roman provincial landscape​ Chapter 9, "The Roads That Led to Rome," in Understanding Roman Inscriptions explores the Roman Empire's extensive road network, which symbolized Rome's power, unity, and ability to control vast territories. The chapter begins with a reference to the phrase "All roads lead to Rome," highlighting its medieval origin but noting that, in ancient times, roads functioned to connect Rome with all parts of the empire. The chapter explains how Augustus, in 20 BC, set up the Milliarium Aureum, or "Golden Milestone," in Rome, marking the distances to key cities and thus symbolizing Rome as the empire’s central hub​ The earliest Roman roads were simple gravel tracks extending from Rome to neighboring areas, gradually developing into engineered stone roads as the empire expanded. Roads such as the Via Appia (extending southeast toward Brundisium) and Via Flaminia (crossing Italy to the Adriatic coast) were built to facilitate military movements and administration. Roads were often named after the officials who commissioned them, like censors or consuls, and these names endure as historical markers. Repair and maintenance of the roads were ongoing responsibilities. Augustus, for instance, led major upgrades of the Via Appia and Via Flaminia, with memorials and inscriptions commemorating the renovations. The construction of arches, such as the arch marking the Via Flaminia in Rome and another in Rimini, served both as functional gateways and symbols of the emperor’s care for infrastructure. Later, Trajan extended the Via Appia and built the Via Traiana as an alternative, marked by an honorary arch in Beneventum, illustrating both engineering achievements and political symbolism. The chapter also describes the challenges of road construction, particularly in mountainous or riverine areas. For example, Tiberius and Trajan engineered paths along the Danube River, requiring complex cliffside roads with supporting structures, some of which survive submerged under modern reservoirs. Road-building in provinces like Asia Minor, Gaul, and Britain required extensive manpower, often involving soldiers, who occasionally resisted the labor-intensive tasks. Milestones were essential for marking distances and commemorating emperors who funded the roads. These inscriptions sometimes celebrated military victories or emperors’ achievements, reinforcing the roads as symbols of Roman order. The chapter closes by reflecting on the durability of Roman roads, many of which remained in use well beyond antiquity and laid the foundation for later European infrastructure Chapter 10 of Understanding Roman Inscriptions, titled "Administration of an Empire," examines the administrative structure Rome used to govern its vast empire, particularly through the roles and careers of provincial officials. During the Republic, the Senate would appoint magistrates to oversee provinces temporarily as consuls or praetors with a defined provincia, or sphere of command. Over time, as Rome expanded, provinces were governed by proconsuls or propraetors who managed military and civil duties on behalf of Rome. The chapter highlights Augustus’ reforms, which established a more permanent provincial governance structure. Augustus divided provinces between those governed by the Senate and those under his direct control, particularly regions with significant military presence, such as Gaul and Syria. He appointed legates to act as provincial governors, while other provinces remained under senatorial authority with proconsuls. In some critical provinces, like Egypt, Augustus appointed praefecti (prefects), who were equestrians and not senators, ensuring loyalty and reducing the risk of rebellion. Financial management in imperial provinces was typically overseen by equestrian procurators, who managed the emperor’s finances, including paying troops. In senatorial provinces, this responsibility was entrusted to quaestors, who held traditional Republican offices. This division maintained a complex hierarchy, with both senatorial and equestrian paths for advancement based on military and administrative service, often recorded in inscriptions commemorating officials’ achievements. The chapter also describes individual careers, such as that of Aulus Platorius Nepos, the governor of Britain under Hadrian. Nepos’ career, recorded on a statue base, reflects the layers of titles and duties he held across the empire, showcasing the intricate career progression possible within the Roman administration. Such inscriptions provide valuable insights into Rome’s governance, highlighting the balance of power between the emperor, the Senate, and local provincial officials​ Chapter 11, titled "The Army and the Frontiers," in Understanding Roman Inscriptions delves into the structure, functions, and roles of the Roman army, focusing on its significance in maintaining the empire's frontiers and internal order. Roman legions, each comprising around 5,000 soldiers, were the core of the military. These legions, identifiable by numbers and titles like "Legion II Augusta" or "Legion VI Victrix," were stationed long-term in specific provinces, fostering local connections and stability. Legionaries, who were Roman citizens, were divided into cohorts and centuries. They were supported by auxiliary forces of non-citizens, who served in both infantry and cavalry roles, often marked by inscriptions with their regiment’s name and unit type​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…)​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). The chapter emphasizes the frequent presence of inscriptions commemorating soldiers, particularly epitaphs for those who died in service. These gravestones typically record a soldier’s name, place of origin, rank, and legion affiliation. While literary sources provide some information, inscriptions are crucial in reconstructing the deployment and movement of units, especially along key frontiers like the Rhine and Danube. This has allowed historians to establish timelines of unit transfers and the military's geographical distribution across the empire. Tombstones and monuments, such as those erected on Hadrian's Wall, document military life on the empire’s borders and show the scale of construction efforts, as inscriptions often attribute sections of walls or fortifications to specific centuries and cohorts​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…)​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). The Roman army also engaged in significant construction projects to mark and defend the frontiers. Structures like Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall in Britain, as well as barriers in North Africa and Eastern Europe, served as both physical defenses and symbolic boundaries of Roman control. Military construction details were inscribed on stones set within the walls, highlighting the contributions of various military units. Additionally, decorated milestones and distance markers with inscriptions celebrated these achievements and commemorated the emperors under whose command these structures were erected​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). The chapter also discusses soldiers’ experiences beyond combat. Inscribed artifacts from forts, such as Vindolanda in Britain, reveal aspects of daily life, including food supplies, personal correspondence, and the social activities of soldiers stationed at these remote outposts. Religious practices are also evidenced through inscriptions dedicated to gods, the emperor, and festivals, underscoring the importance of religious loyalty within the military. Inscriptions found on military diplomas and awards document the grant of Roman citizenship to auxiliaries after their service, recording names, service details, and locations where they were stationed. These records shed light on recruitment trends, showing that soldiers increasingly came from the provinces rather than Italy, reflecting the changing demographics within the Roman army over time Chapter 12, "Temples and Altars to the Gods," in Understanding Roman Inscriptions examines the central role of temples and altars in Roman religious life and how these structures served both communal and individual worship practices. Romans built temples as grand public spaces for worship, often financed by communities or wealthy individuals. Many Roman temples began as timber structures but later evolved into more durable stone edifices raised on podiums with steps leading up to columns. The temples frequently had inscriptions dedicating them to specific gods or goddesses and sometimes mentioned the benefactor who funded their construction. Outside each temple stood an altar where offerings were made. These sacrifices often involved burning food or animal entrails, with smoke ascending as an offering to the gods. Major festivals and feast days were communal events, sometimes featuring banquets funded by wealthy citizens, underscoring social and religious ties within the community. Unlike some other ancient cultures, Roman state religion lacked a professional priesthood. Instead, local magistrates or prominent citizens, often chosen to act as priests, performed sacrifices and ceremonies. Private altars were also common and varied in size and form, with small household altars used for daily prayers and offerings. These altars often bore inscriptions detailing the dedicator’s gratitude to a deity and sometimes marked vows fulfilled. The chapter highlights the widespread practice of erecting altars across public and private spaces, revealing Romans’ personal and communal commitments to their gods. The chapter concludes with a discussion of mystery cults, such as those of Mithras and Isis, which became popular alongside traditional Roman religion. Mithraic altars, particularly those found in military contexts like Carrawburgh on Hadrian’s Wall, demonstrate the cult’s appeal among soldiers. Temples and shrines dedicated to these deities expanded the Roman religious landscape and were often inscribed with dedications expressing the worshippers’ loyalty and faith​ Chapter 13, "Gravestones and Tomb Monuments," in Understanding Roman Inscriptions examines the design, purpose, and inscriptions of Roman tombs and gravestones, revealing insights into Roman society, beliefs, and familial structures. Romans viewed tombs as memorials or "monumenta" that preserved their memory and social identity. These monuments, typically located outside city walls along prominent roads, were visible to travelers, allowing them to read and reflect on the lives and achievements of the deceased. The practice served both commemorative and social functions, reinforcing family prestige and individual legacy. Tomb structures varied widely, from simple gravestones to elaborate, house-like monuments. Wealthier families often constructed grand tombs, such as the cylindrical tomb of Caecilia Metella on the Via Appia, which became a well-known landmark. Wealthy Romans might also erect temple-like structures, while other tombs, especially those in Egypt or influenced by Egyptian styles, featured pyramid forms, such as the Pyramid of Cestius outside Rome. Middle-class Romans were often buried in more modest sarcophagi or tomb enclosures, which occasionally included inscriptions to deter desecration. Roman epitaphs provide a wealth of information. Common epitaph elements included the name of the deceased in nominative or dative cases, age at death, and expressions of mourning. Family roles and professions were frequently noted, especially on military tombs, which detailed ranks, service durations, and unit affiliations. Some epitaphs included age at death, down to years, months, and days, while others had warnings to discourage tampering with the tomb. In cases where the deceased had built the tomb in advance, the epitaph often stated "vivus sibi fecit" ("made for oneself while alive"). These inscriptions were not only personal tributes but often included curses or warnings against grave robbing or desecration. This reflected a societal concern for the peace and sanctity of the deceased’s final resting place. Wealthier individuals could also allocate funds in their wills for the upkeep of their tombs, ensuring ongoing respect for their memorials​ The chapter Trade, Economy, and the Business World explores the intricacies of commerce, economic practices, and social dynamics within the Roman Empire, as evidenced by inscriptions. It highlights how inscriptions provide valuable insight into the economic structure, revealing both local and international trade, the organization of businesses, and the roles of various social classes in commerce. 1. Commerce and Social Perception: The Roman elite often looked down upon commerce, preferring agriculture and land ownership as sources of wealth. However, inscriptions show that commerce was a significant means of social mobility. Merchants were often memorialized for their success, demonstrating the respect and wealth they eventually garnered within society​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). 2. Marketplaces and Local Trade: Roman towns relied heavily on local markets where farmers sold crops, animals, and crafted goods. The existence of public weights and  measures, often inscribed with official stamps or dates, underscored the emphasis on trade authenticity. In larger cities, more elaborate markets, like Trajan’s Market in Rome, provided spaces for various commodities, resembling modern shopping complexes​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…)​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). 3. Trade with the Wider World: Roman expansion fueled trade with distant territories. Italian merchants, taking advantage of Rome’s “free port” status at places like Delos, traded extensively across the Mediterranean. The demand for staple goods in Rome, particularly grain, resulted in large-scale imports from places like Sicily, Tunisia, and Egypt, regulated but not entirely managed by the state​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). 4. Banking and Financial Practices: Although Rome lacked formal banking institutions, a network of money-lenders (argentarii) and rent-collectors facilitated commerce. Inscriptions reveal the presence of small financiers who supported local businesses and the extensive use of credit transfers across distances. For example, a tombstone in Rome commemorates an argentarius from the Macellum Magnum, illustrating the significance of these financiers to the economy​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). 5. Manufacturing and Product Marking: Various products bore inscriptions or stamps indicating origin, quality, or ownership. This was common with amphorae, pottery, bricks, and even food items like bread, which sometimes displayed the baker’s mark. These markers helped archaeologists trace trade routes and understand economic networks, illustrating how inscriptions were integral to commercial activities in the Roman Empire​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). 6. Price Regulation: The Edict on Maximum Prices by Emperor Diocletian in 301 AD attempted to control inflation by setting maximum prices on wages, goods, and services. This document, inscribed across various towns, lists over 2,000 items and provides a detailed snapshot of the types of goods and services available in the Roman world, despite its limited long-term effectiveness​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…)​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). In essence, inscriptions illuminate the Roman economy’s complexity, from local trade and family-run businesses to grand-scale imports and price regulations. They also reflect the diversity of economic players, including merchants, artisans, financiers, and freedmen, each contributing to a thriving and interconnected Roman market. The "Banking" section of Trade, Economy, and the Business World describes the Roman financial system, which, although lacking formal banks as seen in modern times, supported a developed network for financing trade and private needs. This network operated mainly through individual money-lenders known as argentarii (from argentum, meaning silver), who provided essential financial services. Inscriptions reveal that these lenders often worked out of marketplaces, such as the Macellum Magnum in Rome, and sometimes even formed associations, evidenced by dedications like the Arch of the Argentarii at the Forum Boarium in Romeentarii commonly extended loans secured by merchandise, catering to small businesses and tradesmen. In some cases, freedmen served as financiers, utilizing the capital reserves of their patrons to support clients and business ventures, allowing for wealth accumulation within these communities. Credit transfers were possible over long distances through a network of intermediaries, facilitating business operations across the empire. Artifnized wax tablets of Lucius Caecilius Jucundus, found at Pompeii, illustrate this system in action. These tablets documented various financial transactions, such as rent payments and proceeds from auctions organized by Jucundus, showing the role of financial record-keeping in Roman economic life. The chapter Populusque Romanus delves into the everyday lives, occupations, and diverse backgrounds of the people who made up Roman society, highlighting how inscriptions shed light on their roles and social dynamics. Here’s a breakdown of key points from the chapter: 1. Diversity and Urban Life: Inscriptions from Rome reveal a highly diverse population, showcasing the range of professions, ethnicities, and social backgrounds present in the city. Inscriptions provide a wealth of information on ordinary Romans, far beyond what is found in literary sources like Juvenal and Martial​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). 2. Public Entertainment: Inscriptions on tickets and programs for events such as gladiatorial games illuminate popular entertainment's role in Roman life. They document not only the gladiators and performers but also the social experience surrounding these events, reflecting the public’s enthusiasm and the popularity of such spectacles​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). 3. Demographic Studies: Large collections of inscriptions from specific regions or towns allow historians to analyze demographic patterns, such as birth and death rates, and social mobility. Inscriptions often preserved information that otherwise would be overlooked, providing a snapshot of community structure and population trends​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). 4. Literacy and Social Status: Literacy was not universal, and only a small portion of the population could afford elaborate tombstones or altars. Those who did often used inscriptions to mark social aspirations or a connection to Roman identity, even if they were not of high rank. In certain frontier provinces, inscriptions cluster around military bases, indicating Roman influence's spread and societal aspirations among local communities​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). 5. Graffiti and Casual Writing: Graffiti at sites like Pompeii offers an informal perspective on everyday life, with messages carved onto walls and public surfaces capturing jokes, love messages, and everyday grievances. These inscriptions reveal a side of Roman society that is rarely seen in formal monuments, showing a lively, informal culture​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Chapter 16 titled "Christianity" in Understanding Roman Inscriptions delves into the early Christian inscriptions found throughout the Roman Empire, particularly focusing on their characteristics, contexts, and significance. Early Development of Christian Inscriptions Christianity, initially a small Jewish sect founded around a crucified leader in Judea under Tiberius, expanded rapidly to become the official religion of the Roman Empire by 325 AD. Despite its humble beginnings, early Christian communities did not establish elaborate temples or altars akin to their pagan counterparts. Instead, most of the inscriptions that survive from the first five centuries are primarily funerary​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Christian Burial Practices and Catacombs A significant portion of Christian epigraphic evidence comes from catacombs in the vicinity of Rome. These underground burial networks, utilized mainly between the third and fifth centuries, were carved into the soft volcanic rock. Christians, unlike their pagan neighbors who practiced cremation, adhered to burial practices that involved wrapping bodies in linen and placing them in loculi (niches) sealed with inscribed stone or marble plaques. This method reflected the Christian belief in bodily resurrection on Judgment Day​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). The use of catacombs was partly driven by the high cost of land in Rome. It was common for Christians to secure burial plots among existing pagan tombs along major roads leading out of the city. These underground spaces, though often associated with Christian worship in later popular imagination, were primarily used for burial rather than religious gatherings​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Symbolism and Christian Inscriptions The inscriptions found in these burial sites are often simple and convey messages of hope and resurrection. Symbols like the dove, fish, anchor, and chi-rho (a monogram for Christ) frequently appear alongside brief texts. Common phrases included “vivas in deo” (may you live in God) and “requiescat in pace” (may he/she rest in peace). These inscriptions emphasize the idea of the deceased merely resting until they are awakened for eternal life​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). The shift in burial practices to include more elaborate decorations, such as frescoes in private family burial chambers, emerged over time. Wealthier Christians could afford more ornate burials, often in dedicated rooms (cubicula) decorated with scenes from the Bible, showing a blend of art and devotion​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Transition to Above-Ground Cemeteries By the fifth century, the use of catacombs declined, and the remains of martyrs were moved to churches within the city for safekeeping. This transition marked a shift toward ground-level cemeteries, often located near basilicas. These later Christian inscriptions tended to be more elaborate, reflecting the religion's growing acceptance and establishment in Roman society​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…)​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Conclusion Chapter 16 highlights the role of inscriptions in preserving the early history of Christianity, illustrating how beliefs were translated into burial practices and epigraphic expressions. The evolution from humble catacomb niches to elaborate church-adjacent tombs encapsulates the transition of Christianity from a persecuted sect to a dominant religion in the Roman Empire. Chapter 17, titled "The Later Roman Empire," explores significant changes in the Roman Empire from the late 3rd to the early 4th century, focusing on administrative reforms, shifts in social structure, and the evolution of epigraphic practices during this transformative era​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Administrative and Political Changes The chapter begins by highlighting the reigns of Diocletian (284–305 AD) and Constantine I (306–337 AD) as pivotal in the empire's transition from the Early to the Late Empire. Diocletian's strategy to stabilize the empire involved a form of power-sharing known as the Tetrarchy, where he appointed co-rulers to govern different regions. This system was implemented to address the empire’s challenges of internal strife and external threats. However, despite this effort, the centralized governance style persisted, with new forms of address, such as "dominus noster" (Our Lord), which became prevalent even among Christians after Constantine's rise​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Changes in Epigraphy and Social Titles Inscriptions from this period show a trend toward longer titulatures for emperors and officials, reflecting the complexities of the new administrative structure. Titles like "vir clarissimus" (most distinguished man) became common for high-ranking officials, while newer titles like "vir eminentissimus" and "vir perfectissimus" indicated the growing stratification within the equestrian class​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…)​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). A significant social change was the granting of universal Roman citizenship by Emperor Caracalla in 212 AD. This led to a rise in inscriptions bearing names like Aurelius, reflecting the widespread adoption of the emperor's family name. By the 4th century, names like Valerius and Flavius became more common, corresponding to the dynastic names of emperors such as Diocletian and Constantine​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). The Decline in Epigraphic Standards The quality and quantity of inscriptions from the Later Roman Empire declined compared to earlier periods. Inscriptions became more rudimentary, both in execution and aesthetic quality, a reflection of shifting societal priorities. The decline was gradual, starting in the late 2nd century and continuing into the 4th century​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…)​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). During this time, inscriptions focused less on civic benefactions as the elite increasingly retreated to rural estates. Society became more rigid, with hereditary obligations imposed on soldiers and local officials, further demonstrating the empire’s shift toward a more hierarchical and controlled structure​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Conclusion The chapter concludes by emphasizing that the changes in Roman inscriptions during the Late Empire mirrored broader transformations within the Roman state. The inscriptions serve as a testament to the empire's adaptation to new administrative, social, and political realities, marking the end of the classical Roman period and the beginning of a new era. The final chapter 18, titled Conclusion: The Value of Roman Inscriptions, summarizes the significance of inscriptions as historical evidence for understanding the Roman world. The Unique Value of Inscriptions The chapter opens with a reflection on the profound value of Roman inscriptions, as emphasized by scholars like R.G. Collingwood, who noted that inscriptions are contemporaneous and authoritative records. Unlike manuscripts, which are prone to errors during copying, inscriptions carved on stone or metal are more durable and less likely to be corrupted over time. This gives them a unique authenticity and reliability in reconstructing ancient history​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…)​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Inscriptions as a Historical Resource Roman inscriptions are considered one of the most significant sources for historians and archaeologists. They offer insight into diverse aspects of Roman life, including the political structure, military organization, religious practices, social hierarchies, and the daily lives of ordinary people. These texts are invaluable, especially when literary sources are sparse or biased. For example, the Res Gestae of Augustus serves as a monumental account of his achievements, though it must be read critically, as it presents the emperor's desired legacy rather than an impartial historical record​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…)​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Challenges and Limitations However, the chapter also advises caution when interpreting these texts. Inscriptions often served specific purposes, such as glorifying the achievements of individuals or expressing gratitude to the gods. As Dr. Johnson famously noted, epitaphs and commemorative inscriptions were not bound by strict truths, often leaning towards exaggerated praise​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Additionally, the survival of inscriptions is largely a matter of chance, with most examples preserved only due to favorable conditions. As a result, they do not represent a complete or balanced historical record​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). The Role of Epigraphy in Historical Analysis Despite their limitations, inscriptions are crucial for filling in gaps left by other historical sources. They provide detailed information about administrative changes, local governance, and societal structures across different regions of the empire. Inscriptions also allow for prosopographical studies, enabling scholars to trace the careers and networks of lesser-known Roman officials and families​(UNDERSTANDING ROMAN INS…). Conclusion In essence, while inscriptions may sometimes reflect the biases and self-promotion of their creators, they remain an indispensable tool for understanding the vast and complex history of the Roman Empire. They offer a direct connection to the past, capturing the voices, values, and ambitions of a civilization that shaped the ancient world.