Notes On Ethics PDF

SOCSCI 1110 The Moral Landscape: THE PLURALITY OF MORAL JUDGMENTS Pluralism − refers to the state of having more than one of anything 2. PLURALISM is even needed in Religion − suggests the co-existence of many things such as nations,...

SOCSCI 1110 The Moral Landscape: THE PLURALITY OF MORAL JUDGMENTS Pluralism − refers to the state of having more than one of anything 2. PLURALISM is even needed in Religion − suggests the co-existence of many things such as nations, Religious differences are some of the major sources of groups, opinion, principles, beliefs and ways of life conflict in history and even today − the core of “pluralism” is the idea of “respect for diversity” e.g.: age-old conflict between Palestine and Israel, Christianity and Islam Principle of Pluralism PRURALISM in RELIGION refers to the state of being where − Can be applied in a wide range of discipline and context such people in a religiously diverse society have the right and as in society, education, ethics, politics, ethnic relations and freedom to worship, believe, practice and join in community legal form with others according to their own conscience If one invokes a pluralist society in which each individual or group can pursue its own values and interests, then In the same manner, People have the right to abstain from these that person is more or less demanding that each person kind of activities such as the atheists and agnostics or group must be valued, recognized, and included as an equal member of society, regardless of gender, religious, 3. Religious PLURALISM, and PLURALISM in Politics ethnic, or socio-cultural differences Religious pluralism refers to the belief in two or more − however, the social inclusion of individuals or groups does religious worldviews as being equally valid or acceptable not happen by itself. More than mere tolerance or a simple fact of religious − It should be the result of deliberate and continued choices and diversity in society, wherein individuals can freely pursue actions by individuals, civil society and the government their religious beliefs and practices, religious pluralism − A pluralist system exist only when a society actively reorients, involves the acceptance and respect for the practices its social, economic, political and educational system to and beliefs of the other members of the society secure and recognize the equality of every person as a citizen Recognition and affirmation of diversity within a political 1. PLURALISM in the field of ETHICS body which is seen to permit the peaceful co-existence of Moral pluralism is the idea that there are varying ethical different interest, convictions and lifestyles principles and theories and that it conflict with each other, yet Most political theorist assume that respecting diverse each of them is worthy of respect. (there can be conflicting political views is beneficial to the society as it promotes moral views that are each worthy of respect) equality and social justice Therefore, a moral pluralist tends to be open-minded when faced with competing ethical views and moral principles. Understanding MORAL PLURALISM and ETHICS through a Moral pluralist also believes that moral issues are VIDEO extremely complicated and that no single philosophical approach will always provide the answer Moral pluralism declares that it is sometimes difficult to choose between competing values So, moral pluralism occupies a sensible middle ground between 1. Moral Absolutism – “there is only one right answer” 2. Moral Relativism – “there is no wrong answer” For this reason: A moral pluralist will always analyze the issues from several moral principles of theories before making decisions and taking actions.  The Objectivity of Moral Judgments The objectivity of moral judgments refers to 7-Step Guide to Ethical Decision-Making whether they are based on facts that exist independently from The following is a summary of: Seven-step guide to ethical individual beliefs or cultural values. At the same time, their decision-making (Davis, M. (1999) Ethics and the university, New subjectivity relates if this is not the case (Singer and Higgins York: Routledge, p. 166-167. 2008). 1. State the problem. Moral realism: The belief that there are moral truths For example, "there's something about this decision that independent of human opinion. makes me uncomfortable" or "do I have a conflict of interest?". Moral anti-realism – the denial of moral realism, can either say 2. Check the facts. that they are partly subjective or (perhaps more often now) just Many problems disappear upon closer examination of conventional. the situation, while others change radically. For example, persons involved, laws, professional Moral relativism – The claim that there are no universally codes, other practical constraints accepted moral truths and all judgments about what is right or 3. Identify relevant factors (internal and external). wrong, good or bad, depend on the particular culture in which 4. Develop a list of options. they originate. Be imaginative, try to avoid "dilemma"; not "yes" or" no" but whom to go to, what to say. Moral Judgment 5. Test the options. Use some of the following tests: − the evaluation of a certain behavior as good or bad, or as right Harm test: Does this option do less harm than the or wrong. alternatives? − Framework to reach decisions through reasoning. Moral Publicity test: Would I want my choice of this option judgments refer to judgments that have moral content; they published in the newspaper? are used to evaluate situations, courses of action, persons, Defensibility test: Could I defend my choice of this behavior, etc. option before a congressional committee or committee of peers? In what sense are moral judgement objective? Reversibility test: Would I still think this option was a Independent of his own feelings and opinions good choice if I were adversely affected by it? Ascertained by some more objective standards Colleague test: What do my colleagues say when I describe my problem and suggest this option as my moral philosophy is forced to choose between two solution? alternatives Professional test: What might my profession's 1. moral judgments are: governing body for ethics say about this option? subjective and not objective Organization test: What does my company's ethics or there are absolute standards officer or legal counsel say about this? 6. Make a choice based on steps 1-5. 2. intuitions as "good," "right," "better," "ought," and their 7. Review steps 1-6. How can you reduce the likelihood that opposites, or at least some of them you will need to make a similar decision again? un-analyzable and irreducible Are there any cautions you can take as an individual (and all adult men do have them announce your policy on question, job change, etc.)? purely formal and Is there any way to have more support next time? devoid of content Is there any way to change the organization (for example, suggest policy change at next departmental meeting)? Henry Sidgwick discover 3 axioms of “good” 1. Justice - impartiality between one's self and other persons, Daniel Vallero also addressed ethical decision making in his treating similar cases similarly; presentation at the 2014 Teaching GeoEthics workshop, and 2. Prudence - impartial concern for all parts of one’s life, not defines this 6-step approach to ethical decision making: preferring a present lesser good to a greater future good; & 1. State or define the problem/issue 3. Benevolence - preference for the greater good of another to 2. Gather information ("facts") from all sides one's own lesser good 3. Delineate all possible resolutions. 4. Apply different values, rules, principles, regulations to the Ethical Decision-Making Model 5. different options. 6. Resolve conflicts among values, rules, etc. 7. Make a decision and act.  Moral Dilemma KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMEN − A situation in which a person is forced to choose between Lawrence Kohlberg two or more conflicting options neither of which is morally − An American psychologist best known for his theory of acceptable to her. (if not forced, then it is not moral dilemma stages of moral development. He served as a professor in but problematic situation) the Psychology Department at the University of Chicago and at the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University. The 3 Conditions that Make a Moral Dilemma 1. The person or agent of a moral action is obliged to make a Born: October 25, 1927, Bronxville, New York, United States best decision about which course of action is best (In Mary’s Died: January 19, 1987, Winthrop, Massachusetts, United States case, having an abortion is perhaps her best course of action) Parents: Alfred Kohlberg, Charlotte Albrecht 2. There must be different courses of action to choose from Spouse: Lucille Stigberg (m. 1955–1987) (Mary has at least two options: (a) to continue her pregnancy Nationality: American or (b) to have an abortion) Alma mater: University of Chicago 3. No matter what course of action is taken, some moral Fields: Psychology principles are always compromised (Whether Mary chooses to continue her pregnancy or to have an abortion, the basic KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT moral principle of protecting life (hers and/or her baby’s) will be compromised) The Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas 1. Personal Moral Dilemmas − Experienced (and resolved) on the individual or personal level − Most moral dilemmas belong, or boil down, to this level Heinz Dilemma Ectopic Pregnancy a. Abort the fetus and save her life b. Not abort the fetus (for moral/religious reasons) and die 2. Organizational Moral Dilemmas − Experienced (and resolved) by social organizations − Include those in the medical, business, and public sectors Withdraw life support or not a. Require employees to come to work despite health risks b. Lay off workers to sustain the business 3. Structural Moral Dilemmas − Involve a network of institutions − May be larger in scope and extent that organizational dilemmas a. Lower price of medicine but compromise pharmaceutical companies b. Increase health sector budget but compromise other sectors  Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Explanation Kohlberg devised a theory of moral development which Level 2 – Conventional Morality (8-13 Age) postulates that moral reasoning passes through six stages − Moral reasoning based on external ethics from early childhood to adulthood. − Look at morality based on how others see you Kohlberg’s stages are sorted into three levels − is characterized by an acceptance of social rules concerning Preconventional morality, Conventional morality, Post- right and wrong. (common to think like this during conventional morality adolescence and adulthood) − Each stage involves a more advanced level of reasoning that − At this level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to coincides with cognitive development and life experiences. internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. − Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is Stages based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs. 1. Obedience / Punishment Orientation − A social system that stresses the responsibilities of 2. Individualism and Exchange relationships as well as social order is seen as desirable and 3. Establishing Interpersonal Relationships must, therefore, influence our view of what is right and wrong. 4. Maintaining Social Order o If your peers, or society, thinks it is wrong then so do you 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights 6. Universal Principles Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good Stages of Moral Development person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others. (What do others think of me?) Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules to uphold the law and avoid guilt. (How can I maintain law and order?) Level 3 – Postconventional Morality (Adulthood) − Moral reasoning based on personal ethics − Based on self-defined ethical principles − is the third stage of moral development and is characterized by an individual’s understanding of universal ethical principles. − These are abstract and ill-defined but might include: the preservation of life at all costs and the importance of human dignity. Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. Level 1–Preconventional Morality (3-7 Age) − According to Kohlberg, this level of moral reasoning is as far − Morality based on rewards and punishments as most people get. − Preconventional morality is the first stage of moral − Only 10-15% are capable of abstract thinking necessary for development and lasts until approximately age 9. (form of stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is to say, most reasoning that is common among children) people take their moral views from those around them, and − individuals demonstrate concern for their own self-interest, as only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves. well as external rewards and punishments. o Your own personal set of ethics o If you are rewarded then it is OK. o If you are punished, the act must be wrong. Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times child/individual is good to avoid being punished. If a person is when they will work against the interest of particular punished, they must have done wrong. (How can I avoid individuals. (Does a rule truly serve all members of punishment?) community) Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have children recognize that there is not just one right view that is developed their own set of moral guidelines, which may or handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. (What different viewpoints. (What’s in it or me?)- if I help him now, are the abstract ethical principles that serve my he might help me too once I experience this understandings of justice?) Problems on KOHLBERG’S METHOD 1. The dilemmas are artificial (i.e., they lack ecological validity) 2. The sample is biased 3. The dilemmas are hypothetical (i.e., they are not real) 4. Poor research design