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Untitled Note Tue, Jan 28, 2025 11:31AM 1:12:56 00:01 So let's take a look here at some of the green algae expressions we ended up on this slide. And so if you take a look, here's a little bit. This also called sea lettuce. Notice it has those beautiful blades in here, but Co...

Untitled Note Tue, Jan 28, 2025 11:31AM 1:12:56 00:01 So let's take a look here at some of the green algae expressions we ended up on this slide. And so if you take a look, here's a little bit. This also called sea lettuce. Notice it has those beautiful blades in here, but Columbia right here is really kind of important from the standpoint that it has these long, rhizomatous types of connectors with each one of the blades in here. What does that look like if you didn't know that that was underwater? What would you think that would be feather that's yeah, they have plumacious types of structure, looking, there's a feather. But what would you think that is? It's green, guys, it's a plot. What kind of plant Are you guys familiar with? A little bit about plants, if you go up the fern, a fern, thank you. You got Are you guys familiar with ferns or anything. You guys work in a garden, nothing. Well, then maybe I had better make a slide with a fern on it so that you can see what's going on. It looks exactly like the ferns that we have. If you go up on Alpine loop, you'll actually see areas where there's nothing of a fern. Bracken ferns all over, in amongst the trees there. It's really beautiful. You guys ought to think about plants, botany majors. Where's my botany major? No botany one. Did you think that looked like a fern? Kind of I don't know. I can see the difference, but I think it does look like a bird. How much body have you had? I've just begun. I'm 01:49 so disappointed in humans. Tell me what a burning Okay, 01:58 you guys got to get out more. Do you know what happens is, I'll mention a place, and people have never heard it. It's only like, about like, 30 minutes or something away from here, and it's almost like everybody's always looking at their phone, walking, looking at their phone, or going just around here so they can look at their phones or at their computers. It's really dangerous. No wonder, no wonder, the world is the way it is. Be careful. Get outside and do something you're scaring me, all of you. All right. Damn firm. Okay. But what's really cool about this is the fact that it's rhizomatous. There's a rhizomer connector right there. Well, it doesn't need roots, because where does it get its nutrition from? From the water that surrounds it. It's photosynthesizing. It's green. It looks like a fern. It looks like a plant that we have on the land. So where did those plants come from? They came from relatives of green algae. And so because they came from relatives of green algae, they have some of the same genes that what was one of my tenants, that nature takes what, what's already there, and there you go. So isn't that very efficient of nature to do that, to take those same types of genes and just engineer it from here to where we're at on land? So this is kind of neat there. Well, that was totally destroyed. As far as the concept, let's take a look there. Close up the sea lettuce. You can eat that, by the way. Okay, so let's take a look chloroplast or the green algae have complex life cycles of both sexual and asexual here's a small, microscopic one in here, and take a look here. We have the same type of sequencing that we do with other types of organisms that we've already looked at here. As far as the proteases go, sexual and asexual reproduction. So that's kind of neat to see that that carries on and is important. I'm going to see some of the other things. All right, let's take a look here. Bucha in here includes animals, fungi. Some Protestants are related to each other very closely. You guys all have your charts. Did you bring them with me? Go ahead, 04:46 sure how far back, just 04:52 and then you got the other one, yes, just to see, just trying to show You asexual and asexual. Okay, okay, okay. So here we are. So look at your charts. Take your charts out that I told you to remember to bring, and we're going to take a look at the last little super groups we had to use contact. 05:15 So let's look at what we call amoeba Do you guys know what amoebas are? You kind of know that just some general science and that you can look under pond water and see a protoplasmic type of critter floating around, but amoeba, zoans in here, amoeba, or amoeba like animals, Zoa is animal in here, or amoeba that have low or tooth shape, rather than threat like pseudopodia, that they can engulf food. They include gymnamos, entamoebas and slime molds. Slime molds are really kind of cool, also, because you're going to see some genes in there that are possibly, according to the mycologists I talked to, possibly have the homology also with some of the genes. So if you take a look here, they were, was mistaken for fungi in here. They're called my ceazoins in here. So the molecular systematic so places them in a special group called the slime mold in the clade amigozola. Now they do look like fungi to a certain degree. And they do like, look like mold. So obviously, the common name slime mold. Okay, we have two types. This is the first type. This is called a plasmodium slime mold, which looks like as if so it just has the plasma material floating from one area to the next. That's a good way to put it at one point in the life cycle these slime molds in here. Then don't be confused, because the words are the etymology is derived from a similar type of word in the plasmodium, in the malaria, the plasmodium is divided into membranes that contains many diploid nuclei. I'm going to show you a picture, like I always do. I give an explanation, and then I show you the picture to kind of help solidify that. It extends pseudopodia through decomposing material, engulfing food by phagocytosis. You guys still remember phagocytosis and phenocytosis. Okay, so here we go. If we take a look at what happens here, a lot of these characteristics of the plasmonial Flying mold look a lot like we have with fungi. So I just want you to keep that in mind, because it is interesting that they may share some ancient, ancient, ancient traits from one another, even though they are classified as different groups. Now what was also kind of important is the fact that we do have things that break down bodies of plants and animals into into the nutrients that are really important to go back into the ground and get recycled. Energy does not recycle the nutrients that make energy get recycled. Everybody's aware of that. Are you not? Okay? So take a look. Right here we have those wonderful little types of reproductive aspects to them. So they're kind of like slimy stuff, crawling through the wood, breaking it down, etc. When they get healthy and everything works really well. They develop these sporangia in here. Please remember these from this time when we go into the fungi, you're going to see that they have a similar type of apparatus in here. They have the spores in sporangium in here. Meiosis occurred, and we start to get the germinating spores here, like cells are going to cycle again. They're really quite simple as far as this class goes, but they are very unique and very important for the forest health. Take a look at all of the sporangia down below, but then look at the slime molds up above, and you can see that, yeah, you could mistake them for a lot of other things if you work from later with it, if you're out in the forest looking at things that break down organic materials. So cellular slime molds are the second type. Cellular slime molds mean just that they're divided by cells, instead of just having plasma flowing going from one area to the next. So they form multicellular aggregates in here, separated by membranes as far as their nuclei go. And they appear to be cellular in nature, which is kind of a precursor to the cells we have in other types of more advanced animals. So cells feed individually, but can aggregate to form rooting bodies. Again, the sporangia are other in other terms and amoeboid stage that produces spores. Dictostidium is a real good one that we use to study the development of cells and how they work together. Okay, here 10:26 we have what we call here, this kind of a movement going in through and again, they have a sexual and asexual reproductive methodology also in there, it almost looks like with a sporangia in here. That's kind of interesting, that we do have individual cells in here that are divided up into these different aggregates in here. So you can see the cells breaking up into here, and then they form these cute little guys right here. Some scientists decide to be funny, and they put a little eye right there and a warm mouth right there. That's the direction that they go. But they don't have a head and a tail. They have the genes for that. Okay, so be careful if you see that. Okay, two types, Plasmodium and cellular another good way to look at the cellular slime mold. This is real good with some of the cute little amoeboid types of migrating slug states. They call it a slug stage, like a molesk, like a slug, because it does have the propensity to move in a certain direction. 11:36 Nobody okay with that. That's all you have to know. The two types, etc, they break down nutrient, organic material for nutrients, and then we're going to go to the gym amoebas in here. 11:49 Okay? The same root word, entomology wise, as gymnosperms. Gymnosperms are trees, conifer trees, pine trees. Okay, that root word is naked, so we have naked seeds, and these are naked amoebas in here, in that they don't have any real, true protection, per se. So the same word that gymnasium is from, comes from the Greeks. Oh, how did the Greeks work out? How did they do their Olympics? They did it in the nude. Everybody would be watching that if the Olympics, if everybody was nude, right? Okay, let's go see the Olympics. 12:33 Yeah. Okay, the Greeks knew what they were doing. That's why we have them and their civilization today? No, we have the roots of their great intellectual abilities. Okay, all right. Jim amoebas, then our units here, amoeba zones and soil, as well as the fresh water and the ponds and stuff. If you look at them, do you guys in your lab look under the microscope at some of these types of critters. Have you done that yet? Okay, so most gym amoebas are heterotrophic, actively seek and consume bacteria and other types of food stuffs in there. There's one right there, lobing around a small, little algal type of food source in there. Somebody. Okay. So far so good. Here's the entamoebas entamoebas in here are parasites of vertebrates and some invertebrates. These are interesting from the standpoint that they actually have a group called Entamoeba histolytica, which causes amoeba dysentery, and it's terrible in the waters and things like that. They do have the same type of structure, but they do cause disease and really bad. 13:54 Okay, proteins play key roles in ecological relationships in here, they're so important. Well, we already mentioned the fact that they do what, they break down organic materials into the materials that can be used by other types of organisms, like plants, to be able to get the nutrients out of them and produce all of the things that are important for the macro types of critters there. So we have some symbiotics here that are very interesting. So we have dinoflagellates that work with corals. So the coral animal actually has, sometimes a red alga, or it has a dinoflagellate that helped them actually produce their food, symbiotically hyper hypermastigotes in here digest cellulose in the gut of termites. Termites themselves, as arthropods, cannot digest wood, but they have Protestants in their gut that help them digest that wood into using the types of carbohydrates and proteins that they need, and at the same time, feed their little protozoans in their gut. Now that doesn't work so well for us all the time. Okay, so 15:16 transmission and gut contents from the anus of donor to the mouth of receptor, that happens lots of times. And here those are cuties are that are inside of the termite guts. So this is just a good example of how they can actually co evolve together and and benefit one another. Okay, so photosynthetic protease in here are really important as part of the main food stuffs. In the food webs, we don't have food chains. We have food webs in the marine ecosystems and on the Terrell ecosystems. 16:00 So here we have the protistans at the bottom of a nice food web, and lots of critters depend on them. Sometimes the consumers themselves go right to the proteins and some of the other organisms that are closely related. Okay, here you go. This will help some people. This is kind of an overview of things, but keep in mind the details that we talked about with each one of these groups. So the examples this kind of helps you put things in perspective. Is this all? There is no there's a lot more, but we just looked at the main one. Okay, we all good. That's the end of that. Now we're on to fungi. Any questions on any of the other stuff, we're good. Yay. Ready. 16:59 Here we go. Go ahead. Sorry. Can you give us, like one example of what a question I look like on a test with unit two second? 17:12 No, but I'll bring down the test and I'll give you a couple of those next time. Better than me just making one up right here. Okay, okay, I I'll do that for you. But you know, you guys know how to study. It's multiple choice. If you study, it's multiple guess. If you don't, everyone wants to know I only have true and false, but not very often, I don't like true and false. It's kind of misleading. But yeah, I'll do that next time. All right, here we go, fungi. So look at all of the different morphologies we have here for fungi. This is a kingdom all unto itself and very unique. Again, we have a course called mycology, fungi here, taught by Dr Jeff Zahn, who's an excellent teacher and very, very knowledgeable. And it's a lot of fun, very interesting. Some of you may become interested after you have this small introduction to it. Okay, what's the main difference between the stuff that you see around you, the other plants, and the fungi right there, growing into those fruiting bodies. What's one of the main things that you kind of see that's a big difference. Go ahead, they don't have leaves. What's another one? Something that primates use very, very handily. 18:49 Early primates actually had elongated noses with lots of turbinates inside of their nose, area for surface area being able to smell. As primates evolve, we lost that ability to smell. And what do we use? Mostly vision, and we have color vision that's a little bit different, interesting evolution of how that works. But So using your color vision, what do you see that's different in this primates, 19:24 go ahead, they're not green. She gets a gold star for the day. Wow, very good. Okay, so the fungi are not green. They do not photosynthesize. They live off of other organisms that do photosynthesize, or that have their own energy sources, like animals. 19:46 Let's take a look at this, fungi together with bacteria. What other organisms do we have that break down materials in the forest? We have bacteria. We have fungi. Other than the fungi I'm going to show you. There's lots of others. We have slime molds. We have all types of things that break down the forest, types of dead organic material into the nutrients that supply the forest for what it needs, as far as growing the trees. And then we take advantage of that fungi, together with bacteria, the principal decomposers in the biosphere, virtually the only organisms that can break down lignin and cellulose. I give you some information here. Fungi cause animal diseases, plant diseases, etc. And as a matter of fact, some scientists are worried that the next big pandemic will not be viruses necessarily. It might be fungi. That's pretty scary. All right, fungi are the most harmful pests of living plants, but some of them actually benefit what's going on bacteria, some viruses and fungi actually make the colors of certain types of flowers change. It's really interesting that way. So I give you this breakdown here that you guys should be getting into as far as the metric system, one hectare equals 10,000 square meters. 107 639 square feet, which is equal to 2.471 acres in here. Why do I do that? Our malaria in here is one of the world's largest organisms. Let me show you here in a conifer forest, eight hectares. Wow, that pretty big. Yeah. Okay, this is the one of the most interesting things about it is that not only does it affect the conifers in here, but it's connected to these two over here, under the ground. So it is very, very large, huge organisms take one of the world's largest we'll talk about other plants. Fungi are heterotrophs, and they absorb nutrients from outside of their body and then slurp it back into a milkshake. Well, not a milk, but a shake of that material that's broken down by what we call EXO enzymes, EXO meaning from out of and the lab, okay? And you guys know what enzymes do, right? Everybody? Okay with that? Okay? Break down a large variety of complex molecules into that shape that can be reabsorbed as a food source. So that's why they're really useful. Breaking down all of these things, lignin and wood materials and all sorts of things can be broken down by these organisms without a proteins like the termites do go ahead, so are the Exo enzymes like on the outside of the mushroom, or do they are from inside of the fungi to the soil right next to it, by the food that they Wanted? Okay? No, that's good. Clarification. Very good. Everybody. Okay with that idea there? Yeah, that is kind of confusing when you first run across these. I should have explained that. I'm sorry. Okay, the versatility of the enzymes contributes to the fungi ecological success. Incredible success. Fungi can break down again. I'm going to bring it up cellulose and oligna. They are essential for the well being of terrestrial ecosystems. And we find out that they're actually in moist and aquatic ecosystems also. So again, just really quick, they're decomposers, they're parasites. Sometimes they're mutualists. They work together with other creatures. 24:12 The most common body structures are multi cellular sodas called mushrooms. Those are fruiting bodies guys. When you see the mushrooms in your lawn? It's too late. It's already inundated into your soil, in your lawn. Well, it's too late, unless you like looking at them. I do okay. And single cells like yeast, we use those. Those are very useful for making a lot of things like bread, 24:44 fungi consist of mycelium networks of branch hyphae, so you're going to see similarities with some of the Protestants that we just looked at. That's going to be really kind of neat to see how those genes are probably recruited again for something that is very useful for the fungi as well as the protesters. So again, what's one of my tenants? Nature is already there, and there we go. And are usually underground as far as their best area to be in. And when you start looking at the Attenborough film, you're actually going to see kind of a computer enhanced view of how the fungi go through the soil. Just really kind of neat. Most fungi have cell walls made out of chitin, not chitin, chitin. Chitin, okay, a mucopolysaccharide. Now, if you have a crab, or you have a lobster, and you crack it open, and that exoskeleton on that arthropod is actually a mucopolysaccharide. Wow, are they recruiting some of the same genes, maybe to make their cell walls say, Yes. Ah, very good. Yeah. Okay, which is the same material that makes up protective coats of art for COVID, some of your favorite that makes me hungry. I think I'll go to 26:19 red blobs. Take a look right here. Now that we've had those definitions, 26:28 by the way, I keep looking at your spider man hat. I like that. That's pretty cool. Yeah, to keep you warm now, Spidey hat. Okay, let's take a look. I'm going to talk about Spider Man, spider sense, too, and all that neat stuff. When we get to arthropods, am I add or what? Okay, here we go. Here's the hyphae guys. A whole bunch of these hyphae, though, are together called mycelium, the mycelia here that you see in here, nicely illustrated. Are made up of the hype A and then we have the fruiting bodies in here. The nature is already taken what's already there and modifies it into a fruiting body to produce spores. Nature is so efficient, I just can't believe how neat This is. They say in Harry Potter, bloody brilliant. Let's take a look here, general biology of the fungi. Again, just reviewing a connected mass of hyphae altogether makeup in my ceiling and you see here left, like eight grows through and digest its substrate. And guess what comes out of the hyphae, the chemistry of the Exo enzymes to be able to move through the soil and digest and eat all of the good stuff in there. So far, so good when it when it when it moves, does it 28:03 move? Does it continue to stay alive? Oh yeah, it's a lot the hyphae, so it helps. Oh yeah. It's just an extension of the living organism of the fungi. That's the major body of fungi, or the hyphae, and they just keep growing as long as there's food, they keep growing and growing and growing and extending and extending. 28:30 Now let's take a look at a couple things that are very similar to slime molds that we just looked at a minute ago. 28:42 So we take a look at the hyphae here. This is really neat here, because here we have SEPTA set in our slime molds have the same exact anatomy here. Hence, the slime molds were what mistaken for fungi. Notice here they have the cell wall separating each one of these nuclei. Okay, the cenocytic are like cellular slime molds, and they have the same type of basic construction where the nuclei are separated by cell wall. Is that kind of interesting? How that works? Those genes are recruited in there. And again, Dr Zahn, I talked to a lot, and he says, oh yeah. He said they were recruited from other types of drug pieces that they evolved from that were these were more able to adapt to land. So this is kind of neat, having the two types of hyping as we go through there. 29:44 Okay, this is a general unless you like taking sequences. If you want a sequence, you can take picture of this, but it's not completed yet. I do want you to know this life cycle, because it's a generalized life cycle that I'm going to show you, the complexities of the life cycle the fungi. I'm not going to have you memorize them, because I just want you to understand how they work. With this one right here applied to them. Everybody okay with that. So we have the asexual one, where you can see spork producing structures and mycelia, et cetera. This is haploid. We go into kind of a unique type of terrestrial, adapted type of cycle here, where we have the fusion of cytoplasm in here called plasmogony. And then we have what we call a heterocaryotic stage. Notice it's purple, it's n plus n up here, instead of just n, right here, we have the n plus n. And then when the n plus n becomes 2n it becomes what kariogamy, and the fusion becomes diploid, and we continue on there. Now you're going to understand this a little bit better as we go. Okay, the fusion of the nuclei together make it diploid, and then it goes through meiosis again to produce the spores that again, go through either the sexual or the asexual life cycle. Everybody, good. So far, that's the generalized idea that I want you to know right there. Everybody, good, okay. 31:41 Sexual reproduction requires the fusion of hyphae from different mating types. Now I'm going to show you with the cycles as we go through here. But what we're talking about as far as that life cycle that I just show you, fungi use sexual signaling molecules called pheromones to communicate their mating type, like many animals, like the bomb mix moth ants and mammals, even us, we have pheromones. Do we not? What's the difference between a hormone and a pheromone? 32:16 Pheromones are exuded on the outside for communication or for something that needs to be done, as far as a signaling type of thing, hormones are released on the inside of the body for a signaling or a changing of biochemistry committee, okay with the difference hormones inside, pheromones outside. So these are kind of interesting end of we have hyphae that release pheromones that attract one another to each other. Now there's a kind of a dopey type of 32:56 cologne or perfumes that use human pheromones to attract people to one another. Does that work? 33:09 What do you think? Do each one of you have a different biochemistry? That's how unique biochemistry can be. Just taking biochem in here, not yet when you take biochem, well, I hope you do, because if you go through general Chem and o Chem, you should reward yourself. How in the world does all of this stuff go together? By taking biochemistry, we have some incredible teachers here that teach biochemistry, they're very, very different. Okay? And you're going to find out how incredibly diverse biochemistry is and why we're so different from one another. But are your pheromones different than somebody else's? Do you have a significant other that you can tell when you're right next to them, you can actually inhale their kind of essence a little bit and kind of feel closer to them, or you're attracted to them. 34:11 Don't want to admit that I have a good friend who's a paleontologist, whose wife sits there and and he told me he goes, my wife loves to wear my shirts because they smell and are like me. Not that he sweats a lot or anything like that, but that they smell like him. Are you guys familiar with that at all? Have you been able to when babies are around you smell the little blankets that they're in, and they smell a lot. Do 34:46 babies smell moms? I mean, she was so man, she did. They dropped their stuff over there. They're so amazed, right? Isn't that kind of neat? What about ants? I just said they had pheromones too. When you step on an ant, have you ever watched an ant colony and all of a sudden everybody starts going crazy. It's not because, like on the cartoons, they go and and signal one another. They actually do what? When you squish an ant, you're releasing pheromones that are heavy molecules that travel and start igniting the movement of these ants to go freak out, because here's a big, giant creature trying to kill them. Isn't that interesting? Mommy's moss can take stuff off of the air. Go ahead. So is that how ants leave trails for each other is with their Yes, some that's part of it. That's part of it. Take the entomology class. It's really good here to do that's fascinating. If you're interested in that, we have some excellent teachers who have, okay, they'll be okay with pheromones and how important they are. As far as fungi, just using the examples, guess what? We have inherited those abilities. Also don't buy any of those pheromone colognes or perfumes that is a waste, okay? 36:16 I know I'm not going to do that. Okay, 36:22 okay? Plasmogony, then is a union two parent mycelia. If you go back to that cycle, you'll see it in most fungi, the halfway nuclei from each parent do not fuse right away. They coexist in the mycelium right next to one another, called heterokarya for the heterokaryotic stage. Many okay with that. They can do that for ages. They can do that for hundreds of years, sometimes until the conditions are right for those two nuclei to get together, to sexually reproduce and do what is needed, as far as making some diversity and enlarging the hyphae. 37:09 Hours or days or even centuries may pass before the occurrence of karyogamy, nuclear fusion. During karyogamy, the haploid nuclei fuse, producing diploid cells, then they go through meiosis, then they produce the spores, and then we start over. Now you've got the wording here, but now let's take a look at what's going to happen with some of these different types of fungi as soon as we get through a little bit more biology, okay, 37:41 asexual reproduction. Lots of times when you see an orange with a mold on it, okay, that is just asexually reproducing as it gets onto the orange itself and utilizes that food source for being able to make more of the bodies in there. Again, that's a good strategy. 38:06 Moles produce haploid spores by mitosis. We okay. There different types of fungi, though, be careful, and we'll tell you why you need to be careful. You can't make your own penicillin. This is not penicillin. This is not penicillin. Cat. 38:27 Somebody have a question, go ahead, where does the mold come from? I know we do. Spores as they land onto the orange itself, then will reproduce and produce by mitosis. Yeah, yeah, yeah. 38:41 Sometimes they're on there already when you buy the food at the store, and then it's just a matter of time, even in a refrigerator, which is a dehydrator, you know, that actually will produce more of these things. So sometimes there's not a whole lot you can do about it except wash your stuff. 39:09 You all wash your food, don't you, before you eat it. I hope so. Let's take a look. Other fungi can reproduce, asexual age that are yeast. So these are kind of important, because guess what they do? What's so important about yeast? Do they give flavor to a bread too? They give kind of a flavor to it, nutty flavor. But also, what do they do that's so important? They make the bed rise. Why? Because one of the metabolic components of these guys, as they warm up and they start reproducing asexually and make more of the yeasty beasties in there, what's going to happen is they produce carbon dioxide that expands the bread. Wow, that kind of cool. How did we run across that? That's another story. Don't worry about it. Okay, instead of producing spores, yeast produced asexually by simple cell division, and have pinching or butt cells as they form. Well, some types of critter Protestant actually do that, and certain types of animals, and we'll see that later. Let's take a look, then at where they belong. They're not plants, they're not animals, but they are fungi. Fungi appear with their characteristics to be closer to what to animals than they are to plants, but that doesn't mean they're more closely related. That just means they share stuff from plants, from Protestants, and they also share them with animals. So be careful of trying to align one with another. That isn't really good and that's kind of misleading. Maybe I should change that more closely related to animals and plants. They have more characteristics like that. That doesn't mean that they're more closely related the origin of fungi. They come from the oceans, like everything else, and they moved on to land with plants moved to land on here, undisputed fossils of fungi are found about 460 million years ago, in the middle of a vision when plants started to come out onto the land, and they formed a relationship that we're going to talk about in a little while with a certain group of the fungi themselves. So they were one of the earliest colonizers of land and had a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with plants themselves. And we're going to go into that detail as we move ahead. Good. So far, everybody's all right. Take a look here. Fungi have radiated and diverse sets of lineage. We're just going to look at these groups right here. We're going to look at these five, but we can probably divide them up into others, but we're not going to do that. We'll let you take mycology, and Dr Zahn will show you the brand new ones, but some of them are very similar to the ones that we already have. How do we base the classification? A little bit by morphology, because they do look different from one another, but the main thing is how they reproduce. Pretty. Okay with that idea, so we're going to show you how that works. Okay, let's go on. Here is a good breakdown. We're going to look at the chytridia, my COVID, and the chytrids up at the top, which are more ancient in their characteristics, okay, and so we think that that is basically how we get the fungi on land is how they act as chytrids, that top group up there, the rest of them are well adapted to land, all right, so molecular analyzes are really important genetic analyzes, But reproduction helps reinforce those basic differences that we find in a molecular sense. 43:29 Okay, this is an example, only an example. You have to worry about it that I'm showing you. In 2011 we actually had a soil fungus in here, the Archaea horizon of my seats in here help break down or recycle materials. But this is a new group, so I'm just showing you that there is new grouping. Every time we look, we find brand new species of every type of organism on this planet the more we look so let's start here with the first group. These are the chytrids, chytridia, my codac in here. They're found in fresh water and terrestrial habitats, but the terrestrial habitats are usually have quite a bit of moisture in them, and where do fungi originate from? From the water itself. Therefore these are more water oriented, aquatically oriented. Therefore these are more like what we would see back in the prehistoric past and forming alliances with plants themselves. Again, these just by themselves, the chytrids can be decomposed parasites or mutualists. Molecular evidence supports the hypothesis in here, the chytrids diverged early in fungal evolution. You still need to get some more fossils and do a little bit more molecular work with that and closer resemble the ancient, primitive. I got to take that word primitive, because that implies that they're very inferior ancestor of fungi. Hydrates are unique among fungi, and having flagellated spores in here called zolos spores, that's how we discern them, is how they reproduce with the zoo spores. Everybody. Good, there. Not too bad. Okay, there's the hydrants in here. Okay, you don't have this one, so you probably need to take this is so simple, though, there's five groups here, guys, so it's not going to be that hard for you to keep these straight. 45:42 Okay? You okay, 45:47 take a look right here. There's the sporangia produced on the hyphae in there, in these chitries in here, and look down below. These are those stores. Now, what's interesting is, what do they have connected to their bodies? What are those big, huge, long types of appendages there? Those are flagella that helps them go through the water. That's probably an important aspect of the really ancient ones that mixed in with the relative of the green algae to be able to make plants and have the interaction between the two symbiotically. Here's a life cycle. Now, don't worry about the detail to this life cycle. You already know the life cycle here as an asexual and asexual stage in here, because it's so ancient, it does not have the exact heteroatic, time delayed type of need for a karaoke me or for the hype to come together. These are really ancient, so they're going to have more of a protistan, like type of stage. But from here on, the groups are going to have that carry out of stage. Okay? They're powerful decomposers. They digest cellulose in ruminant digestive tracts, ruminant, meaning cows. We'll talk about the cows when we get to Adam, I hope we'll get to animals. Okay, aroma kits start digesting the cellulose in a cow dressing meal. Wow, that's neat. They have fungi and bacteria and different types of chemistry in there that start doing that almost immediately. They can digest chitin and keratin, two types of resistant proteins, chitin being lot Bucco polysaccharide or like lobster or arthropod shells and keratin. What's keratin like? They have two types in oxidable part in our hair and our fingernails, stuff like that, but they can break it down. That's pretty interesting. Unfortunately, they contribute to an ongoing amphibian decline. We used to think it was just frogs, but now we're finding out that it's other types of groups, some of them are evolving to have resistance to some of the chytrids in here, but they have that skin infection. Why is that important to amphibians? Again, amphibians have skin that does what helps them breathe and and actually maintain homeostasis by waters going in and out and chemical balance. So that could be really bad. Chytridium, mitosis and frogs by the tracheal criteria in the base, okay, that's not important, okay. Zygomycetes, zygomycota. This is the next group in here, final zygomycota. In here, they include vascular emols, parasites and commensal symbionts, very important. The zygomycetes are named for their sexually produced zygosporangia. Oh, here again, what are fungi separated from basically how they reproduce, okay, Zygo, which are resistant to freezing and dry. Oh, they're resistant compared to the chytrids, because now we're getting them moving up onto the land, adapting to the food stuffs there and the resources and freezing and drying. That means that, if you live in water, does water kind of maintain temperature at more an even gradient, and takes a lot of energy to change it one way or the other, whether it's cold or hot, compared to the air and the land, right? That goes just like that. Therefore, these types of fungi are adapting to terrestrial ecosystems. 50:16 Okay, so I go my seats. Okay, that's the next group. Okay, so I go my seats. Okay, that's the next group. 50:25 Here's the life cycle. I'm 50:29 just going to put the whole thing there. Oh, take a look. Does that look like a plasmonial slime mold, type of sporangium down there on the lower left? It does. Doesn't it? Okay? Notice here that we finally have that from the kypherds. We don't have that basic periodic stage, but here we do with plasmogamy and karyogamy going there. We don't have the n plus n 50:55 in that other stage, because they're aquatic, and the way in which they reproduce doesn't need that stage, that it evolved when they finally got to the land. Did you have a question? Go ahead, this is kind of a random question, but this kind of got me thinking about, like, the extreme heat and extreme cold. Like, how does like, fungi and like these kind of, like molecules and stuff, like, how do they react to the extreme heat, extreme cold, like, I know I've heard in some cases, like, it kill the bacteria, and sometimes it will enhance it and grow it. Like, yeah, yeah. It depends on the evolutionary history of each one of the groups and where their habitats are and how they obtain food. So it's all of the natural selective types of pressures. Sometimes they have thicker types of codings on the hyphae for fungi, certain types of bacteria, wow, they just thrive in a colder whereas others don't, just like you were saying. Here we actually have this plasmotomy Taking place the n plus and in the hetero periodic stage here, where they reduce the zygosporangium, this is really resistant to freezing and dry. So this is one of those modifications. But then there's other types of modifications also, you're exactly right. We don't have time to go into it, okay? So here, all of a sudden, the diploid nuclei, we have karyography going in here, meiosis, sporangia, and then we go through that basic end stage to that n plus n, then to end stage. Does everybody kind of see how that one life cycle that I showed you is applicable here. I just want you to understand that's how it works. But you should know the zygote are the things that are really important for that the hydrogens don't have, that are really good for adapting to drying and freezing and hot temperatures, also to develop the diploid nuclei that you see there, rhizopus red mold. How many people think that the bread mold is Penicillium? A lot of people do. People actually put this in hypodermics and put it into their body thinking that I need to end up I can't go out and buy a this is not Penicillium. Guys don't do it. Okay? It's not refined. It's not what is needed. Okay, so you got to be kind of careful. Rhizopus red mold is not what we have here. So here I make a little bit of adjustment here, showing a sporangia and the asexual reproduction going on here. Also, 53:52 anybody? Okay, there? Not like you have to memorize this, but you should understand how it works and the zygote Go ahead, is the sexual part and the asexual part is something else. The asexual part can be any one of the hyphae, expanding and growing larger by mitosis without any karaoke or any connection. N plus, yes. So, so basically, you could say that here we're perfectly fine. We can keep growing. Everything's fine. Pheromones might connect those two together, and then when it gets to that point, that's the start of a sexual, reproductive type of part of the cycle. But it's not until they have the implicit and where the plasma fused together, the nuclei are right next to one another, then this is the sexual stage, pulses. And then this is the asexual stage, asexual care also. So what I'm doing is, here's the asexual stage, here's the mycelium. Here's the mycelium. Here we actually kind of connected together that way. So it went into more detail on what we need to but you were right. Yeah, exactly right. How that works. 55:14 Take a look at the little water cannons. These are so cute, they're on poop of cows. Well, how does that work? They actually have water inside of the little sporangia in there that shoot out the spores on 55:36 the moles. Take a look at what happens here. Well, here we have the cows are in the grass here. These guys shoot out the materials out of here, and it shoots them out into the grass. The cow eats it, poops it again, and spreads it some more, easy 55:56 red mold. You can see the sporangia up here. Oh my goodness. We're going to talk about the parasites inside of insects here that grow. What the zygomite types of things in here, with the zygomite COVID, and usually it's sexual, asexual reproduction, but it does something to the flies and to the ants and to the other insects, as far as their behavior so that they're advantageous, as far as getting those carried by the wind and the spores taken off. We're going to go into a little bit more detail into that zombie ants unstop. Okay. Do I marry on my seats. Let's go to the next group, and then we'll finally get to those other types of things in a second here. Well, maybe next. Okay, my COVID were once considered zygomycetes. So you can see how the more research we do, the more what very we become, as far as dividing the classes up, as far as natural selection goes, they are now classified in a separate group, bone marrow mice, seeds form what we call our buscular mycorrhiza, or Endo, Endo, meaning inside mycorrhizae. Now, what the heck is going on with that. We're going to talk to you about mycorrhiza as we go along here. Okay, just know that as a back, and then we'll elaborate on it as we go. Good. So far, 57:38 bone marrow, my seeds. Now this is where we start talking about the mycorrhiza. Mycorrhiza are mutually beneficial relationship between the fungus type A and the plant roots. They grow right in on them, and they have some unique types of characteristics that will show you the two types here, Ecto, meaning on the outside, form sheets of hyphae over a root and also grow into extracellular spaces of the root cortex. What the heck am I talking about? I will tell you as we go along, our buscular Mycorrhizae are also called, more correctly, endo mycorrhiza, which means they're on the inside extended, hyping through the cell wall of the root cells into the tubes formed by invagination of the root cell membrane. Now all of this gobbledygook and stuff that I'm talking about here, I'm going to explain with some pictures and a description, we okay with that. Two types, Ecto and Endo, 58:49 we good so far. 58:55 Here we go. Our vascular endomycorrhizal hyphae penetrate the root cell wall. By far, the most common, 70% of the species are mycorrhiza that have a relationship with plants and their fungal partners are the glomerulus that we're talking about right now. But as we go further, the Ecto mycorrhiza in here the high face surround but do not penetrate the root cells, but they're right next to it. Most hosts are forest trees like pines and oaks and the fungal partners are a group that we get to talk about, but it should be important here, as far as describing mycorrhiza, are 30% good so far, everybody get that. Can you kind of see why this might be important for the test? Okay, 59:53 Verily, You guys are so quiet. Are you hungry? Is that what's going on? You need lunch? Is that your blood sugar's low? Caffeine wore off from this morning. 1:00:07 You got to get excited, like I do. Doesn't matter what my blood sugar is. I can pass out up here, you know, because I'm so excited, even with my blood sugar. Well, you know that I'm excited. Oh, let's make a wish and see what the heck's going on. I'm going to describe this first. You can look at the endo mycorrhiza on the left, the Ecto on the right, but I'm going to explain how this works. I'm going to take a box. The box represents what's the difference between an animal cell and a plant cell. 1:00:44 And plant cells have a cell wall. I'm going to have this box up here as the cell wall. I'm going to take a copper wire and I'm going to push it into the cell wall. But then there's the plasma material inside that is the cell itself of the plant, not the cell wall itself. I can stick that wire in in a water balloon in the box, the water balloon representing what the actual cell itself, not the cell wall. As I push that wire into the box, it can either go into right next to the water balloon or what, but it doesn't pop it. That's what we kind of want. So I want you to keep that in mind. Or it can actually go into the cell. If it does, it might be selected against, or it might be something else going on. But let me show you how this works here. So as the hyphae go in here, into the Endo, they're actually going where inside of the cell itself. Everybody okay with that? So the copper wire is going into the water balloon, but we're not copying the water balloon, because they're made out of a material that won't pop just because you stick, but it allows the copper wire to go in a maintained cell wall itself in the cell. Construction of the cell 1:02:29 over here, notice that the hype may go where they don't penetrate into the cell, but they go right next to it. Either way, you can do what you can transfer materials back and forth in the hyphae into the cell. From the cell into the hyphae, from the hyphae right next to it, into that still go into the cell, back and forth. We okay with that, all right there. So in other words, we're trying to get something in to the cells and into the hyphae. They are symbiotic. Okay, so this is really kind of important. We can see some of these can flower out in the hyphae, in the cell walls right here, and we can see it right here. So here are the sections of the hyphae and the endo and covering the roots. Also do plants need to have the fungi. If you take soil and you cook the soil and kill the fungi, plants do not grow as well. We're going to show you how that works right here. Oh, sorry, here's the high faith on the young root here, if we destroy all of the fungi, plants don't grow well because they cool ball together almost 500 million years they work together. What do they do for the plants? 1:04:06 So what happens here is we have a symbiotic relationship between the fungus and the roots. The Roots help the plant absorb minerals and nutrients so they give up more surface area the plant provides the fungus with food, organic materials. So much photosynthesis is that a pretty good mutualistic symbiosis. They both benefit the fungal high base, around or penetrate the roots and supplement the increased absorptive surface area, so they increase the plant growth, as you can see right here again, just like you saw with the previous picture. No mycorrhiza. It does not grow well because it doesn't get what adequate nutrients, and there's not what anything to be able to utilize of photosynthetic products to help it grow, like the fungi do for the other ones. Everybody okay with that idea? Are fungi absolutely important for the evolution of plants? Absolutely So Are you guys okay with how the endo and Ecto mycorrhiza work? Endo goes where inside of the cell, Ecto goes just outside. But either way, they get what, lots of surface area for nutrients to go in and help the plant. Are we clear? We good? Go ahead. 1:05:52 It's still. It still has weight. You guys remember some of your cell biology, as far as plant cells and animal cells, are there pathways that are actually put in the cell wall that allow transfer of materials. That's how that works. What are those pathways called? Do you remember 1:06:18 the pathways in the cell wall of a plant where it can transfer material, going in and out of the cell. Plant cell itself. 1:06:33 Go ahead, is that vesicles or like transporter proteins? No, those are the chemicals that and how they act that way. But there's actually a pathway, physical pathway in there that's like a freeway going from the outside of the cell, etc. 1:06:50 We'll have to come across that later, because that's going to be important when we get to plant. Oh, now you're bugged by it, aren't you? Okay? Asko my seeds, Ascomycota in here live in marine, freshwater, terrestrial habitats. They form the acai, usually contained in fruiting bodies called ASCO carbs. So the acai are kind of a unique type of reproductive device here that is important, and some ask of my seats are called sack fungi. They look like little sacks. Yay, asthma. See each vary in size and complexity, from unisex or yeast to elaborate cup fungi and Morel. You guys ever seen morels or eaten any of those? They're absolutely delicious. Okay, this is one of the warnings I'm going to give you now with fungi. If you don't know how to recognize them, do not pick them and eat them. Does everybody understand that? Okay, there are actual groups here in Salt Lake that go out mushroom hunting, and they will be able to help you. If you're that interested, Dr Zahn can help you also do that, but don't do it on your own. Now, if you live in Northern California, it's kind of neat, because you go to the farmers markets there and they actually have mushrooms from the surrounding areas. Because what do you have lots of good soil, lots of good food, lots of good moisture. You're going to get mushrooms like crazy, and they're really good. But you have to go to the farmers market, and you have to look carefully at each one of the groups that are there, so that you go out mushroom money and you pick up the right one. That still can be dangerous, that still can be dangerous. Don't do it on your own. Go to the restaurant. Have Portobello. Don't you love portabella? I love mushrooms. Some of you don't like mushrooms. I'm just kind of interested in how many of you dislike mushrooms. Goodness gracious. Okay, you'll be selected against very quickly. Okay, 1:09:04 nonetheless, I love 1:09:07 mushrooms. Arctic circle has a great mushroom burger. Have you ever tried that mushroom burger? Try that really. Okay. So anyway, let's take a look here at the ASCO my COTA. There's the morale device. Have you seen Billy's morals? They're absolutely delicious. They grow here. Be careful. Though, as a young bachelor of science student, I went down by the Ogden River, right at the mouth of Ogden Canyon, and found a bunch of these, but I did not realize I was so excited when I found them that I also had poison ivy there. 1:09:54 So poison ivy, but I had some great morels. Cook them up, fry them, put them in saute, delicious, kind of dumb trough falls. Not going to tell you what else I was doing there to get covered by nice memory. 1:10:18 Anyway, 1:10:22 can't I can't think you know that song by Palmer. Robert Palmer, the lights are on, but no one's home. Your mind, your will, is not your own. You guys don't know any good music to you. We have all that crap that has no soul to it, all right? Besides that, sorry. And you watch crappy TV too, and you watch too much computer crap. I don't know what's happening. 1:10:52 Truffles, how many of you watch The Simpsons? Remember when Bart could smell how truffles, like the pigs do and other types of critters, yeah, truffles. How many? Well, those of you that don't like mushrooms, forget hug your ears. How many of you like truffles? Aren't they great and delicious? All right? Super. So there they are, right there. There within this group, there is a sack fungi or a cup fungi and somewhere else, more cello in there. Boy, it's really good stuff. Kind of fun. Another little cup fungi, kind of neat. Well, what's going on as far as the basic reproductive difference? Let's take a look here. So let me just put the whole thing in here, asking my seat to put hand, pathogens, decomposers, symbionts, asking my suit, asking my seat reproduce asexually by enormous numbers of asexual spermidia. Okay, do I hear 1:11:58 upsides over there? Are you getting bored with these fungi? Take a look there at the Astro carp that contains the Assign here. So basically, we've got the same pattern. Okay, take a look at what happens here. We form these wonderful ASCO spores in here with the vascular cart finally on the outside, and they release. And then they have what asexual ability right here. And then they also have monogamy hair and carry out me head or periodic state, etc. So that's not unusual. What do I want you to know from this? It's the same as all of the rest of the ones, except for the TIDs and what else is important here they use a what an astro carp that has the aside in them for reproduction. That good. Dutch elm disease. 1:12:59 Not good. Not good. 1:13:03 Now this is where penicillin is at, guys. Not everything that gets on the oranges is Penicillium. Okay, so you have to be careful there. Wash it off. Asexual reproduction, kind of nice. Ask of my seats in court for penicillin. Okay, those of you that don't like mushrooms, how many of you don't like blue dressing? How many of you don't like blue cheese dressing? Well, isn't that interesting? You guys are going to be selected against also. Okay, double, double whammy, blue cheese. Oh, man, this is true. Cheese dressing, good, okay? Soy sauce, soy paste, etc, 1:13:49 yeast or unicellular ascoy seeds here. Well, come on, guys, you like beer and wine, don't you? There you go. Your wine is nothing more than fermented fungi juice. 1:14:06 That's not going to stop you. Okay, we're basically good here, ethanol, beer bread. Oh, next time, we'll finish up the Eskimo. 1:14:18 from being here with White House. [This note may be incomplete because it was exported before processing was finished.]