Nat Geo 14.2 Reading PDF

# 14.2 Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture Contemporary agriculture and food production practices are constantly changing in response to new technologies, consumer food choices, and the challenges of feeding growing populations. But much debate surrounds farming innovations that may have negati...

# 14.2 Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture Contemporary agriculture and food production practices are constantly changing in response to new technologies, consumer food choices, and the challenges of feeding growing populations. But much debate surrounds farming innovations that may have negative or unknown consequences for human health and the environment. ## Debates Over Innovations **Learning Objectives** * Explain how agricultural practices have environmental and societal consequences. * Explain challenges and debates related to the changing nature of contemporary agriculture and food-production practices. Biotechnology, genetically modified organisms, and aquaculture are among the techniques at the forefront of efforts to expand food production. These innovations have benefits that include better quality and higher production. At the same time, they remain at the center of political and scientific controversy, largely due to their unknown future consequences to both humans and the environment. One key concern is sustainability. Sustainable agriculture encompasses environmental, economic, and social practices designed for the long term. Farmers must manage the environment in a way that minimizes pollution of the air, soil, and water, in order to ensure continued productivity well into the future. At the same time, agriculture must also be economically viable-farmers need to make a profit to stay in business. A healthy farm economy, in turn, can help maintain a good quality of life for farmers, farm families, and farming communities, as well as supporting fair and reliable incomes and healthy working conditions for farm laborers. Supporters of recent innovations in agriculture believe they represent progress toward sustainability, while critics fear that some of the latest technologies and practices actually create less sustainable systems. As the debate continues, it's clear that a balance needs to be reached between environmentally sustainable farming and the development of agricultural innovations to help feed a global population that will likely exceed ten billion people by the end of the century. ## Biotechnology and GMOs A genetically modified organism (GMO) is a living organism with a genetic code that has been manipulated to produce certain desirable qualities. The use of genetic modification (GM) in agriculture is not a new concept: farmers have been improving plants and animals by selecting and breeding optimal characteristics for thousands of years. High-yield | Brazil Exports | Brazil Production | | ---------- | ----------- | | | | Brazil Soybean Production and Exports Brazil's position as a leading soybean producer and exporter demonstrates how it has benefited from recent technological advances: 97 percent of its soybeans are cultivated using biotechnology. ## Global Crop Diversity, 2016 **Reading Maps** One key aspect of agricultural biodiversity is crop diversity. A recent study collected data on 81 important crops and about 1,100 species of their wild relatives. The map shows how many taxa-which are groups of similar organisms, in this case, the crops' relatives-were found in each region. * Identify the richest global areas of crop diversity. Seeds introduced during the Green Revolution in the mid-20th century, for example, were the result of this type of breeding. Biotechnology is the science of altering living organisms, often through genetic manipulation, to create new products for specific purposes, such as crops that resist certain pests. Genetic modification is a broader category that includes all types of genetic manipulation of foods. Modern biotechnology supports genetic engineering (GE), a type of GM in which scientists transfer specific genes from one organism to another. Supporters argue that the unfolding revolution in biotechnology will be needed to solve world hunger problems. Biotechnology can result in improvements such as increased crop yields; resistance to drought, disease, and pests; and improved nutritional values. But these practices raise the question: How much modification is too much? Brazil's agricultural sector can be considered one example of a biotechnology success story. With soybeans, rice, and corn leading its list of important crops, Brazil benefited from the Green Revolution of the mid-20th century and more recently has been at the forefront of biotechnology applications. Brazil is a world agricultural leader. Since 1961, its grain production has increased by 574 percent, while its population has increased 175 percent. More significantly, high-yield seeds have allowed Brazil to nearly triple its grain production since the early 1980s even as the amount of land under cultivation has remained largely unchanged. Brazil has benefited economically as it has grown to become one of the world's largest food exporters. The country is now the second largest producer of biotech crops. One potential global benefit of genetic engineering is a reduction in the cost of food production, which could lead to an increased supply of food-making food more affordable at worldwide, national, regional, and local scales. One 2010 study by University of Iowa scientists concluded that without biotechnology, the prices of corn, soybeans, and canola (a type of seed grown for cooking oil) would all be higher, as would the prices of many products made from these crops. On the other hand, those who question the advantages of biotechnology feel that its environmental impacts have not been thoroughly investigated. Additionally, the long-term consequences of genetic alteration are still unknown. Foods modified through GE have been banned in much of Europe because their safety has not been proven, and there are concerns about their effects on the species that consume them, including humans. Another debate on contemporary agriculture centers around biodiversity, with experts disagreeing over whether biotechnology decreases or increases agriculture's impact on the diversity of species. The term agricultural biodiversity describes the variety and variability of plants, animals, and microorganisms that are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture. Agricultural biodiversity is integral to environmentally sustainable agriculture. It plays an important role in enabling agriculture to achieve ## Agricultural Sustainability in a Global Market Productivity gains, improve sustainability, and manage changing conditions such as climate change. Critics claim that genetic engineering poses a threat to agricultural biodiversity. For example, a common type of genetic engineering is the insertion of bacterial genes into a crop. The bacteria functions like an insecticide: when insects consume the crop, they are infected by the bacteria and die. A new plant is introduced into the field ecosystem, but a species of insect is eliminated from that space. Critics also point out that innovations intended to minimize chemical inputs may actually lead to intensified uses of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers. For instance, one common type of genetic engineering involves inserting herbicide-resistant genes into crops. When herbicides are sprayed on these crops, the weeds die, but the crops survive because of the resistant genes. Pests that are constantly exposed to these inputs can develop their own genetic resistance, meaning either the genetically modified crops eventually become obsolete, or more chemicals are needed to eliminate the pests. Another risk is that genetically modified crops may transfer genetic material into unmodified plants. An herbicide-resistant crop may transfer traits to a weed that makes it herbicide-resistant also, creating a new problem that again requires more herbicides and pesticides to treat. Genetically modified organisms that escape the fields where they are planted may also threaten biodiversity in the wider ecosystem by becoming invasive and crowding out wild species. Soil fertility, too, can be a concern. In general, soil fertility has declined with the intensification of food production, which means that land's productivity is lessened or threatened. This leads to farmers applying more synthetic fertilizers to keep up with the growing demand for key food crops. Between 30 and 50 percent of agricultural crops are grown with the use of fertilizers, and more than 50 percent of people consume crops that are grown using synthetic fertilizers containing chemicals and minerals such as nitrogen, sulfur, and magnesium-all of which impact the ecosystem. Synthetic fertilizers build up in the soil, decreasing the soil's fertility and affecting surrounding organisms and their natural life cycles. Rain and sewage can carry fertilizers into bodies of water, which can create a toxic environment by increasing the growth of algae and decreasing oxygen levels. As you have learned, marine animals struggle or die in these damaged environments. Supporters and opponents also disagree on the use of GE crops to conserve water. Proponents of GE crops argue that they conserve water because herbicide-tolerant biotech crops don't require tilling, or breaking up the soil, which can lessen its moisture content. Such crops have been successful in Brazil for more than two decades. Another argument is that biotech seeds are drought tolerant and water efficient, and produce higher yields. Such seeds are being tested in several countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including Kenya and Mozambique, where drought is a concern. ## Precision Agriculture **Learning Objectives** * Explain how agricultural practices have environmental and societal consequences. * Explain challenges and debates related to the changing nature of contemporary agriculture and food-production practices. Precision agriculture-also known as precision ag or precision farming-is part of the movement that some see as a fourth agricultural revolution. It uses a variety of cutting-edge technologies to apply inputs such as water and fertilizer with pinpoint accuracy to specific parts of fields in order to maximize crop yields, reduce waste, and preserve the environment. By using drones or other remote sensing technologies to acquire data, farmers can employ GIS software to map their fields and develop a micro-level analysis of each field's physical characteristics. This helps them target their watering, fertilizing, and herbicide and pesticide application strategies. Remote sensing devices can perform a multitude of tasks such as managing irrigation, detecting disease early enough for a grower to intervene, and estimating crop yields. These computer-based applications result in reduced expenses and higher yields. They also support environmentally friendly improvements such as water conservation and reductions in the amount of fertilizer applied to a field. Using precision agriculture can reap similar benefits for both the small-scale vegetable farmer and the commercial grain farmer managing multiple fields and huge acreages. **GPS guidance, robotics, and information technology are the tools of precision agriculture**. Million-dollar combines-farm machines that both harvest and process crops-have control stations that tractor drivers use to set coordinates and avoid costly overlaps on fields. **By deploying these tools, today's farmers are acting as scientists, geographers, and marketing specialists in addition to food producers**. Most farmers are not software engineers, however, and precision farming does pose technological as well as financial challenges. Software systems can have poor user interfaces or produce information that is hard for farmers to interpret. Systems can also overproduce data, forcing farmers to sort through intimidating quantities of information to make decisions. Farmers may be compelled to hire consulting firms to take the data and help them turn it into a plan of action. Some precision agriculture methods are affordable for large agribusiness operations but too costly for family farmers, and other technologies involving seed and fertilizers have experienced slow adoption rates due to complexities such as weather variables. Nevertheless, precision agriculture has opened new possibilities for farmers to maximize yields while minimizing costs and environmental impact. ## Geographic Thinking Describe the benefits and drawbacks presented by precision agriculture to both large and small farmers. ## Food Choices **Learning Objective** * Explain challenges and debates related to the changing nature of contemporary agriculture and food-production practices. As you have learned, food preferences and dietary shifts are important motivators of changes in contemporary agriculture and food-production practices. Individuals' food choices influence general patterns of consumption. In turn, food producers choose crops and methods to meet consumer demands. The goals of food choice movements include eating healthier foods, encouraging sustainable farming practices, and supporting independent farmers. Participants in food choice movements are enthusiastic about their benefits, but debate exists over whether they are effective in bringing about large-scale changes. ## Local Food Movements Some consumers are employing new and different ways to acquire fresh foods for their tables. Urban farming, for example, converts vacant lots, rooftops, or abandoned buildings into spaces to grow produce. In many inner-city areas of the United States, communities are banding together to collectively work these small plots as a way to provide fresh fruits and vegetables in areas where such foods are scarce. Borough Market in London has been in existence since the year 1014. Then, as now, it sold local vegetables and fruits; today it is a bustling marketplace of foods from all over the world. In the early 1990s, Borough Market became a destination for lovers of artisanal, or handmade, foods. Since then, demand for specialty foods has expanded the international market for fair trade and value-added crops. Consumers who participate in Community-Supported Agriculture (CSA) purchase shares in the output of a local farm. During the growing season, they receive a weekly box or bushel of freshly harvested produce from the farm. In return, farmers who operate CSAs receive a guaranteed income from the sale of shares. In addition to providing fresh produce, urban farms and CSAs strengthen the relationships between those who grow the food and those who eat it, and they allow the public to be more aware of where their food comes from. However, the impact of these food choice movements is limited-not all CSAs are profitable, and urban farms typically do not reach large populations. ## Organic Farming Similar to CSAs, local food movements aim to connect food producers and food consumers in the same geographic region. Both farmers markets and farm-to-table restaurants, for example, provide connections between producers and consumers. Shoppers choose to buy locally to support the local economy, to have access to fresh food, and to know where the food on their table is coming from. Organic farming has seen a rise in popularity in some areas, in part as a response to concerns about chemical inputs and GMOs. Organic farming practices are more expensive than traditional farming, but wealthier consumers in the United States and elsewhere have shown they are willing to pay higher prices for organic food. Instead of using chemicals or genetic engineering, organic farmers use natural fertilizers such as plant-based products or animal manures to promote long-term soil health and prevent harmful runoff and water contamination. They also use crop rotation to manage weeds, insects, and diseases, and they focus on maintaining biodiversity within their agricultural systems and the surrounding environment. Organic farmers attempt to reduce or eliminate external agricultural inputs and strive for sustainability. Europe has the largest percentage of land given over to organic practices, and land percentages dedicated to organic farming will continue to grow in food-secure, developed countries in North America and Europe, where there is a demonstrated demand for organic food. Not everyone agrees that avoiding GMOs by buying organic or through other means is a healthier option. Many scientists insist that genetically modified foods pose no danger to consumers and are essentially the same as non-GMO foods in terms of nutrition and health benefits. Whether or not organic foods are more healthful, their higher price means that the demand for them will likely remain among a smaller but relatively influential share of consumers. ## Fair Trade and Value-Added Crops Another type of production driven by consumer choice is fair trade, described in Chapter 13. In the interest of supporting agricultural sustainability and a better quality of life for growers, many consumers-especially Americans in the millennial generation-are willing to switch brands and pay more money. Food choice often extends to value-added specialty crops-organic or other specialty crops that are transformed from their original state to a more valuable state, such as converting milk into cheese and yogurt. Coffee is another popular value-added crop. You have read about the global coffee supply chain, at the end of which the beans are roasted and converted into ground coffee for home consumption or brewed coffee sold in cafes and restaurants. Other high-value crops in this category include tea and chocolate. Consumer demand for value-added products can be driven by the desire to eat healthy, nutritious food, the need for convenience, or both. For example, many consumers buy yogurt because they enjoy the taste and believe it has health benefits. These same consumers would not consider taking the time and trouble to make yogurt at home, even if they found that making their own yogurt in bulk quantities might cost less. As food producers have found ways to become more productive and discovered technological advances that help them efficiently produce consumer-specific products, the possibilities of value-added agriculture have increased, each with pros and cons. Being able to meet specific consumer demands can lead to producers capturing a larger share of the food dollar, but that comes at a cost. While consumer demand may entice farmers into producing value-added crops, farmers must also consider the capital required as well as the necessary production and business skills that may be different from those required to produce traditional crops. They have to become adept at marketing to the end user in areas such as packaging and variety and be willing to invest in innovation and research while continuously working to minimize costs. ## Dietary Shifts Broader global trends in diets may exert the strongest influence on agriculture related to food choice. The global demand for all meats is growing, for example, and so the need for grains to feed the livestock is expanding. According to the UN, meat production in 2017 was almost five times higher than in the early 1960s. In Southeast Asia, countries such as the Philippines and Malaysia have experienced increases in income and urbanization that have resulted in an increased demand for diversified diets focused on higher levels of meat and dairy consumption. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there is a direct link between the level of income and the consumption of animal protein. ## Agriculture and Diet **Learning Objective** * Explain how agricultural practices have environmental and societal consequences. Food choices affect agriculture, but the reverse is also true. Contemporary agricultural practices have transformed diets around the world, with agricultural improvements resulting in the possibility of consumers having access to more and varied foods. Chapter 12 described the diffusion of foods, a process that began even before the Columbian Exchange and continues at a rapid pace today, thanks to globalization and modern technologies. You've also learned about global supply chains. Crops such as corn and sweet potatoes, which are indigenous to the Americas, can be exported across the globe thanks to expanded transportation methods and advanced storage systems. Refrigerated transport has allowed farmers to ship perishable food over long distances, overcoming the limitations of what can be grown in the local climate and terrain. As a result, shoppers in the United States can choose from a year-round variety of fresh produce that was unthinkable for earlier generations. For example, Chile, located in the Southern Hemisphere, has a growing season that is the opposite of that of the United States. With refrigerated transportation, Chile can provide American consumers with fresh fruit throughout the winter. Consumers in other core countries benefit equally from global food supply chains across climate regions. **** ## Critical Viewing **Mexico exports more than 800,000 tons of avocados to the United States every year.** In recent years, Mexico has also exported avocados to China, where few avocados are grown locally. **How has Mexico's exporting of avocados affected society in the United States and Mexico?** ## Geographic Thinking 1. Describe some environmental limitations of biotechnology. 2. Explain how the concept of biodiversity helps geographers analyze the impacts of modern-day farming practices. 3. Identify and describe factors that could cause more farmers to embrace agricultural innovations. 4. Compare the commercial approach to agriculture with the sustainable approach.