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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Grade 12| First Quarter (Prelims) - - the usual feedback mechanism DIRECTIONAL TERMS ANATOMICAL - Standard body position (Default) Supine - Lying with face up Prone - Lying...

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Grade 12| First Quarter (Prelims) - - the usual feedback mechanism DIRECTIONAL TERMS ANATOMICAL - Standard body position (Default) Supine - Lying with face up Prone - Lying with face down SUPERIOR (CRANIAL OR CEPHALIC) - toward the head or upper part of a structure ( kung ano ang mas mataas) INFERIOR (CAUDAL) - away from the head or the lower part of a structure ( mas mababa) ANTERIOR (VENTRAL) - toward or at the front of (nasa harap) POSTERIOR ( DORSAL) - Toward or at the backside of the body (likod) MEDIAL - at the midline pf the body (gitna) LATERAL - away from the midline (gilid) INTERMEDIATE - between a more medial and lateral structure. PROXIMAL - Close to the origin of a body part ( yung simula) ( mas malapit) INCREASE OF GLUCOSE (BLOOD SUGAR REGULATION) DISTAL - Farther from the origin of a body part ( malayo sa origin) 1. Will be sensed by the receptors and will be reported to the SUPERFICIAL (EXTERNAL) brain - Toward or at the body surface (nasa outside world, ( skin ) 2. Brain will think of response DEEP ( INTERNAL) 3. Pancreas will be stimulated to release a hormone called - Away from the body surface (nasa pbb) (organs Insulin Insulin - hormone released by the beta cells of the pancreas. 4. Once Insulin is released to the bloodstream it will reach the cells HOMEOSTASIS 5. Insulin will stimulate the cells to increase their uptake of glucose and will also stimulate the liver to convert the - homeo;similar, stasis; steady excess Glucose into Glycogen(Reserved glucose) - Balance - Maintenanance of relatively stable internal conditions Glycogenesis Relatively - not steady or fixed, within an acceptable - excess glucose into glycogen. range of variables ( ex. Body temp) 6. Nabawasan na ang Glucose, Homeostasis again. - Main controlling mechanisms are the NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ( NS - control system, ES- DECREASE OF GLUCOSE secretes) - If one of these systems fails it will cause a homeostatic 1. Brain will stimulate Pancreas to release a hormone called imbalance Glucagon. Glucagon - Released by Alpha Cells of Pancreas, HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE nagpapataas ng glucose - Disturbance in homeostasis that results in a disease. 2. From the stored Glycogen, Glucagon will convert it back to Glucose. COMPONENTS OF HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISM Glycogenolysis - converting Glycogen to Glucose. Receptor - senses the changes in the body whether internal 3. Glucose will be increased in the bloodstream, achieving or external and the relay to the Nervous system homeostasis. Control Center - Processes the information and instructs and relays a response In cased of intermittent fasting and glycogen is nowhere to Effector - renders the response or effect be found for Glycogenolysis, The liver will convert amino acids or (Lipids) fats into Glucose. This is called (guide) may nakakita ng nagnakaw (Receptor), nireport niya sa Gluconeogenesis police station. Nagiisip yung police kung pano iaaresto (Control System) tapos inaresto na ( Effector) POSITIVE FEEDBACK - Stimulus is increased. FEEDBACK MECHANISMS - Less used NEGATIVE FEEDBACK - Stimulus is reduced or totally eliminated ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Grade 12| First Quarter (Prelims) EPITHELIAL TISSUES EPITHELIAL TISSUES - Line the cavities and surface of blood vessels and organs throughout the body - Protection, absorption and secretion. - Our skin is an epithelial tissue. CHARASTERISTICS BODY TISSUES 1. Cellularity- composed almost entirely of cells ( almost bc there are other add ons but very minimal) TISSUES 2. Special Contract- forms continuous tight sheers held - Group of cells that has the same functions and structure together by Tight Junctions and Desmosomes. - Specialized cells ( have their own functions) Will multiply and increase in size and will be grouped Tight Junction - (tape) impermeable that binds cells together to form tissue together, makes cells leak proof para di basta basta - Requirements for cells to be called as a tissue: They must lumalabas into the extracellular space between the cells. have same structure and function. Desmosomes -(glue) anchors cells and prevent the cells - Cells- Tissues- Organs-Tao from separating incase exposed to mechanical or physical stress FOUR TYPES OF TISSUES Gap Junction -(phone) allow communication between cells, Where ions and other molecules that serve as signals of communication. Connected by Hollow cylinders EPITHELIAL TISSUES called Connexons - Covering and lining tissues (Covers the whole body) Adherence Junction- (friendship) initiate cell to cell - Lines or body cavities (Blood vessel cavity) contact and help maintain contact - Ducts and form glands 3. Supported by Connective Tissues either Reticular or Basal CONNECTIVE TISSUES Laminae. Because Epithelial Tissues are avascular ( no - Binds organs blood supply because there is no blood vessels, hence no - Supports and protect organs supply of oxygen or nutrients) and Connective tissue - Stores energy as fat and provides immunity provides the oxygen and nutrients for the epithelial tissue. ( Ex. The Epidermis relies on the dermis for oxygen and MUSCULAR TISSUES nutrients) - Generates physical force needed to make body structures and generate body heat. 4. Regenerative rapidly replaces lost cells by cell division via - The only tissue that can contract and produce movement Mitosis. NERVOUS TISSUES - Detect changes and responds by generating nerve EPITHELIAL STRUCTURE impulses Apical Surface (ibabaw) - Usually exposed to free space or external environment or cavity (skin or in the free space called Lumen) - Slick or smooth and some have microvili or cilia. Basal Surface (baba) - Where the epithelium rets - In the basement membrane - Is the glue that holds the epithelium in place EPITHELIAL TISSUES ARE AVASCULAR AND SURVIVES VIA THE CONNECTIVE TISSUE THAT DIFFUSES NUTRIENTS AND OXYGEN. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Grade 12| First Quarter (Prelims) SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM - Bilog lang sila - Single layer of flattenened cells with disc shaped central nuclei and sparse cytoplasm. - Protection is not their specialty because it is thin but its power is absorption Function: - Absorption of substances - Allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration - Secretes lubricating substances and membranes. Location: Kidney Glomeruli or glomerulus Air sacs of lungs Lining of heart, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. Lining of ventral cavity Pericardium - membrane that covers heart Peritoneum - digestive organs SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM - Cube shaped - Single layer of cube like cells with large spherical nuclei Function - Absorption of substances particular in the thyroid gland and thyroid follicle - Secretion of substances in glands Location - Kidney tubules - Ducts and secretary glands - ovary surface. SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM - Single layer of small cells with round to oval nuclei - May bear cilia pero yung iba wala - Contains unicellular glands called goblet cells Goblet cells - can secrete mucus Mucosae/mucous membrane- line body cavities to the body exterior ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Grade 12| First Quarter (Prelims) Function - Absorption - Secretion of mucus, enzymes and other substances - Ciliated ones ; helps in propelling mucus or reproductive cells by cilliary action. - The simple columnar In the intestine has microvili Microvilli - helps in absorption of substances Location Non- Ciliated Simple Columnar - Lines most of the digestive tract (stomach to anal canal), gallbladder and excretory ducts of some glands. Ciliated Simple Columnar - Bronchioles (trachea branches out to become bronchi and then smaller branches which we call the bronchioles) LINED BY CILIA - Uterine or fallopian tubes and some regions of the uterus, particulary the upper. - PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM - Single layer of cells with differing heights - Some are not reachcing the apical surface - Gives the false impression that it is stratified hence the pseudo - Nuclei are seen at different levels - May contain goblet and bear cilia Function - Secretion of mucus - The mucus secreted by its goblet cells acts as a sticky trap to catch dust amd other debris. - The cilia propel the mucus upward and away from the lungs. Propulsion of mucus by cillary action Location - Non ciliated ; in males epididymis and ducts of large glands - Ciliated type ; trachea, bronchi and most of the upper respiratory tract. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Grade 12| First Quarter (Prelims) STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM - Composed of several layers - The basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and metabolically TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM active cells and becomes flattened as it reaches the surface - Resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal - Has two types keratinized and non- kertainized - Surface cells are dome shaped - Up ( squamous, flattened bc malayo na sa source at - Dome cells or umbrella cells. nutrients) down (stratified not flattened) - Basal cells are cuboidal and columnar, apical cells are dome - Dead at the taas and start to get filled with keratin. shaped or umbrella cells. Functions Function - If connective tissue diffuses the nutrients,the basal cells will - Stretches readily and allow the tissue to contract first receive the nutrients and oxygen and will now be metabolically active (busog) and will now perform mitosis Location which produces daughter cells - Lines the ureters (urinary bladder) - Protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion - Part of urethra and uterus Location - Non keratinized : the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth and vagina - Keratinized - forms epidermis of the skin You can differentiate non keratinized if it has hair like at the surface but if you can still see nucleus at the upper region that means that the cells are alive at the surface making it non keratinized. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Grade 12| First Quarter (Prelims) CONNECTIVE TISSUES AREOLAR TISSUE - Most abundant - Came from the word areola which means small space - Its primary function is for protecting, supporting and binding - Has a lot of cells but fewer fibers. together body tissues. - Has collagen ( thicker but lighter ) and elastic fibers (thinner - Transport, insulation, hematopoietic immunologic and tissue but darker) repair - Most widely distributed connective tissue in the body (cob webby) CHARASTERISTICS - Protects the body organ that it envelopes Variations in blood supply - THE UNIVERSAL PACKING TISSUE because it holds the - Most are Well vascularized ( meaning maraming internal organs together and in their proper position blood supply, nutrients and oxygen) - Located in the superficial or deep fascia - Except for tendons and ligaments because they - Most of matrix is empty space and provides reservoir of have poor blood supply water for their surrounding tissues. - Cartilages - avascular or no direct blood supply and they get nutrients and oxygem from the surrounding When a body region is inflamed the local areloar tissue will connective tissue that is vascularized soak up the excess fluid and that area will sell that will result Extracellular matrix in an edema. (immune response) - Produce matrix and secrete into the exterior Ground substance - amorphous, gelatinous and transparent, it fills the spaces between fibers and cells ( water, cell adhesion proteins - nagdidikit and polysaccharides molecule) The amount of polysaccharides determines the consistency of the matrix ( maraming polysacharide will result in a fluid consistency, pag onti gell like or firm na siya ) Fibers Collagen (white) - high tensile resist stretching,has type 1 collagen and the most abundant Elastic fibers- able to stretch and recoil (nababalik sa dati) maid of elastin and fibrilin Reticular fibers - fine collagen fibers that turn into internal skeleton, very thin and forms into reticulations. And made of type 3 collagen. ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE - The fat cells predominate or the adipocytes - Cells are large and oval shape and have a signet ring appearance - The nucleus is only in one side. - For fat storage and insulates the body, protects from mumps, extreme heat and cold TYPES Yellow or white - long term storage of energy and triglyceride and insulation. Brown/multilocular - generation of heat or THERMOGENESIS (multilocular- each adipocites have small lipid droplets, not whole), smaller than white adipocites Categorized into two, Fixed and Transient Cells Transient cells - migrate from the bloodstream into the connective tissue in response to inflammation or tissue damage ( leukocytes or the white blood cells ) Fixed cells - resident population of cells that develop and remain within the connective tissue ( fibroblasts, adipose, macrophages, and mast cells) LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Softer - More cells and fewer fibers than any other connective tissue except for blood - Areolar, adipose and reticular connective tissue RET ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Grade 12| First Quarter (Prelims) RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE BLOOD / VASCULAR TISSUE - Made of collagen fibers. - Blood cells - Extremely fine and highly branched - Surrounded by fluid/ liquid matrix of blood plasma - Interwoven in reticulumn - Main function Transport of materials or oxygen and nutrients - Hold or support some cells by forming a stroma And formed elemenst or the blood cells - Stroma - an internal framework for lymphocytes (nodes, Erythrocytes - red blood cells spleen, bone marrow) Leucocytes- White blood cells Thrombocytes - platelets DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE - Dense fibrous tissue because of collagen fibers are the main - Close packing of collagen fibers OSSEOUS TISSUE/BONE - Tensile strength resist stretching - Osteon - functional or basic unit of compact bone - Concentrix ring of matrix or lamillae TYPES Lacunae - small spaces that contain mature bone Dense irregular cells or osteocytes, surrounded by layers of very hard - arranged in bundle that are randomly oriented. (many matrix that have calcium and collagen fibers. direction tensile strength) Canaliculi - network of tiny canals that extend from - Dermis, git submucosa, capsule of organs, the haversion vala to the lacunae and from one periosterium, perichondrium. lacuna to another. Houses the processes of Dense regular osteocytes - Fibers in one direction and are parallel to each other TYPES OF BONE CELLS - Strong rope like structures (tendons, ligaments, aponeurosis- flat tendol like material that anchors a Osteoblasts - bone building cells and form the matrix muscle ) Osteoblasts - mature bone cells and found in the lacunae Osteoclasts - bone destroying cells, breakdown osteocytes Fibroblasts - produces fibers in case body needs calcium. Low calcium supply - they destroy old osteocytes to release calcium into the blood strean CARTILAGES - Dense firm but pliable - Has chondrocytes and fibers that are collagenous and elastic, and ground substance which is the chondomucoprotein - Has a fibrous tissue sheath perichondrium - AVASCULAR ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Grade 12| First Quarter (Prelims) HYALINE CARTILAGE - Glassy appearance hence the name hyaline which means - glassy FIBROCARTILAGE - Most abundant cartilage but is the weakest - Strongest kind of cartillage and highly compresible - Many collagen fibers hidden by a rubbery matrix - Alternating layers or transitional layer of hyaline matrix and - Smooth surface for movement of joints fleixibily and thick layers of dense collage fibers support. - Has anastomosing (two tubes na pinagdugtong ) bundles of - Undergoes calcification, bone formation and part of the collagenous fibers aging process - No perichondrium it gets it nutrients bc tendon siya pero - Anterior ends of ribs , growing ends of bonesEL very poorly nakukuha niyang nutrients - No collagen fiber na nakikita because hidden siya by rubbery matrix (tinatakpan), distinct. - Has a perichondrium and no blood vessels or avascular Perichondrium in cartilage - supply nutrients and oxygen to the carto=ilage and is diiffused through perichondriu, up to the core of cartilage Public symphsis, intervertebrak discs and mandidublar ELASTIC CARTILAGE - Chondorcytes are found in a thread like fiber - Greater opacity, flexibility and elasticity - Permeated in all directions - Perichondrium is present - Imature ang nasa ilalim, chondroblasts Hanggang sa lumake at maging chondrocytes Found in external ears, auditory tubes, epiglottis - Main difference has elastic or black thingies black thingies. - ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Grade 12| First Quarter (Prelims) NERVOUS TISSUE TISSUE REPAIR - Wound healing - Receive and conduct - Main objective - prevent or limit further damage ,clean and - Electrochemical impulses to and from body parts against any infection, restore tissue strenght and function - It operate through irritability and conductivity - Composed nerve cells Regeneration-destroyed tissue gets replaced by the Neuroglia - insulates protects and supports neurons same kind of cells (normal state) - Anatomy of a Neuron: Fibrosis- damaged tissue is repaireed by a dense - Dendrites → root-like formation; receive signals from other fibrous connective tissue or a scar tissue - neurons, muscles, or sense organs and pass the signals - This can interfere or totally inhibit the normal - towards the cell body architecture of the underlying organ tissue - Cell Body → also known as the soma (body); contains the - Scarring ( inflammation or damage in the nucleus; provides fuel, manufactures chemicals, and lungs liver brain and heart) maintains the entire neuron in working order - Axon → the “wire” of the neuron; carries signals away from Factors the cell body to neighboring neurons, organs, or muscles 1. type of tissue damage - Myelin Sheath → fatty material that insulates an axon; 2. Severity prevents interference from electrical signals from adjacent axons Example of tissues that can regenerate - Terminal Button → region where neurotransmitters are Epithelial stored Fibrous - Synaptic Vesicles → spherical membrane packages Bone that store neurotransmitter molecules ready for releases Blood near synapses Muscle Cant regenerate Sensory ( Afferent ) - impulses toward the cns Cardiac Motor ( efferent) - impulses away from the cns Nervous Interneurons - shuttle signals through cns pathways STAGES 1. Inflammation stage 2. Granulation stage - new blood vessels are formed to remodel wound Granulation tissue -pink tissue that has new capillaries that grows in the damaged area from an undamaged area nearby, has fibroblasts that synthsizes the matrix of collagen, 3. Surface epithelium regenerates ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Grade 12| First Quarter (Prelims) CUTANEOUS GLANDS ( are all exocrine glands) Sebaceous Glands BODY MEMBRANES - Secreted after authopage - Found in all areas of the body except the glans - Produce sebum or oil cells Epithelial membranes - Associated with hair follicles - Covering or lining membranes - Activiated at puberty - Has connective and epithelial tissue bc of nutrients Cutaneous membrane (skin) - Dry membrane Sweat glands (sudoriferous) - Covers the body surface - Prudence sweat Epidermis - composed of keratinized stratified - Widely distrubted squamous epithelium Apocrine - thick odorous fluid, has fatty acids, Dermis - dense and fibrous connective tissue odorless but sometimes have a musky bc of bacteria, Hypodermis - subcutaneous tissue during pubertu under the influence of androgens, minmal role in heat reg. Eccrine - watery fluid on surface, part of the bodys Mucous membrane ( mucosae heat regulation, produce acidic sweat - Moist membrane - Rich with unicellular glands that have the capacity to - secrete mucus or goblet cells - Adapted for absorption ans secretion Serous membrane - Line open body cavities that are closed - Parietal ( attached to the wall of the cavity, folds on itself) and visceral ( layer that is attached to the organ ) Synovial Membrane - May buto na nagmmet - Joints - Cushions organs SKIN COLOR Melanin - Yellow, reddish brown or black pigments - Produced by spier shaped cells called Melonocytes - Sunlight stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin - Tanning - bodys natural protective pigment Carotene - Orange yellow pigment which is present in some vegetables - People who eat carotene magyyelow orange siya Hemoglobin - Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries - Oxygen content determis the red coloring When hemoglobin is poorly oxygenated it tends to appear blue which is called Cyanosis ( lips fingers and mouth) Emotions affect skin color APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN