Nigerian Peoples and Culture GST 112 Course Outline PDF

**LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION** **NIGERIAN PEOPLES AND CULTURE** ***COURSE CODE:*** **GST 112** **UNITS: 2** **GENERAL CLASS** **COURSE OUTLINES** - Study of Nigerian History - Culture and Arts up to 1800 (Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo peoples and culture); - Peoples and culture...

**LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION** **NIGERIAN PEOPLES AND CULTURE** ***COURSE CODE:*** **GST 112** **UNITS: 2** **GENERAL CLASS** **COURSE OUTLINES** - Study of Nigerian History - Culture and Arts up to 1800 (Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo peoples and culture); - Peoples and culture of the ethnic minority groups - Nigerian under colonial rule (advent of colonial rule in Nigeria, Colonial Administration of Nigeria) - Evolution of Nigeria as a Political Unit (Amalgamation of Nigeria in 1914) - Formation of Political Parties in Nigeria - Nationalist movement and struggle for independence - Nigeria and challenges of Nation Building (Military Intervention in Nigerian Politics and Nigerian Civil war) - Concept of Trade and Economic of Self-reliance and National Development (indigenous trade and market system; indigenous apprenticeship system among Nigeria People; trade, skill acquisition self-reliance) - Social Justice, Individual and National Development (law definition and classification) - Judiciary and fundamental rights - Individual, Norms and Values (Basic Nigeria norms and values, patterns of citizenship acquisition; citizenship and civic responsibilities; Indigenous Languages, usage and development, negative attitudes and conducts (Cultism, Kidnapping and other related social vices) - Re-orientation, Moral and Values (The 3R\'s-Reconstruction, Rehabilitation and Re-orientation. - Re-orientation Strategies (Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), Green Revolution, Austerity Measures, War Against Indiscipline (WAI), War Against Indiscipline and Corruption (WAIC), Mass Mobilization for Self-Reliance, Social Justice and Economic Recovery (MAMSER) and National Orientation Agency (NOA) - Current Socio-political and cultural development in Nigeria. **INTRODUCTION** Nigeria as a political entity could be traced back to 1800 when it became an artificial creation of Britain. A systematic study of issues and events that took place in Nigeria's past, thus becomes imperative in this course. As social studies students, it is important to create awareness on the interconnectedness between events, political relationships dynamics, changing, fortunes of the Nigeria economy, major political actors in Nigeria and their contributions to the task of nation building a well as the nature of Military involvement in politics. By and large, studying Man in his environment by Social Studies students can only be profound if the said experiences and effects on the Nigerian legacy is studied. From 1900, colonial rule started in Nigeria with the British Colonial Government establishing a colonial administration largely concerned with exploiting available resources to its advantage. Because the Prime motive of colonialism was economic, the British structured the economy towards providing raw materials for British industries as well as constituting the problem as market for British manufactured goods. This however brought about a lopsided (incomplete) economic growth and not economic development. In order to achieve this objective, railway has been built by the colonial administration from the hinterland to the coast to facilitate export of cash crops such as Groundnuts, cocoa, cotton and palm products to Europe. Because Colonial economic policy was designed to suit Europe rather than Africa needs production of food crops was discharged at the expense of cash crops. Similarly, mining unlike cash crops was largely controlled by the few large European Companies for example U.A.C. which owned mineral rights in Nigeria and the profits of these companies were repatriated to their shareholders in Europe; and such profits were almost completely unwanted by the colonial administration. Given the above background, the main features of the colonial economy not only hindered industrial development but initiated a dependent status which persisted even after political independent. The Colonial economy then became structured into: - A peasant based economy each crop production for export Cotton, Cocoa, Palm oil, Groundnut and Timber. - Cheap labour intensive and extensive production in the extractive industries e.g. Tin, Mines, and Coal. - Commerce is mainly the importation of manufacture goods and the exportation of raw materials. - Services - mainly the colonial state the maintenance of law and order, infrastructure - Roads, Schools and Hospitals. These features affected the character and goals of nationalist movement in Nigeria. Nationalist movement was however provoked by the Clientele, peripheral arrangement of the British colonial administration. By and large, Nigerian history, past and present, phenomenal changes in administration and issues becomes the focal point in this text. Thus, panoramic view of the interconnectedness and inter-relationships of Nigerians and their disposition to human co-existence is examined in this text. HISTORICAL ORIGIN ----------------- The political entity called Nigeria has been in existence for a period of over fourteen hundred(1400) years ago. The Geographical environment is divided into three regions or sections. That is, the large but thin population of Northern region, the Western region and the Eastern region. On 1st October 1960, Nigeria, the most populous country in Africa, became an independent dominion within the British Commonwealth. Exactly three years later, 1963 to be precise, it adopted a Republican Constitution. However, as a country it only came into being fully in 1914 after the famous amalgamation of both the Northern and Southern protectorates under the Governorship of Sir Frederick Lugard. The name Nigeria was suggested in the year 1898 by a British lady Mary Flora Shaw who later married Lugard in 1902. Prior to initiating the name (pre-colonial days) 'Nigeria', the geographical entity was known as 'The Niger-Area'. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- THE PEOPLE OF NIGERIA:DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUP Nigeria, as a nation comprises different group of people from diverse region and with different religion, occupational, cultural and socio-economic life. There are various ethnic group such as the Hausa, Igbo or Ibo, Yoruba, Efik, Ijaw, Doma, Tiv, Binis, Ibiobio, Kanuri, Nupe, Igala, Urohobo, etc. All the groups mentioned above have their religion, culture, beliefs, etc. different from one another. While the Hausa occupy the Northern part, Nupe, Tiv, Doma and Igala occupy middle part. In short, this explain the reason why they are called the 'middle-Belters'. The Yorubas can be found in the West and Ibo in the Eastern part of Nigeria. Occupationally, the Hausa are mainly cattle-rear especially the Fulanis. They also engage in cultivation of crops. Their land, though not so fertile, but is very good for the cultivation of groundnut and vegetables. People from the Western part witness higher rainfall annually. The land is very fertile. Therefore, the people engage in both annual and perennial agriculture activities. Trading among one another is another striking feature of the activities among the people of Nigeria. The Ibos are known to be good traders. Their men, in the past and even at present prefer trading to going to school or working in the civil service. It is imperative to note that, difference in religion, culture and belief notwithstanding, the various ethnic group in Nigeria are living in peace and harmony with each other though, with occasional rampage. Each maintained separate political union or organization. The principle of check and balance was maintained in the pre-colonial political organization of both the Hausa/Fulani and the ancient Yoruba kingdom of Oyo Empire. Take for instance, the old Oyo Empire, the political machinery was divided among three political structures in the empire. They were the Alafin, the Oyo-Mesi and Ogboni cult. **THE PEOPLES OF SOUTHERN NIGERIAN AND THEIR CULTURE IN PRE-COLONIAL TIMES.** Nigerian Peoples and Culture is a very interesting and exciting study. It is one of the best channels that will help you have a sound knowledge and understanding of Nigeria and its peoples especially in pre-colonial times. These are the Yoruba, the Bini, the Igbo, the Itsekiri, the Urhobo and the Ijaw. Nigerian Peoples and Culture is a very interesting and exciting study. It is one of the best channels that will help you have a sound knowledge and understanding of Nigeria and its peoples especially in pre-colonial times. These are the Yoruba, the Bini and the Igbo. **Major Ethnic Groups of Southern Nigeria** We can identify among several others, at least six (06) major ethnic groups in Southern Nigeria. These are the Yoruba, the Bini, the Igbo, the Itsekiri, the Urhobo and the Ijaw. However, the first three are our main concern in this unit. **The Yoruba** In a nutshell, the Yoruba can be described as one of the major ethnic groups in Southern Nigeria. Of course, several members of the Yoruba race can be found everywhere around the globe. But the majority of them are found in some Western and Central States of Nigeria stretching across Oyo, Osun, Ogun, Ondo, Lagos, Kwara and Kogi. They practice both Islam and Christianity but most of them are still traditionalist to the core. The Yoruba ethnic group is believed to have come into existence between 2000-1000 BC. **Origins of the Yoruba Empire** Till today, the history of the origins of the Yoruba people remains controversial. The Yoruba, as an ethnic group still holds many versions about its origins. **Rev. Samuel Johnson's Version** In his book, History of the Yoruba (1950), Johnson traces the origin of the Yoruba to the "East". According to him, the Yoruba originally came from the North-Eastern area of Africa. The similarities between the cultures of the Yoruba and the Egyptians in terms of religious observances, works of arts, burial and other traditional practices are enough evidence. It is from Egypt, after several years of journey that the Yoruba finally settled in Ile-Ife in Nigeria. Oduduwa is believed to be the first leader that led the Yoruba to Ile-Ife and subsequently sent his sons and grandsons to found other Yoruba kingdoms. Johnson's conclusion is worth recalling: That the Yoruba came originally from the East, there cannot be the slightest doubt as their habits, manner and customs, etc., all go to prove. With them the East is Mecca and Mecca is the East. Having strong affinities with the east looming so largely in their imagination, everything that comes from the east with them comes from Mecca, and hence it is natural to present themselves as having hailed originally from that city. **The Oke Oramfe's Version** Oke Oramfe is located in Ile-Ife. It is believed to be the centre from which the world was created. In their paper Yorubaland up to 1800, Akinjogbin & Ayandele (1980) give us a full picture of what Oke Oramfe's version is all about. According to the legend, there was a period when the world was covered by water. The Almighty God then decided to send some of his messengers to the world and they included Obatala or Orisa Nla or Orisa Alase \[as the leader\] and sixteen Oye \[immortals\]. They were given five pieces of iron, a lump of earth tied to a white piece of cloth, and a cockerel. Somewhere on their way to the world, the leader, Obatala, got drunk with palm wine. Oduduwa seized the symbol of authority from him and eventually led the party to the world. The site on which they landed is traditionally known as Oke Oramfe in Ile-Ife. On arrival at the site, Oduduwa set down the five pieces of iron and placed the lump of earth on them. The cockerel then spread its toes on the earth. Consequently, the earth was formed and Oduduwa thus became the ruler. It was from this base (Ife) that he extended his authorities to other Yoruba towns and villages. **The Socio-Political Organization of the Yoruba** Oyo is best known as the major kingdom that eventually emerged as an empire in Yorubaland. Various traditions believe that Oyo was founded by Oranmiyan, the son of Oduduwa, who is also credited with establishing the present Benin monarchy. Oyo Empire was founded in the middle of the fifteen century. A century later, it became very powerful and prosperous, extending its authority as far as Dahomey. **The Alaafin Administration** Oyo Empire was very unique and exceptional in its system of government. For instance, in the sixteenth century, Oyo was one of the rare empires that had in-built checks and balances, and, this contributed to its stability for centuries. The Alaafin was the head of the empire, and was resident in the capital. He was also regarded as "Lord of many lands". The Alaafin was assisted in his administration by a retinue of officials made up of priests, officials and eunuchs. He had a well organized court as well. Theoretically, the Alaafin was the fountain of authority and was therefore regarded as the "companion of the gods". Sometimes, he had an autocratic tendency, but in practice, his powers were often limited and regulated by the Oyomesi, a council of seven members headed by Bashorun who acted as the prime minister. The members of Oyomesi were king makers as well. At the demise of the Alaafin, they were the ones to select his successor. The Oyomesi also had the power to remove any Alaafin especially when he appeared dictatorial or transgressed the laws of the land. Usually the deposed Alaafin was expected to commit suicide. **The Ogboni Cult's Administration** Apart from the Alaafin cabinet, members of the Oyomesi cult constituted another arm of government. It was a very powerful cult. It was composed of free and prominent members of the society as well as members of the Oyomesi. The Ogboni cult had a very vital position in Yoruba society. It played a mediatory role in any conflict between the Oyomesi and the Alaafin. It was a kind of counter power to the Oyomesi as well. **The Army** The Army was another arm of government in traditional Yoruba society. It was very organized. Its head was conferred with the coveted title of Are-Ona-Kankanfo. It was made up of infantry and calvary. Are Ona-Kankanfo was expected to live outside the capital. The Army was credited with performing important functions which included stability of the empire, expansion, as well as keeping dissident territories in check. Oyo Empire also had provincial governments. They were modeled after the central government. They were administered by princes, minor kings and baales \[provincial governors\]. All of them were subject to the over lordship of the Alaafin. The provincial governments enjoyed considerable autonomy. But the Alaafin had personal agents, Ilari, all over the provinces. The Alaafin used the Bere annual festival periods to acknowledge the renewal of allegiance of the provincial governors to him. **The Bini Empire** It is obvious that the Bini, more than any other ethnic group, have played major roles in the history of Nigeria. For instance, the Bini were the first to be visited by the Europeans as early as 1472 A.D. According to Hodgkin the second half of the fifteenth century witnessed the arrival of the first Europeans to Benin. For instance, a Portuguese, Ruy de Sequeira, arrived during Ewuare's reign in 1472 while Alfonso de Aviero arrived during Ozolua's reign in 1484. The Benin Kingdom was also the first in the West Coast of Africa to exchange ambassadors with a major European power, the Portuguese. This was between 1481 and 1504. **Origins of Benin Kingdom** **The Egharevba's Version** Just as other Nigerian peoples, the Bini have various traditions of origin. Egharevba (1968) for instance, claims that the Bini people emigrated from Egypt and in the course of their journey southward, settled at Ile-Ife before finally arriving at their present location. **Igbafe's Version** Another tradition has it that the Bini peoples have been living in the area "from the very beginning". According to Bini mythology, Bini was the youngest child of Osanobua \[the High God\]. He and his brothers, who included the king of Ife, were sent to live in the world. They were asked by the High God to take whatever they wanted along with them to the world. While others chose wealth, magical skills and material well being, the youngest on the advice of a bird, chose a snail shell. On arrival, they found that the world was covered by water. Following instruction from the bird, the youngest child over-turned the snail shell, whereupon sand poured out of it and covered a large part of the water to form land. Thus, the first ruler of Bini became the owner of the land. Land made him powerful and wealthy as he had to sell portions of it to his elder brothers who then became his subjects. **Ogiso's Version** The first period of pre-colonial Bini history is known as the Ogiso era. This is because their rulers were the Ogisos, which means "kings of the sky". The first Ogiso was known as Igbodo. He was succeeded by Ere who is credited with forming the guild system and laying solid foundation for the kingdom. Ere was succeeded by Orire, who himself was succeeded by a number of Ogisos among whom were women. The last Ogiso was Owodo. History tells us that Owodo was the one that clashed with the nobles and eventually became a victim of intrigues of his wives. This led to the banishment of his only son and heir apparent, Ekaladeran. Ekaladeran founded Ughoton, a port-town in Benin. He later moved to Ife through Erua, where he spent the rest of his life. Many years later, because of a serious political crisis in Benin, the nobles sent for him to come back and rule over them. But it was too late. Ekaladeran was very old and decided to send his youngest son Oranmiyan \[Omonoyan = pampered child\] who came and established the Eweka dynasty. With the end of Ogiso dynasty, Benin went through a period of interregnum during which the elders established a form of republican government headed by Evian who eventually attempted to usurp the throne by nominating his son Ogiamen to succeed him. However, as Evian was not an Ogiso, the Benin people rejected his son Ogiamen. This situation led to a serious political crisis in the Bini Kingdom. During the crisis, two factions emerged: 1\) the pro-monarchy and 2\) the pro-Ogiamen (also known as Republicans). This stalemate forced the elders to send a delegation to the Ooni of Ife requesting him to send somebody to Benin to rule over them. The request was granted and Oranmiyan, one of the Ooni's sons, was sent to rule the Benin people. But on his arrival to Benin Kingdom, Oranmiyan found the Bini people ungovernable. So, he decided to go back to Ife. However, on his way back, history tells us that Oranmiyan had an affair with a Bini woman, the daughter of Enogie of Ego-Erinmwinda. The woman became pregnant and eventually gave birth to a child who later became Eweka I. He is credited with establishing the present Bini dynasty. A recent version of this episode by some Bini elites maintains that Oranmiyan, who came from Ife to establish the present monarchy, was a Bini prince. According to them, Oranmiyan was the son of Ekaladeran who had earlier been banished from Benin and who subsequently settled at Ile-Ife and eventually became the ruler, Oduduwa. Before Oranmiyan got back to Ife, he said of the Bini kingdom: "the country is a land of vexation, Ile-Ibinu, and only a child born, trained and educated in the arts and mysteries of the land could reign over the people". It was this son of Oranmiyan born by a Bini woman who was subsequently "trained and educated in the arts and mysteries of the land" that eventually ascended the throne with the name Eweka I. Eweka I thus became the first Oba of Benin and his dynasty still reigns in Benin till today. The overall position of the Bini elites is that although Oranmiyan came from Ile-Ife, the monarchy which he established is indigenous to the Bini because he (Oranmiyan) was the son of a Benin prince, and his son, Eweka I, was conceived, born and brought up in Benin. There is no doubt that to them, the present monarchy is indigenous to the Bini. But more research is still needed to ascertain the veracity of this version. Coincidentally, Eweka I had a long and glorious reign. He had many children who were sent to villages as Enogies. **The Socio-Political Organization of the Bini** As earlier mentioned, the Bini kingdom was the first in the West Coast of Africa to exchange ambassadors with a major European power. This was between 1481 and 1504. At that time, the Bini kingdom was already socio-politically well organized. This is what Hodgkin (1975) who visited Benin in 1604 declared: "the town seems to be very great. When you enter into it, you go into a great broad street, not paved, which seems to be seven to eight times broader than the Warmoes Street in Amsterdam...." Bini kingdom had a unique political system, which centered on the Oba. He was the head of the kingdom and succession to the throne was by primogeniture, that is, the first surviving son succeeded his father. To Hodgkin, "the Oba was not only the civil head of state; he was also the religious head as well. He was in fact regarded as a divine person who, in himself, summed up the whole of the race... In him dwelt the divine spirit passed on to him from his forebears" (Hodgkin, 1975). The Bini society was classified into two distinct classes: 1) the nobility (Adesotu), and 2) the commoner (Ighiotu). The nobility was organized into three (3) groups of title holders: The Uzama The Eghaevbo n' Ogbe \[palace chiefs\] and The Eghaevbo n' ore \[town chiefs\] The ordinary people too, most especially those within the city, were organized into a number of guilds. The guilds were professional groups of the common people. There were a number of them such as those of the carvers, brass-workers, blacksmiths, doctors, butchers, etc. These guilds, most especially those that lived in defined quarters in the kingdom, had a system of administration which was the same as that of the villages. **The Igbo People** The Igbo people are best known for their segmentary or acephalous way of life. This is because from the ancient times, they had no centralized states. Consequently, they operated a kind of government without kings. The Igbo are grouped into five sub-cultures: The Igbo of the eastern Nigeria The Igbo of the South-eastern Nigeria The Igbo of the North-eastern Nigeria The Western Igbo and The Northern Igbo Generally, the Igbo are predominantly farmers and traders. Despite some cultural diversity among them, they do share a common basic culture in their language with a cluster of dialects that are mutually intelligible. They also share a common political system based on decentralization of power and delegation of authority exercised by the holders of the staff of authority, the Ofo. **Origins of the Igbo** The origin of the Igbo people is as controversial as that of the Yoruba and the Bini. There are so many versions and it is very difficult to say which is the most acceptable. **The Middle East Version** Some believe that the Igbo peoples migrated to their present location from either the North or the Middle-east. **The Igboland Centred Version** Others believe that the Igbo people had been in their present abode from the beginning. Therefore, Igboland is the original homeland. **The Nri Version** Professor M.A. Onwuejeogwu (2000) regards the Nri version as the only authentic version of origin in existence in the oral tradition of the Igbo. According to Nri version, the ancestor of the Igbo, Eri, descended from the sky and sailed down the River Anambra. When he arrived at Aguleri, he met some autochthonous group of people who had no living memory of their own and settled with them. As their population increased, some groups migrated to other parts of Igboland to establish their own settlements. **The Awka or Orlu Version** Another tradition considered Awka or Orlu towns as the center of origin of the Igbo from where they dispersed to other areas. **The Idah Version** Some groups such as the Umunri claim to have migrated to their present location from Idah. **The Benin Version** The Onitsha and the Igbo on the other side of the River Niger \[Delta Igbo\], claim Benin origin. **The Israeli Version** One of the most popular versions of the migratory stories of origin of the Igbo people is the one that points to Israel. This assumption is based on the so-called similarities between the cultures of the Igbo and the ancient Hebrew. Some Igbo scholars consider themselves as off-shoots of the lost tribes of the Hebrews who migrated southward. You should remember that the Igbo society has always been known as acephalous. Moreover, there were very limited professional historians as at that period. There were no equivalents of Oba, and Alaafin or of palaces over most parts of Igboland. This is why it is very difficult to reconcile all these various versions. **The Socio-Political Organization of the Igbo** Unlike other ethnic groups such as the Yoruba and the Bini, the Igbo people did not build any strong centralized states. This is mainly because Igbo society had always been fragmentary or acephalous. In traditional Igbo for instance, the village was the centre of government. This has been described as direct democracy. The village-centered administration implied that every linkage for instance, including all male adults in the village, participated in its political process. **The Amala Oha** You should always remember that the socio-political organization of the traditional Igbo was fundamentally based either on the age grades or age and titled societies. Amala Oha was therefore a form of general assembly in traditional Igbo society. All the male adult members usually met in this assembly to perform legislative functions. In ancient times, the Amala Oha's meetings were held in the open village square. All the decisions taken during those meetings were absolute and final. As a democratic society, the life of every individual was highly respected. More so, the recognition of an individual in the society was based on individual capability and age rather than family background. The elders formed the core of village administration. They were highly respected accordingly. Hardworking and wealthy individuals were respected and given important responsibilities in the society as well. The youth, middle age or able bodied men and elders constituted age-sets or age groups. You should remember that each age-set had its own special rights, duties, obligations and responsibilities in matters affecting the village. **The Itsekiri: Origin of the Itsekiri People** Iginuwa is known as the man through whom the kingdom of Itsekiri is said to have been established. History tells us that Iginuwa was the son and heir apparent of Oba Olua of Benin in about 1473. You should remember that unlike the Yoruba, Bini and Igbo peoples, the Itsekiri do not have many versions of their origin. According to the Itsekiri tradition, Iginuwa at a time wrongly advised his father on a particular issue. The advice was so disastrous that Iginuwa became very unpopular to the extent that his people vowed never to let him succeed his father. When his father, Oba Olua, noticed the seriousness of the anger of his people against his son, he decided to arrange a kingdom outside Benin for him. This was according to him, the best way to avoid problems in his kingdom. According to the tradition, Iginuwa was then sent with some chiefs and servants to an area by the sea to establish a kingdom of his own. On his arrival, Iginuwa met with some Ijaws who took him along with his followers by canoe to an Island where they finally settled. To most of the Itsekiri, this settlement is known as Itsekiri Kingdom till today. **The Socio-Political Organization of the Itsekiri People** The Kingdom Iginuwa founded was made up and is still made up of the Itsekiri, Ijaw and a good number of other elements. Ode Itsekiri is the capital. Other settlements such as the Forcados, Escravos and Benin Rivers surround the capital. The socio-political organization of the Itsekiri people was very close to that of Benin Kingdom. The Palace and titles for instance were modelled after that of Benin Kingdom. But in the Itsekiri case, the Kingdom was ruled rather by the Olu. He alone presided over a council known as Ojoye which was made up of seven nobles or title holders. The Olu combined in himself spiritual and temporal powers. **The Urhobo: Origin of the Urhobo People** Unlike the Itsekiri, the Urhobo people have more than one version of their Origins. **Ughelli, Aghara and Ogo Version** According to Ughelli, Aghara and Ogo, the Urhobo people originated from the Ijaw. To them, it is very difficult, if not impossible to culturally and historically differentiate the Urhobo from the Ijaw. **Uwherun, Abraka, Agbon, Oogun and Olomu Version** To Uwherun, Abraka, Agbon, Oogun, Olomu and many others, the Urhobo people are the product of the Benin immigrants. According to them, it is very difficult if not impossible to historically and culturally differentiate the Urhobo people from the Bini. **The Socio-Political Organization of the Urhobo People** Just like the Itsekiri, the Urhobo people are found in the Niger Delta region. However, unlike the Itsekiri, the Urhobo are fragmented and live in different places in the Niger Delta area. This may be the reason why the Urhobo people, unlike the Itsekiri and Benin, have never established a single Kingdom. Socio-politically speaking, each Urhobo Village had its own traditional institution headed by a ruler (Ovie). Just like the Itsekiri, the socio-political organization of the Urhobo people was modeled after that of Benin Kingdom. The Ovie for instance, had a court made of prominent individuals and titleholders. Moreover, just like in Igboland, the adult male members of the Urhobo society were divided into age sets corresponding with youth, middle age and elders. Of course, each of the age sets performed specific duties in the societies. **The Ijaw: Origin Of the Ijaw People** As one of the major ethnic groups in the Niger Delta region, the Ijaw people share almost the same stories of origin with their Itsekiri and Urhobo counterparts. That is to say there is no clear-cut demarcation on the history of the origin of the Ijaw from that of the Itsekiri and Urhobo. **The Socio-Political Organization of the Ijaw People** Socio-politically speaking, the traditional Ijaw did not develop any centralized system of government. For some scholars, this might be so because the Ijaw were scattered in small fishing settlements in the creeks of the River Niger. The "House System" characterized Ijaw societies. Ijaw people were traders especially fishermen. The traditional major Ijaw states were Bonny, Kalabari, Ibrika, Opobo and Brass-Nembe. **THE PEOPLES OF NORTHERN NIGERIA AND THEIR CULTURE IN PRE-COLONIAL TIMES** **Major Ethnic Groups of Northern Nigeria** We can identify at least six (6) major ethnic groups in Northern Nigeria. These are the Hausa, the Kanem-Bornu, the Nupe, the Igala, the Jukun and the TIV. **The Hausa/Fulani People** The Hausa people represent one of the important and politically dominant groups in Northern Nigeria. By the year 2000, the Hausa population was estimated at about twenty million. They are also one of the largest linguistic groups in the whole of Africa. **Origins of the Hausa** Just like other major ethnic groups in Nigeria, the Origin of the Hausa people is not very certain. **The Bayajida Version** Most scholars agree that the Bayajida story is the most authentic oral tradition in Hausaland that attempts to explain the origin of the Hausa states. According to the legend, Bayajida is believed to be the founder/hero of the Hausa states. He is also believed to have come from Baghdad to Kanem-Bornu and thence to Hausa land in present Nigeria. History tells us that Bayajida married the daughter of the Mai of Bornu by whom he had a son at Biran. After a while, Bayajida left Biran to Daura. While in Daura, he helped to kill a snake, which had for a long time prevented the people from taking water from a well. According to the legend, the queen of Daura was very impressed and decided to marry him. They later had a son named Bawo. Bawo had six (6) children who, together with Bayajida's other son at Biran, are believed to have founded the original seven Hausa states referred to as the "Hausa Bokwoi." **The Socio-Political Organization of the Hausa** The **Sarki** has always been known as the head of any typical Hausa state. He always works with a retinue of officials in a well-organized court. Sarkin Kasar, which means "ruler of the land", was the full title given to any effective and efficient head of Hausa State. The Sarkin Kasar combined both political and religious/spiritual functions. He was also the chief executive and judge of the State, but he was aided by a council of state. At the district level, the government was modeled after that at the national level. You should also know that between 14th and 15th centuries, the socio-political organization of Hausa States took another shape. For instance, Islam was adopted and this gave birth to many new political institutions such as the offices of the Galadima, Madawaki, Magaji, Dogari, Yari Sarki and Sarki Yau. The Islamization of Hausaland also influenced its judicial system. The Sharia law started taking shape. Some new titles such as Alkali and Qadi's (judges) became commonplace in the administration of justice. **The Kanem-Bornu People** Kanuri is the language that unites all the Kanem-Bornu people. **Origin of the Kanem-Bornu People** Kanem-Bornu ethic group also has many versions of its origin. But all these versions are not certain. They are also known to have been exaggerated in the region North East of the Lake Chad. **The SO Version** Some scholars argue that the So people were the first settlers in Kanem Bornu. According to them, the So had developed a sophisticated socio political culture based on agriculture and the knowledge and use of iron technology. This happened long before the Zaghawa who later invaded the land. **The Saif b. Dhiyazan Version** There is another tradition of the history of Kanem-Bornu, which attributes the foundation of Kanem-Bornu to the great Arab hero, Saif b. Dhiyazan. This happened between 9th and 10th centuries A.D. Yazan is also credited to have established the now famous Saifawa dynasty. You should remember that the Saifawa dynasty was one of the longest ruling dynasties in the pre colonial West African Sub-region. **The Socio-Political Organization of the Kanem-Bornu** It is very important to notice that the nucleus of the socio-political organization of the Kanem Bornu people was based on kinship. For instance, the Mai (king) was the highest authority in the political structure. His mother i.e. the Queen Mother or Magira was a very important and respected personage in the Kanem political structure as well. The King's sister was also very important. She was to assist the King in the day-to-day administration of Kanem. **The "Nokena"** Besides the kinship oriented political system of the Kanem people, there was an imperial state council known as the council of the twelve, or the "Nokena". The principal duty of the "Nokena" was to offer the king useful advice. **The Maini Kanendi** The Maini Kanendi was the chief judge of the State. He played a major role in the Kanem political structure. By his position, he was the Mai's legal adviser as well. **The Army** In the traditional Kanem-Bornu, the army played a vital role in the administration. The army was very professional. It was divided strategically into two divisions: a home division and a bush garrison. **The Titled Nobility** The titled nobility was another institution within the Kanem-Bornu political structure. They are known to have exercised tremendous influence in the state and were assigned fiefdoms to administer. The most important of these were Galadima, Kaigama, Yerima and Meshema. **The Servile Institution** The servile was made of slaves and eunuchs. They are known to be important in the administration of the state. They also held offices like "Mushemu", "Yuroma" and Kachella". **The Nupe** Just like the Hausa/Fulani, the early history of the Nupe people is not much known. What you should remember is that the pre-colonial Nupe people and state developed in the region of the Niger and Benue valleys of the Nigerian Middle Belt. The Nupe state was located on the north bank of the Niger at its confluence with the River Kaduna. Nupeland was located at the cross roads of trade from Borno to Kano axis in the Northeast, as well as Yorubaland, Ganga and Benin in the Southwest. Gbara was its capital. It was located on the bank of the Kaduna River and was an important trading center as well. Gbara functioned as an entreport connecting Benin and Oyo trade with Nupe. **Origins of the Nupe People** Like any other ethnic group in Nigeria, the Nupe people also have various versions of origin. **The Nupe-Centred Version** Some scholars believe that the early Nupe people originated where they presently occupy. **The Egyptian Version** Other elites argue that the first peoples of the Nupe came from Egypt. Therefore, Egypt was the origin of the Nupe people. **The Idah Version** Tsoede or Edegi is considered by some Nupe people as the founder of their State. And, according to Nupe tradition, Tsoede might have arrived in the early 16th century from Idah. He (Trodede) is also believed to have had an Igala father and a Nupe mother. **The Igala Version** History tells us that the Nupe people had at a time paid allegiance and tribute to the Attah of the Igala state. To them, in the 16th century, a hero, an Idah Prince known as Tsoede re-established Nupe's independence with himself as the "ETSU NUPE" king of Nupe land. **The Socio-Political Organization of the Nupe People** The Etsu Nupe was known as the head of the Nupe Kingdom. He operated a two--level administration: central and provincial. History tells us that the Etsu Nupe enjoyed a divine status and people worshipped and respected him. His word was law. But the Etsu Nupe was not always absolute because his power and actions were regulated by a body of traditions and taboos. **The Nobility** Besides the Etsu Nupe, there was a class of powerful gentlemen called nobility. Its main task was to help the king in carrying out his duties as leader. There were nobilities such as the Shaba, Kpotuh and Maku. **The Zitzu** In traditional Nupe land, each village was headed by the Zitzu. He was an appointee of the Etsu. The Zitzu was in turn assisted by a council of elders. The Zitzu always pays tribute to the Etsu in recognition of his authority. **The Igala: Origin of the Igala** Like any other ethnic group in Nigeria, the origin of the Igala people is not clear. However, Idah has always been known as the capital state of Igala people. **Abutu Eje Version** History tells us that Abutu Eje was the first personality to seriously contribute to the development or evolution of the Igala state. Abutu Eje sometimes identified as child reared by a leopard (Eje) or as a prince from Ado (Benin) or Apa (Wukari Jukun), was a foreigner. According to the legend, the sovereignty was transferred to him from an aboriginal population (the Okpoto). **Achadu Version** Some Igala elites attribute the emergence of their state to one Achadu. He is believed to have come from the Igbo country. He married the Attah and later became a patron (ritual husband) and the leader of the kingmakers (Igalla-mela). **The Yoruba Version** Some scholars also argue that the Igala are of a Yoruba extraction. Historical evidence exists to show that the territories of the Igala and some Yoruba speaking peoples had been contiguous. **The Socio-Political Organization of the Igala** Ayagba or Idoko is best known as the ancestor to all the Attahs. He is also credited to have founded the present Igala dynasty. History tells us that he was the one who helped the Igala people to break away from the Jukun rule. Politically speaking, each Igalla Mela was the head of any effective Igala territory. His administrative power was like that of the Uzama Nihiron of Benin or the Oyemisi of the Yoruba. The traditional Igala political structure was operated on two levels.There was the central and the provincial level of administration.The Attah was head of the centre. A council of chiefs and other officials assisted him in the local or provincial administration of the kingdom. **The Jukun (Kwararafa): Origin of the Jukun** Again, like other ethnic groups in Nigeria, the origin of the Jukun people is not fixed. The Jukun are also known as the Kwararafa. They are believed to have occupied the area between the River Benue and the River Ibi in Gongola state. Wukari was also known as the principal town of the Jukun people, and it is in that town that their King resided. The Jukun State was large. **The Kano Chronicle Version** The Kano chronicle version was the most authentic source that could say something convincing about the Jukun history of origin. According to records from the Kano Chronicle, the Jukun people raided the Hausaland and Bornu in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This shows that although the origin of the Jukun people was almost unknown, they were at least in existence before the sixteenth century or thereabouts. **The Socio-Political Organization of the Jukun** As said earlier, the Jukun state was certainly not a small state. This is one of the reasons why Jukun was seen as a confederation of peoples who recognized the religious supremacy of the AKU UKA. History tells us that by the end of the seventeenth century, the Jukun had been well established in the middle Benue region. The Jukun people operated a theocratic system of government. AKU UKA was the head of any effective Jukun state. He was believed to be spiritually appointed and was regarded as the representative of the gods on earth. Although AKU UKA was very powerful, his system of government was not despotic. He had no absolute power over his people. There were many ways of regulating his power. According to Jukun tradition, AKU UKA was judged, for instance, by his performance (result). Since he was the symbol of the Jukun existence, a good harvest could bring in more prestige while a bad harvest could result in serious calamity, and thereafter, his unpopularity and downfall. Also, there were many taboos which acted as checks on his royal power as well. Even as the head of the executive, legislative and judiciary, AKU UKA also ruled with the advice of his nobles and subjects. Public opinion was respected in Jukun pre-colonial administration. **Achuwo** He was the head of Aku Uka's Council of nobles. He functioned as the Prime Minister. He was seconded by the Abo Zike, Kinda Achuwo and the Aku Nako. You should also remember that these nobles were representatives of their lineages as well. **The Tiv** P. Bohannan (1953) in his book The Tiv of Central Nigeria classifies the Tiv people as the largest single ethnic group in the middle Benue basin of Northern Nigeria. According to him, the southern and eastern portions of the Tiv country, also called "Ityough Kiteragh", lie among the foothills of the Cameroon highlands and the Sonkwalla or Sankwura hills of the Obudu hills territory. These regions are flanked by the Alago and Jukunized group on the North, the Basta and other Cameroon groups like the Undir and Iyon on the South and South --East, with the Jukun and Chamba to the West. Of course, they presently occupy the Tiv local government areas of Buraka, Gboko, Gwer, Gwer West, Gumu, Kwande, Katisina Ala, Konshisha, Vandeikya, Ukun, Ushonyo, and Mukurdi. **Origin of the Tiv** Needless to say again that the origin of the Tiv people is not certain. What we know about their origin came from oral traditions of myths and legends and theories of migration. **Tiv Version** According to the Tiv oral tradition, it was Tiv, as a person, that founded the Tiv ethnic group of today. So, the word Tiv refers both to the language and founding father of the group. **Swem Version** Other traditions argue that earlier settlements of the ethnic group came from Swem down to their present location through Nwange and Ibinda, and this occurred between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. **The Socio-Political Organization of the Tiv** Again, P. Bohannan (1953) argues that the socio-political system of the traditional Tiv was very unique. It was a classic example of segmentary or largely decentralized system of government in pre-colonial and post colonial Nigeria ever studied. **"Tsombor"** "Tsombor" was the name of the family group and was the largest recognized entity as well. **"Mbavessen" (Elder)** Mbavessen or elder was the head of a unit. You should remember that in Tiv traditional system, each family group was in turn divided into smaller units. You should also remember that the Tiv attached much importance to the spirit of brotherhood and mutual relations because of the belief that all of them were from one father and therefore from one lineage. For Bohannan (1953) the Tiv socio-political structure "was so simple that it was difficult to understand." According to him, Tiv society was very much segmented. It was a hierarchical society. It started with the individual at the lowest level, the family, the extended family, the kindred, and through clan to Tiv, i.e. the whole tribe. In Tiv society, more than in any other Nigerian ethnic group, genealogical affiliation was very strong. Even today, in traditional Tiv society, it is upon this kind of genealogical framework of hierarchy that kinship relationship is organized. **NIGERIAN'S PERCEPTION OF HIS WORLD** Nigeria is black Africa's most populous and influential State. It is estimated that one in five Africans is Nigerian. The country is blessed with abundant resources. Nigeria is the second largest supplier of oil to the United States of America, and Britain's tenth biggest trading partner. Besides, the country has the largest military in the African continent. The country has also played and is still playing leading roles in Africa and in international affairs. Perhaps, that is why it is being described as the Giant of Africa. As the largest geo-political unit in Africa, Nigeria is located between parallels 4° and 14° north of the equator. The country is entirely situated on the tropical zone and occupies a position where the western parts of the African continent meet equatorial Africa. The country is bounded in the west by the Republic of Benin and to the North by Niger and Chad Republic. In the East it is bounded by the Republic of Cameroon, while in the South, at the Gulf of Guinea, the country is bounded by Sao Tome and Principe. **Land and People** As already indicated, Nigeria has immense land resources, with a surface area of approximately 365,669 square miles equivalent to 923,768 square kilometers. This makes the country about one --seventh of the settled and productive area of Africa. Much of the country is dominated by plains, generally less than 609.5 meters above sea level. The eastern border of Nigeria is marked by almost continuous and undulating mountains which rise to about 2,420.5 meters in the Chapel Waddi, the highest known point in Nigeria. The most important physical feature is the Niger -- Benue River, from which the country derived its name. The River Niger rises in the mountains north -- east of Sierra Leone, and enters Nigeria in the north-west and joins the river Benue at Lokoja, and then flows south into the Gulf of Guinea. At its mouth, the River Niger breaks up into many channels to form a great swampy Delta covering 45,000 square kilometers. Both the rivers Niger and Benue provide the water Basin for the greater part of the country. There are several other smaller rivers in Nigeria, which enable Nigerian citizens to carry out their economic activities such as fishing, farming and navigation. **Climate and Vegetation** In Nigeria, four ecological zones can be distinguished. Along the coastline lies a dense belt of mangrove swamp, varying from 18 to 108 kilometers in width. It is sparsely populated and not properly developed. This ecological zone is followed by a fairly sharply defined belt of tropical rain forest and oil palm bush from about 90 to 180 kilometers wide and is intersected by rivers and streams. This zone is followed by 540 kilometers wide belt of open woodland and grass savanna. Finally, the latter shades off into a vast undulating plateau with occasional hills until one finally enters into sandy tracts of the southern Sahara. Even though Nigeria is wholly located within the tropics, the climate varies from humidity at the west to the sub-tropical further inland. There are two seasons in Nigeria, namely dry and rainy seasons. In the Southern part of the country, rains last from March to November, while in the North, rains last from April to October. Temperatures at the coast seldom rise above 90°but humidity is high. Further north the climate is drier and extreme. During the dry season i.e. harmattan, wind blows in from the desert, causing extreme dryness and carrying with it fine dust particles that form the haze all over the country. It is more severe in the Northern part of the country than it is in the Southern part. **CULTURE AREAS OF NIGERIA AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS** The population of Nigeria stood at about 167 million according to NPC August, 2012. It is common knowledge that within the country's boundaries, there are over 500 ethnic groups, each speaking its own language, although some may not necessarily speak the language identified with their ethnic groups. These ethnic groups range in size from tiny units consisting of less than 700 people to groups numbering well above 10 million. The well-known ethnic groups in Nigeria include Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Kanuri, Efik, Ibibio, Tiv, Izon (Ijaw) Edo, among others. Although there are over 500 distinct ethnic groups in Nigeria, the number of languages spoken does not necessarily correspond to this figure. As such, there is bound to be more or less than this figure, since one ethnic group might speak different languages while different ethnic groups might speak one language. This has led to a lack of precision in identifying the number of languages spoken in Nigeria. What compounds this problem further is the existence of different varieties of the same language, otherwise known as dialects. For instance, one language may have several varieties which at times are not mutually intelligible. Whether such are regarded as distinct languages or dialects (varieties) of the same language has always remained a bone of contention among linguists. Although, the index of Nigerian languages 1993 identified 452 languages, the Ethnologue identified 529 languages (2013). **Linguistic Classifications** Just as is the case with their number, linguists also disagree on any single classification scheme for African languages. But it is generally recognized that Nigeria is one of the principal linguistic crossroads of Africa. J.H. Greenberg in his classification of African languages distinguishes four major groups, called phyla. This in linguistics means a large division of possibly related languages, or a major language family which is not subordinate to another. They are Afro-Asiatic, Khoisan, Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan. In Nigeria, the majority of the languages belong to the Niger-Congo Phylum, though there are a substantial number of languages belonging to the Afro-Asiatic phylum especially the Chadic family (Hausa, Marghi, Pabir-Bura, Bole, Karekare, Tangale, etc.). The Nilo-Saharan has Kanuri, Dandi, Teda and Zanna. There are no languages from the Khoisan phylum in Nigeria. The Niger-Congo family is divided into: West Atlantic, Mande, Gur, Kwa, Benue-Congo and Adamawa-Ubangi. The majority of Nigerian languages belong to the Kwa, Benue Congo and Adamawa-Ubangian families. The other families within Niger-Congo are: West Atlantic (Fulbe), Mande (Busa and Shanga), and Gur (Baatonun). **Government's Position on Language** Due to linguistic diversities, the Federal Government has encouraged the citizens to employ English Language as a lingual franca, language of administration, education, trade and commerce, while attempts is being made to evolve a national language through its National policy on Education. The National Policy on Education makes it mandatory that language of immediate environment or community should be the medium of communication in early childhood education. The Junior Secondary School students are to be taught and examined in any of the three major indigenous Nigerian languages -- Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. The Senior Secondary School students are to offer one other indigenous Nigerian language other than their mother tongue. Besides the issue of national language, different states in Nigeria have dominant languages which unite them. **Geographical Location** You can recall that Nigeria's major ethnic groups are widely distributed all over the country. The Hausa are widely distributed, but they constitute majority in the far north of the country. The Fulani-speaking people are also spread throughout Northern Nigeria. They are found all over Northern Nigeria. The Kanuri are mainly found in Borno and Yobe states; the Nupe in the Niger and Benue valleys. The Tiv are concentrated in the area south of the Benue River. The Yoruba are found in Southwestern Nigeria as well as parts of Kwara, Kogi, Edo and Delta States. The Bini are located in Edo and Delta states, while the Ijaw (Izon) are spread throughout the coastal strips of Rivers, Bayelsa, Delta, Edo and Lagos states. The Igbo are mainly found in Imo, Anambra, Enugu, Ebonyi Abia States and parts of Delta and Rivers States. However, as a result of population pressure and pressure on land, many Igbo people have migrated to various parts of Nigeria. There are other smaller ethnic groups that are located in various parts of the country. **THE DYNAMICS OF THE EVOLUTION OF NIGERIA AS A POLITICAL UNIT** **The British and the Creation of Nigeria** You should know that the British who have often been credited with the creation of Nigeria were not the first Europeans to land in Nigeria. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive Nigeria through Bini Kingdom. According to Hodgkin: "the second half of the century (fifteenth) saw the arrival of the first Europeans in Benin, the Portuguese Ruy de Sequeira in 1472 in Ewuare's reign and Alfonzo de Aviero in 1484 in Ozolua's reign". **The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade** The Trans-Atlantic slave trade was the unfortunate channel that first put the British in contact with Nigeria. The trade got to maturity in the 16^th^ century. For close to three centuries, coastal Nigeria's relations with the British were dominated by the trans-Atlantic slave trade. But in the early decade of the 19th century, the British decided to abolish the trans Atlantic slave trade. They did so through the operations of the British West African Naval Squadron. You should know that it is tautological to say that the trade was very damaging to Africa in general and Nigeria in particular. **The Period of Legitimate Commerce** After three centuries of shameful slave trade came the so-called period of legitimate commerce. Of course, this was another golden opportunity for the Europeans to get more directly involved in the affairs of the African States. Europeans first introduced the "Gun-boat" politics. To them, this was important because some "erring" African states were threatened with attack and in some cases, were actually attacked. It was under the umbrella of such happenings that the British first formally annexed Nigerian territory. In 1861, they took Lagos as a colony. But, the bulk of Nigerian territory was occupied in the late 19th century. This happened through dubious treaties that were signed with some Nigerian potentates, and through military conquest of states and deportation of their rulers. Despite the resistance of some brave and courageous Nigerians such as Jaja of Opobo, Nana of Itsekiri, Ovonramwen of Benin and Attahiru of Sokoto, they could not stop the British usurpation of their independence and authority. **The Amalgamation Processes** Before the year 1900, all the different parts of Nigeria conquered by the British were still under their original administration. But by 1900, the whole Nigeria was under the responsibility of the British Colonial Office. **May 1906 Amalgamation** The May 1906 amalgamation is known as the first ever amalgamation of the British in Nigeria. British government amalgamated Lagos colony and protectorate with the protectorate of Southern Nigeria to form the new colony and protectorate of Southern Nigeria. You should know that since the whole Nigeria was under the responsibility of the British government they did not bother to seek the views of Nigerians in the two territories as to whether or not they supported the amalgamation. Besides, Tamuno (1980) observes that the primary aim of the 1906 amalgamation was purely economic, that is, "to use the better financial position of the protectorate of Southern Nigerian to cover the costs of administration and development in the financially weak colony and protectorate of Lagos, then saddled with the white elephant of a railway in need of extension since 1901". **January 1914 Amalgamation** The second amalgamation was that of 1914. In January 1914, the British government amalgamated Northern and Southern Nigeria. The principal reason for this is the same as that of May 1906. The Northern protectorate was not as economically buoyant as the colony and protectorate of Southern Nigeria. That was why, for the British imperial offices, since the Southern trade was booming, amalgamation would allow the surpluses acquired in the south to be used in the North, and this was expected to reduce British Treasury responsibility. Sir Frederick Lugard (later became Lord) is best known as the father of the "January 1914" amalgamation. **Some Consequences of the Amalgamation** It can be argued that even if the initial intention of the amalgamation process was to make of Nigeria a political unit, it did practically fail. According to Hatch (1970) the amalgamation of Nigeria was carried out with many unanswered questions such as: What would be the effect of uniting the Fulani emirates -- with their comparatively static, traditionalist outlook -- with the thrusting, competitive, individualistic society of the south, now acquiring knowledge from a growing number of mission schools, which were making available an expanding clerical class? How would societies that only a few years earlier had been rival and often hostile states live together under one administration? Should they form a single nation? If so, how could a single allegiance be created? In any case, what was the central objective of British policy? Was it to build an empire permanently subordinate to Britain, to act as a trustee for some shadowy African future, or to encourage a natural spirit leading to ultimate self government?" Today, it is obvious that the tragedy of Nigeria's history and its people is not so much to be found in the diversity of these groups that were brought together under amalgamation. Rather, the real tragedy is that British colonial policy in Nigeria after amalgamation tended to be divisive and isolationist in terms of keeping the peoples of the two main protectorates separate. For instance, while the 1914 amalgamation gave the northern and southern provinces a common political head in the person of Lugard, no uniform style of administration developed in either group of provinces. Despite the amalgamation of 1914, Nigeria still operated as a federation of two groups of provinces between 1914 and 1939. Later on April 1, 1939, the British government split the former Southern provinces into Eastern and Western provinces. This tripartite division of Nigeria remained well into the independence period, until 1963 when the Mid Western region was created, and the Northern Region was split for the first time in 1967. **Nigerian Peoples and the Colonial Predicament** You should always remember that colonial rule was forcibly imposed on the people of Nigeria. As stated earlier, colonial intention has never been for the benefit of Nigerian people. It was exploitative and this engendered protests from prominent Nigerians. The pursuit of economic goals was their catalyst. The British were busy looking for cheap raw materials and creating markets for the sale of their finished products. In doing that, their objectives became clear: they pursued policies which in their entire ramification were geared towards the economic, political and social benefits of the British overlords. **The Nigerian Nationalism** It is obvious that the British colonial rule alienated Nigerians at different levels. Nigerians became foreigners in their own country! For instance, it became very difficult, if not impossible, for them to effectively participate in both the economic and governmental processes of their own country. The immediate result to such unfortunate situation was the birth of Nigerian nationalism. Like in other parts of Africa, some brave Nigerians stood up and decided to champion the cause for reforms in the system. The Nigerian nationalism was welcome both in the country and abroad. Three major trends characterized the strength of nationalistic spirit: a\. The peoples protest against the colonial system in their desire to alter the existing colonial system so that they could benefit from it, b\. The activities of black diasporas in the New World- the Americas such as Marcus J. Garvey and Wilmot Blyden who were exponents of the dignity of the African person, and c\. The presence of an articulate class of Nigerian elites who through their acquisition of western education were in the vanguard of those agitating for change in the status quo. **"The West African Pilot" and Garvey's "the Negro World"** These are the most prominent newspapers that contributed seriously to the emergence of Nigerian nationalism. Besides, some other factors also contributed to the Nigerian nationalism: the development of political parties, and the election of the labour party in Britain with its anti colonialism agenda. Nigeria became independent on October 1st 1960. **The Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM)** This movement is best known as the "first true nationalist organization" that emerged in Nigeria in 1936. It was headed by Samuel Akinsanya, H.O Davies, Ernest Ikoli and Dr. J.C Vaughan. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe and Chief Obafemi Awolowo later joined the movement in 1937. **The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroon's** This movement was created on 26th August 1944. It was headed by Herbert Macaulay as president and Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe as its secretary. In 1945, the movement made one of its aims very clear: "to achieve internal self-government for Nigeria whereby the people of Nigeria and the Cameroons under British mandate shall exercise executive, legislative and judicial power". The Igbo domination within the party brought in a feeling of resentment. The true nationalist spirit started giving way to "tribal interest". On this note, the Action Group (AG) was founded in 1948 by Obafemi Awolowo to defend the interest of the Yoruba. A year later (1949) the Northern people\'s Congress (NPC) was formed by Mallam Aminu Kano and Mallam Abubakar Tafawa Balewa to defend the interests of the Northerners. There is no doubt that the establishment of these tribal oriented political organizations turned out to be strong centrifugal forces against Nigerian unity. According to Olusanya (1980:568) "with the formation of the AG and the NPC, ethnic nationalism and regional divisions triumphed over the forces of unity in Nigerian politics." **Nigerian Independence and Constitutions** The final declaration of the Nigerian independence on October 1st 1960 was also the result of the major constitutions. The colonial government set out how they can rule Nigeria through defined rules and regulations. A constitution is a document which clearly defines how a state should be governed. It contains statements that depict the relationship between the rulers and the ruled and the basic rights and duties of citizens in a country. A constitution, therefore, is a body of rules and regulations that set out how a state should be governed. It defines the structure, powers, functions of the government and the rights and responsibilities of citizens. Constitutionalism is a basic principle that states that the government should rule the people according to the constitution of the land. The essence is to make sure that the activities and operations of the government are within the confines of the law. Constitutionalism promotes respect for the operations of the rule of law. The historical development of constitutions and constitutionalism in Nigeria can be traced to the establishment of colonial rule in the 1860s. However, constitutional government in the formal sense began with the institution of the Nigerian Council by Lord Lugard after the amalgamation of the Southern and Northern Protectorates in 1914. The council was however dissolved in 1922 following the adoption of the Clifford Constitution. Between 1922 and 1954, four different notable constitutions were operated in Nigeria. These are the Clifford Constitution (1922), the Richard Constitution (1946), the Macpherson Constitution (1951) and the Lyttletton Constitution (1954). The Richard Constitution gave birth to the idea of regionalism, which enabled the different regions: East, West and North to develop at their own pace. The 1951 constitution introduced a quasi-federal model into the administration of the regions. This allowed for power to be shared between the central and the regional governments but the central government was empowered to have control over the regional governments in some matters. **The Lyttleton Constitution (1954)** The McPherson constitution was the most comprehensive and did not live long. The need for its revision became necessary. The revision led to the promulgation of the Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 that remains the cornerstone of the Nigerian constitution till date. The 1954 constitution established a federal system of government for Nigeria. It is also believed that the 1954 constitution marked the end of nationalist struggle for independence. You should also remember that even when Nigeria attained her independence, there were still deep fissures within the structure. Ethnicism and tribalism were the most prominent, along with the feeling of marginalization by minority groups in different areas. In 1957 and 1958 constitutional conferences were held for the purpose of resolving some issues such as the minority problem and charting the way forward for the granting of self- government in 1960. Between 1960 and 1979, three constitutions were put in place in the country. These are the 1960 Independence, the 1963 Republican and the 1979 Presidential constitutions. The amended 1999 constitutions is an improvement of the 1979 constitution. **Is Nigeria a Vital Political Unit?** Bearing the socio-historical evolution of Nigeria in mind, the question whether Nigeria is a real political unit cannot receive a complete "no" or "yes" answer. The answer will depend on the person's angle of analysis. For some scholars, the Federation of Nigeria is a mistake. They argue that Nigeria is a conglomerate of various ethnic groups. And, during the pre-colonial period those ethnic groups never interrelated. So it was futile to put such people together. Therefore, the unity of Nigeria is just a mere concept or a slogan. Although there are some elements of truth in this thesis, some scholars still argue the opposite. According to Ikime (1985) and Ajayi and Alagoa (1980) Nigeria can be seen as a real political unit. They argue that there were fruitful inter-group relations between the people of Nigeria before colonial rule. They also argue that the common experience of colonial rule buy the peoples of Nigeria provided good grounds for building a nation. This was also the case with the British thirteen America Colonies that later formed the United States of America with their declaration of independence in 1776. **MILITARY INTERVENTIONS IN NIGERIA POLITICS** The first military coup in Africa took place in Egypt when General Abdel Nassar took over the government of his country from the elected president in 1952. This was followed by another military coup in Sudan in 1957. In West Africa the first military coup took place in Togo in 1963 when General Gnassingbe Eyedema took over from the elected President Synalnus Olymplo. Ever since then Eyedema has been in power. Back home in Nigeria, the first military coup took place in January 1966. As already stated, it was as a result of the political imbroglio across the country that led to the first military putsch in Nigeria in the early hours of the morning on January 15, 1966. Many leading politicians including the Prime Minister Alhai Abubakar Tafawa Balewa and all the regional premiers were brutally murdered. In the light of this development on Sunday January 16, General J.T. Aguyi Ironsi, the General Officer Commanding the Nigerian Army was been formally invested with authority as Head of State. The government of General Ironsi was equally toppled exactly six months after, July 29, 1966 to be precise. He was over throw and Colonel later general Yakubu Gowon formed a government. General Gowon ruled Nigeria for good nine (9) years this making him one of the longest serving Head of State in Nigeria. He is remembered for the provision of infrastructures, bridges, roads constructed in Lagos the building of National Stadium in Lagos, construction of National Theatre Hall in Orile Iganmu in Lagos, creation of twelve (12) states in Nigeria, maintenance of unity after the civil war, creation of National Youth Scheme in 1973 called National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) among others. In experience and reluctance to relinquish power he was out lived, he was later toppled by general Ramat Murtala Mohammed in a very bloodless coup. The coup took place on the 29^th^ of July 1975 when General Gowon was away in Kampala Uganda attending (O.A.U) now A.U summit. The Government of General Mohammed was again over throwed after he stayed less than a year in the office. He was toppled and massacred in a coup headed by Colonel sukka Bukka Dimka on the 13th February, 1976. General Olusegun Obasanjo who was then second in command under Murtala's administration took the mantle of leadership after appeal to him to live up to his bidding and challenges of the time, he later set up a government, he described as \|not my will". General Obasanjo handed over government to the elected civilian government headed by Alhaji Shehu Shagari, thus, being the first of his kind to do that. The government of Shehu Shagari was also over throne, due to wide spread corruption and fraud. The coup that sent him packing took place on December 31, 1983. Generals Mohammadu Buhari and Tunde Idiagbon set up a no nonsense government. War Against Indiscipline (WAI) became the order of the day. **NIGERIA CIVIL WAR** The incursion of military in Nigeria politics constitutes another major hazard in Nigeria Political history. Most especially the era of General Yakubu Gowon. In short, the year 1967 was regarded to be Nigeria's agonizing year. This was the period of Nigerian civil war. All these events constitute a major setback to the corporate existence of Nigeria as a nation. The war broke out between July 1967 and January 1970. Chiefly because of political and ethnic misunderstanding between General Gowon and Ojukwu. This led to the declaration of Biafia Republic on May 30^th^ which eventually result to full fledge war between the federalist and the Biafra Secessionist. This war caused untold hardship to many Nigerians especially of Ibo origin. There was outbreak of several diseases notably "Kwashioko". It also shaped the course of Nigeria real enemies in the world politics. It is however, gladdened to note that, at the end, the war ended with "no victory no vanquish" posture. On the 27^th^ of August 1985, General Ibrahim Babangida took over. He ruled for eight (8) years. Only to annual the June 12 elections and caused uncontrollable confusion in the country. No meaningful achievement to remember him for. He later "stepped aside" in August 1993 and placed Chief Enerst Shonekan who was later toppled by the power thirsty and most brutal ruler in the history of Nigeria, General Sani Abacha on the 17th of November 1993. More about Abacha's government can be found in TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY to be discussed later. With the death of General Sani Abacha on Monday, 8^th^ June, 1998, General Abdulsalami Abubakar became the Head of State on the 9^th^ June. He tried to right the wrong committed by his predecessor. He organized a general election in February 1999 and handed over power to the President Obansajo the winner on May 29, 1999. **NATIONALIST MOVEMENT IN NIGERIA** Before the attainment of political independence in Nigeria and West Africa, the various people of Africa thought that political emancipation will stream line them into a platform of social justice, economic liberty and political vibrancy. African students studying overseas believed that political sovereignty should not be compromised because the teeming population continued to wallow in abject poverty diseases and squalor as a result of social injustice, economic stagnation and political alienation. By and large, the struggle for independence began to ferment a peculiar tone "self government" leading to a fundamental change in the material condition of the African people. **NATIONALISM** Nationalism is a concept in political theory and has on single universally acceptable definition. Various political scientists and sociologist have defined it differently. Nationalism could be explained as an anti-colonial phenomenon: this conscious efforts and activities by the indigenous people to acquire self-government from the colonial power. Suffice to say that it denotes activities directed at indigenizing political power. Similarly, in Thomas Hodgkin's conceptualization, nationalism describes any organization or group that explicitly asserts the right, claims and aspirations of a given African society in opposition to European authority, whatever its constitutional form and objectives. Given the above, background a plethora of nationalist movements existed in colonial Nigeria which fostered nationalist consciousness directly or indirectly. In other words, three types of nationalist movements based on leadership composition and centre of activities were discernible. a. The Nigeria nationalist movement which were essentially "intra territorial" and mostly pre-occupied leadership were drawn from Nigerian and activities centred in Nigeria. b. Nationalist movement which were essentially "extra territorial" meaning many of them had branches in Nigeria or/and Nigerian participation to the educated elites in West Africa and ensuring emancipation of the African peoples of African origin from the whims and caprices of colonial oppression. c. Nationalist movements that were pan West African and pan Negroes movement; meaning that their leadership were located outside Africa and centre of activities being outside Africa. Essentially, committed to wider issued of emancipation, liberty and greater participation of Negroes in the scheme of things. A good example is the National Congress of British WestAfrica (NCBWA). In addition to the three above mentioned classification, it is important to note that agitation for political emancipation also took constitutional militant dimension thus demanding greater participation in the legislative houses. By and large, this movement assumed the status of specific policies of colonial government. This they expressed in violent acts, demonstration, strikes, and boycotts, to realize their objectives and then arouse the people's political consciousness. **REASONS FOR THE EMERGENCE OF NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS** The nationalist activities in Nigeria and Africa were inspired by an array of endogenous and exogenous factors. These endogenous factors derive their origin internally and externally stimulated by foreign groups and individuals many of them having branches in the then colonial Nigeria. Endogenous factors (internally stimulated) that inspired nationalist movements are as follows: 1. The exploitative character of the colonial economy. The motive of the colonial government (Britain) was the search for a cheap and steady supply of raw materials for British factories, large market for massive produced manufactured goods, outlet for surplus capital and employment of cheap labour H.W. Aredt (1978). The mineral and agricultural endowments of the colonial economy were tapped exported for use in Western Europe. 2. Monopolistic practices dominated the economic policies of colonial state European Companies in Nigeria, West Africa European Companies prevented the emergence of indigenous companies and entrepreneurs. Nigeria's import and export trade were concentrated in the corridors of European traders and commercial multi-nationals such as John Holt, the C.F.A.O, SCOA and the union trading company. Similarly, commercial banking was monopolized and appropriation of profits by British enterprises. The Atlantic charter which was issued by Allied pones: article 3 of the article stipulates the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they will live. One must not fail to mention the undaunted effort toward the West Africa Student Union (WASU) in Britain towards making their individual countries polities free. Furthermore, the granting of political independence to India in 1947 by Britain serves as a morale booster to the nationalist. **NATIONALISM AND PARTY POLITICS** Nationalism is the general awareness or consciousness or feelings of the masses of a particular country, towards self-government. It is "LOVE" for freedom and emancipation from laver. It is something worth fighting for and if need be, worth dying for. Historically, nationalist movement started in the nineteen century when the likes of Chief Jaja of Opobo, Nana Olomu of Ishekiri, Oba Overami, of Benin, among others fought for the protection of their domains from being annexed. But, erroneously, many scholars these days attributed nationalism to the product of twenty century. It is imperative to note that, the twenty century nationalism was quite distinct from that of nineteenth century because, during this period, the leaders were educated elites such as Mr. Herbert Macauley, Dr. Nnamdi Azikwe, Chief Obafemi Awolowo among others. They did not use physical combat but education and modern intellectual weapons, media houses, propaganda campaign etc to achieve their aims. This type of nationalism is called "cultural nationalism". The people rejected anything that has to do with the Europeans. They changed their English names, stopped speaking like white man and they stopped attending the same churches with the white men. This marked the beginning of the formation of Africa Churches. **In January 1, 1901** Nigeria became a British protectorate, part of the British Empire, the foremost world power at the time. **Amalgamation 1914** The area was formally united as the ***Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria*.** Administratively Nigeria remained divided into the northern and southern provinces and Lagos colony. Western education and the development of a modern economy proceeded more rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences felt in Nigeria\'s political life ever since. Following World War II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British Government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative and increasingly federal basis. By the middle of the 20th century, the great wave for independence was sweeping across Africa. Jaja Wachuku, First Nigerian Speaker of the House: 1959 -- 1960. **INDEPENDENCE (1959-1960) AND FORMATION OF POLITICAL PARTIES** Nigeria's first political party was found in the year1923 by Mr. Herbert Macauley. The party "Nigeria National Democratic Party" as a party for all. It was used essentially for struggle for political independent. There was also, "National Citizen of Nigeria and Cameroon" founded in 1946. Although, there were several cultural and political union such as the "Nigeria Youth Congress" founded in 1936. But, they are not regarded to be political parties. However, during the first republic, most of these cultural union such as the Egbe Omo Oduduwa and Jamatual-Arewa transformed into full political parties i.e Action Group (A.G) and Northern People Congress (NPC) under the leadership of Chief Obafemi Awolowo and Sir Ahmed Bello respectively. At independence, the country was ruled by a coalition government of Northern People\'s Congress (NPC), and the National Convection of Nigeria Citizen (NCNC). Then, Action Group (AG) was the leading opposition party. Many Yorubas did not like the situation. For several years after the 1959 elections, the problems facing the country were many and disturbing. It was such dissatisfaction coupled with the (AG) political crises between Chief Obafemi Awolowo and S.L Akintola that finally led to the arrest and eventual imprisonment of Chief Obafemi Awolowo for treasonable felony in 1963. Nigeria was granted full independence in October 1960 under a constitution that provided for a parliamentary government and a substantial measure of self-government for the country\'s three regions. From 1959 to 1960, Jaja Wachuku was the First black Speaker of the Nigerian Parliament - also called the *House of Representatives*. Wachuku replaced Sir Frederick Metcalfe of Great Britain. Notably, as First Speaker of the House, Jaja Wachuku received Nigeria\'s Instrument of Independence - also known as Freedom Charter - on ***October 1, 1960,*** from Princess Alexandra of Kent, the Queen\'s representative at the Nigerian independence ceremonies. The federal government was given exclusive powers in defense, foreign relations, and commercial and fiscal policy. The monarch of Nigeria was still head of state but legislative power was vested in a bicameral parliament, executive power in a prime minister and cabinet and judicial authority in a Federal Supreme Court. Political parties, however, tended to reflect the make-up of the three main ethnic groups. The **NPC** (Nigerian People\'s Congress) represented conservative, Muslim, largely Hausa interests, and dominated the Northern Region. The **NCNC** (National Convention of Nigerian Citizens) was Igbo- and Christian-dominated, ruling in the Eastern Region, and the **AG** (Action Group) was a left-leaning party that controlled the Yoruba west. The first post-independence National Government was formed by a conservative alliance of the NCNC and the NPC, with Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, a Hausa, becoming Nigeria\'s first Prime Minister (Abubakar Tafawa Balewa (Prime Minister)) 1960-1963 The Yoruba-dominated AG became the opposition under its charismatic leader Chief Obafemi Awolowo. **The First Republic 1963** October 1963 Nigeria proclaimed itself a Federal Republic, and former Governor General Nnamdi Azikiwe became the country\'s first President. When no party won a majority during the 1959 elections, the NPC combined with the NCNC to form a government, and when independence arrived in 1960, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was made the Prime Minister, and NnamdiAzikiwe was made the Governor General. In 1962, part of the Action Group split off to form the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), led by S.I. Akintola. In 1963, the Mid-Western Region was formed from part of the Western Region. When Nigeria became a Republic in 1963, Nnamdi Azikiwe was made the President of the Federal Republic. President: Nnamdi Azikiwe 1963-1966 From the outset Nigeria\'s ethnic and religious tensions were magnified by the disparities in economic and educational development between the south and the north. The AG was maneuvered out of control of the Western Region by the Federal Government and a new pro-government Yoruba party, the **NNDP**, took over. Shortly afterward the AG opposition leader, Chief Obafemi Awolowo, was imprisoned on treason charges that were later admitted to be without foundation. **Independence (1964)** However, in 1964, there was great controversy over the 1963 population census, which the NCNC thought overestimated the number of people in the Northern Region to give them more of a representation in the federal parliament. **In 1965** The 1965 National Election produced a major realignment of politics and a disputed result that set the country on the path to civil war. The dominant northern NPC went into a conservative alliance with the new Yoruba NNDP, leaving the Igbo NCNC to coalesce with the remnants of the AG (Action Group) in a progressive alliance. In the vote, widespread electoral fraud was alleged and riots erupted in the Yoruba West where heartlands of the AG discovered they had apparently elected pro-government NNDP representatives. **In 1966 First period of military rule** January 15, 1966 a group of army officers, mostly southeastern Igbos, overthrew the NPC-NNDP government and assassinated the prime minister and the premiers of the northern and western regions. Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi: January 16, 1966 - July 29, 1966 The federal military government that assumed power under General Aguiyi- Ironsi was unable to quiet ethnic tensions or produce a constitution acceptable to all sections of the country. Its efforts to abolish the federal structure raised tensions and led to another coup by largely northern officers in July 1966, which established the leadership of Major General Yakubu Gowon. Yakubu Gowon July 29, 1966 - July 25, 1975 The subsequent massacre of thousands of Igbo in the north prompted hundreds of thousands of them to return to the southeast where increasingly strong Igbo secessionist sentiment emerged. In a move towards greater autonomy to minority ethnic groups the military divided the four regions into 12 states. However the Igbo rejected attempts at constitutional revisions and insisted on full autonomy for the east. **In 1967** On May 29, 1967 Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu, the military governor of the eastern region who emerged as the leader of increasing Igbo secessionist sentiment, declared the independence of the eastern region as the Republic of Biafra. The ensuing ***Nigerian Civil War*** resulted in an estimated one million deaths before ending in the defeat of Biafra in 1970. **In 1973/74** The naira was introduced in 1973, when the country decimalized its monetary system and substituted the naira for the Nigerian pound (the country used the British pound sterling when it was a British colony), which was divided into shillings. The Central Bank of Nigeria has the sole authority to issue banknotes and coins. Coin denominations ranged from 1/2 kobo to 1 naira. Banknotes are denominated in values from 5 to 1000 naira. Most of the banknotes contain images of previous political leaders important in Nigeria\'s history; for example, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Nigeria\'s first prime minister, is pictured on the 5-naira note, and Nnamdi Azikiwe, Nigeria\'s first president, is on the 500-naira note. **Take off of the Oil-Boom Years** Following the civil war the country turned to the task of economic development. Foreign exchange earnings and government revenues increased spectacularly with the oil price rises of 1973-74. **In 1975** On July 29, 1975 Gen. Murtala Mohammed and a group of officers staged a bloodless coup, accusing Gen. Yakubu Gowon of corruption and delaying the promised return to civilian rule. General Mohammed replaced thousands of civil servants and announced a timetable for the resumption of civilian rule by October 1, 1979. **In 1976** General Murtala Ramat Muhammed was assassinated on February 13, 1976 in an abortive coup and his chief of staff Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo became head of state. **SECOND REPUBLIC POLITICAL PARTIES** During the second republic, five political parties were formed for the first time. They are: The then ruling party. That is, "National Party of Nigeria (NPN) under the leadership of Alhaji Shehu Shagari, Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) headed by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, Nigeria Peoples parties (NPP) headed by Dr. Nnamdi Azikwe, Great Nigeria Peoples Party (GNPP) under the leadership of Alhaji Ibrahim Waziri and People Redemption Party (PRP) under the leadership of Mallam Aminu Kano. During the second tenure of the second republic, another political party was formed by Dr. Tunji Braitwait. The party is "Nigerian Advance Party (NAP). Thus, bringing to a total number of six (6) political parties in the second republic. It is interesting to note that all the parties have different manifestos and ideologies which they pursued vigorously. For instance, while NPN was interested in housing and food for all, UPN was more interested in free education and health care for all UNP was the leading party. **The abortive Third Republic** President Babangida promised to return the country to civilian rule by 1990 which was later extended until January 1993. **In 1989** In early 1989 a constituent assembly completed a constitution and in the spring of 1989 political activity was again permitted. In October 1989 the government established two parties, the National Republican Convention (NRC) and the Social Democratic (SDP) - other parties were not allowed to register. **In 1990** In April 1990 mid-level officers attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow the government and 69 accused plotters were executed after secret trials before military tribunals. In December 1990 the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government level. Despite low turnout there was no violence and both parties demonstrated strength in all regions of the country, with the SDP winning control of a majority of local government councils. **In 1991** In December 1991 state legislative elections were held and Babangida decreed that previously banned politicians could contest in primaries scheduled for August. These were canceled due to fraud and subsequent primaries scheduled for September also were canceled. All announced candidates were disqualified from standing for president once a new election format was selected. **In 1993** The presidential election was finally held on June 12, 1993 with the inauguration of the new president scheduled to take place August 27, 1993, the eighth anniversary of President Babangida\'s coming to power. In the historic June 12, 1993 presidential elections, which most observers deemed to be Nigeria\'s fairest, early returns indicated that wealthy Yoruba businessman M.K.O. Abiola won a decisive victory. However, on June 23, Babangida, using several pending lawsuits as a pretense, annulled the election, throwing Nigeria into turmoil. More than 100 were killed in riots before Babangida agreed to hand power to an interim government on August 27, 1993. He later attempted to renege on this decision, but without popular and military support, he was forced to hand over to Ernest Shonekan, a prominent nonpartisan businessman. Shonekan was to rule until elections scheduled for February 1994. Although he had led Babangida\'s Transitional Council since 1993, Shonekan was unable to reverse Nigeria\'s economic problems or to defuse lingering political tension. **The Sani Abacha Regime** Military Dictator of Nigeria from 1993 to 1998 With the country sliding into chaos Defense Minister Sani Abacha assumed power and forced Shonekan\'s resignation on November 17, 1993. Abacha dissolved all democratic institutions and replaced elected governors with military officers. Although promising restoration of civilian rule he refused to announce a transitional timetable until 1995. Following the annulment of the June 12 election the United States and others imposed sanctions on Nigeria including travel restrictions on government officials and suspension of arms sales and military assistance. Additional sanctions were imposed as a result of Nigeria\'s failure to gain full certification for its counter-narcotics efforts. Although Abacha was initially welcomed by many Nigerians disenchantment grew rapidly. Opposition leaders formed the National Democratic Coalition (NADECO), which campaigned to reconvene the Senate and other disbanded democratic institutions. **In 1994** On June 11, 1994 Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola declared himself president and went into hiding until his arrest on June 23. In response petroleum workers called a strike demanding that Abacha release Abiola and hand over power to him. Other unions joined the strike, bringing economic life around Lagos and the southwest to a standstill. After calling off a threatened strike in July the Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC) reconsidered a general strike in August after the government imposed conditions on Abiola\'s release. On August 17, 1994 the government dismissed the leadership of the NLC and the petroleum unions, placed the unions under appointed administrators, and arrested Frank Kokori and other labor leaders. In 1994 the government set up the Ogoni Civil Disturbances Special Tribunal to try Ogoni activist Ken Saro-Wiwa and others for their alleged roles in the killings of four Ogoni politicians. The tribunal sentenced Saro-Wiwa and eight others to death and they were executed on November 10, 1995. **In 1995** The government alleged in early 1995 that military officers and civilians were engaged in a coup plot. Security officers rounded up the accused, including former Head of State Obasanjo and his deputy, retired General Shehu Musa Yar\'Adua. After a secret tribunal most of the accused were convicted and several death sentences were handed down. On October 1, 1995 Abacha announced the timetable for a 3-year transition to civilian rule. Only five political parties were approved by the regime and voter turnout for local elections in December 1997 was under 10%. On March 1, 1995 there was another "attempted coup" by Lawan Gwadabe. Also suspected as part of this coup were Olusegun Obasanjo (a previous president) and Shehu Musa Yar\'Adua. They were sentenced to 25 years of imprisonment for this. Yar\'Adua died while in prison, and Obasanjo was there for the remainder of Abacha\'s life. Also arrested sometime in 1995 was Dr Beko Ransome-Kuti, a human rights activist who had been repeatedly arrested and released, but this time was charged with treason, and sentenced to life imprisonment, which was later reduced to 15 years, even against High Court rulings, and Amnesty International. He was also in jail for the remainder of Abacha\'s life. Also in 1995, was the trouble with the Ogoni people. Ken Saro-Wiwa (an environmentalist and playwright) criticized the Nigerian government for the environmental damages being inflicted on the land inhabited by the Ogoni people, due to the oil industry. Saro-Wiwa and 8 other leaders were arrested on charges of conspiring to slay political opponents (which many people believe to be false, the real reason being the struggles for the land pollution). On October 31, 1995, all 9 leaders were sentenced to death by hanging. Opposition for this sentence and an appeal for mercy came from all over the world, including the Commonwealth, and Nelson Mandela. However, on November 10, they were hung anyway. This stunned the world, and led to the suspension of Nigeria from the Commonwealth, and Mandela called for international sanctions against Nigerian oil, which account for more than 90 percent of the foreign currency earnings. **In 1996** On June12, 1994, Abiola (the man who won the June 12, 1993 elections annulled by Babangida), backed by politicians, retired army brass, and prodemocracy activists, proclaimed himself as the president. He was imprisoned on charges of treason, and in 1996, he was placed in solitary confinement. After the 1994 arrest, one of Abiola\'s wives, Alhaja Kudirat Abiola launched a campaign for democracy and human rights. She held pro-democracy rallies, defied the military decree banning political associations, presented victims of military repression to international fact-finding missions, inspired many other people, especially women, and won the \"Woman of the Year\" awards in both 1994 and 1995. However, on June 4, 1996, she was assassinated. **In 1997** On December 21, 1997 the government arrested General Oladipo Diya, ten officers, and eight civilians on charges of coup plotting. The accused were tried before a military tribunal in which Diya and eight others were sentenced to death. Abacha enforced authority through the federal security system which is accused of numerous human rights abuses, including infringements on freedom of speech, assembly, association, travel, and violence against women. **In 1998** Elections to return to civilian rule were set for August 1 of 1998, with a return date to civilian rule set for October 1, 1998. However, in April, Abacha became the only nominated candidate for the presidency. Opposition to his rule had been mounting more and more in recent months, because it was suspected that he did not intend to step down. Demonstrations and riots broke out, and many were killed. On June 8, 1998 Abacha died of a heart attack at the age of 54. Some people commented that his death fell directly between the June 4 assassination of Kudirat Abiola in 1996 and the annulled elections of June 12 of 1993. At Abacha's death, after assuming power in June 1998 the Abubakar government took steps toward restoring worker rights and freedom of association for trade unions, which had deteriorated seriously under Abacha. **The Abubakar\'s transition to civilian rule** Abacha died of heart failure on June 8, 1998 and was replaced by General Abdulsalami Abubakar. Th